Transfer Function & Block Diagram

Algebra

M. Azharul Haque
Dept. of EEE
PAU
 Transfer Functions
• The ratio of the transforms (in Laplace
domain) of the output to the input of a
system considering initial conditions as
zero, is termed as Transfer Function.
• The input-output relationship of a linear
time invariant system is described by the
transfer function.
• The transfer function play a significant
role in the characterization of linear time
invariant (LTI) systems
 Transfer Functions (Cont…)
• Together with the block diagram and signal
flow graph (SGF) , the transfer function
forms the basis of representing input –
output relationships of a LTI system
• A transfer function (also known as the network
function) is a mathematical representation,
in terms of spatial or temporal frequency, of
the relation between the input and output of
a (linear time-invariant) system.
 Transfer Functions (Cont…)
Explanation
• The transfer function is commonly used in the
analysis of single-input single-output electronic
filters, for instance. It is mainly used in signal
processing, communication theory, and control
theory. The term is often used exclusively to refer
to linear, time-invariant systems (LTI. Most real
systems have non-linear input/output
characteristics, but many systems, when operated
within nominal parameters (not "over-driven") have
behavior that is close enough to linear that LTI
system theory is an acceptable representation of
the input/output behavior.
• In its simplest form for continuous-time input signal
x(t) and output y(t), the transfer function is the
linear mapping of the Laplace transform of the
input, X(s), to the output Y(s):
 Transfer Function (Cont…)
• A Transfer Function is the ratio of the output of a
system to the input of a system, in the Laplace
domain considering its initial conditions to be zero.
If we have an input function of X(s), and an output
function Y(s), we define the transfer function H(s)
to be:

• Given a linear system, then the transfer

function, G(s), of the system is the ratio of
the transform of the output to the transform
of the input.
 How To Compute Transfer Function?

• If you have a differential equation relating input

and output, you can easily compute the transfer
function by transforming both sides of the
differential equation and isolating the input
transform and the output transform.  Let's look at
an example.
• Example 1
Let's assume that we have a system described by
a first order linear differential equation.  Here is
the differential equation as:.
Τdy/dt + y(t) = Gdcu(t)
Determine the transfer function of the system.
 Solution of Example #1
In this differential equation, we have:
y(t)  =  Response of the System,
u(t)  =  Input to the System,
Τ   =  The System Time Constant,
Gdc  =  The DC Gain of the System.
Now, if we transform both sides of this differential equation,
we get: Τ sY(s) + Y(s) = GdcU(s)
Rearrange terms to isolate the input and output transforms
and we have; (Τ s + 1)Y(s) = GdcU(s)
Y(s) = GdcU(s)/(Τ s + 1)
G(s) = Y(s)/U(s) = Gdc/(Ƭs + 1)
This result is the generic form for a transfer function of a first
order, linear system.
 Note:  Transform both sides of the differential equation -
even if it is much higher order.  Then, solve for the transfer
function.
 Transfer Function (Cont…)
Or
• where H(s) is the transfer function of the
LTI system
• In discrete-time systems, the function is
similarly written as
Y(z) = H(z)X(z)
and is often referred to as the pulse-transfer
function.
 Example #1

• Find the transfer function represented by

Solution:
 Example #2

• Find transfer function of the following

system

Solution:
 Example #3 on Transfer Function

•  Examine the diagram below:

Figure 2 Standard Block Diagram

• In this system, we have the following:

– The system is linear.  (Actually, it is a first order
system.  More later.)
– The input is u(t), and the transform of the input is
U(s).
– The output is y(t), and the transform of the output is
Y(s).
– Then, the transfer function is given by:
–  G(s) = Y(s)/U(s).
 THE TRANSFER FUNCTION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
• The transfer function representation for an open-
loop control system given below:

Here, G(s) is the Transfer Function of the system.

 Closed-loop System Transfer Function
• The Transfer Function of any electrical or
electronic control system is the
mathematical relationship between the
systems input and its output, and hence
describes the behaviour of the system. Note
also that the ratio of the output of a
particular device to its input represents its
gain. Then we can correctly say that the
output is always the transfer function of the
system times the input. Consider the closed-
loop system below.
 Closed-loop System Transfer Function
(Cont…)

Fig.: Typical Closed-loop System Representation

 Closed-loop System Transfer Function
(Cont…)
• Where: block G represents the open-loop
gains of the controller or system and is the
forward path, and block H represents the gain
of the sensor, transducer or measurement
system in the feedback path.
• To find the transfer function of the closed-loop
system above, we must first calculate the
output signal θo in terms of the input signal θi.
To do so, we can easily write the equations of
the given block-diagram as follows.
 Closed-loop System Transfer Function (Cont…)

• The output from the system is equal

to:    Output = G x Error
• Note that the error signal, θe is also the input to the
feed-forward block:  G
• The output from the summing point is equal
to:    Error = Input - H x Output
• If  H = 1 (unity feedback) then:
• The output from the summing point will
be:    Error (θe) = Input - Output
• Eliminating the error term, then:
• The output is equal
to:    Output = G x (Input - H x Output)
 Closed-loop System Transfer Function (Cont…)

• Therefore:    G x Input = Output + G x H x Ou
tput
• Rearranging the above gives us the closed-
loop transfer function of:

The above equation for the transfer function of a

closed-loop system shows a Plus ( + ) sign in the
denominator representing negative feedback. With a
positive feedback system, the denominator will have
a Minus ( − ) sign and the equation becomes:  1 - GH.
 Closed-loop System Transfer Function (Cont…)
• We can see that when  H = 1 (unity
feedback) and G is very large, the transfer
function approaches unity as:

Also, as the systems steady state gain G decreases,

the expression of:  G/(1 + G) decreases much more
slowly. In other words, the system is fairly insensitive
to variations in the systems gain represented by G,
and which is one of the main advantages of a
closed-loop system.
 Multi-loop Closed-loop System
• Whilst previous example is of a single input,
single output closed-loop system, the basic
transfer function still applies to more complex
multi-loop systems. Most practical feedback
circuits have some form of multiple loop
control, and for a multi-loop configuration the
transfer function between a controlled and a
manipulated variable depends on whether the
other feedback control loops are open or
closed.
 Multi-loop Closed-loop System (Cont…)

• Consider the multi-loop system below:

Any cascaded blocks such as G1 and G2 can be

reduced, as well as the transfer function of the inner
loop as shown in the next slide:
 Multi-loop Closed-loop System (Cont…)

Any cascaded blocks such as G1 and G2 can

be reduced, as well as the transfer function of
the inner loop as shown:
 Multi-loop Closed-loop System (Cont…)
After further reduction of the blocks we end up
with a final block diagram, which resembles
system that of the previous single-loop closed-
loop
 Multi-loop Closed-loop System (Cont…)
• And the transfer function of this multi-loop
system becomes:

Then we can see that even complex multi-

block or multi-loop block diagrams can be
reduced to give one single block diagram with
one common system transfer function.
 Transfer Function of an Individual Component

• The transfer function of an individual component or of an

entire system is the ratio of the representation of the input
value to that of the output value under conditions of zero
initial-energy storage. The transfer function fully describes
the dynamic properties of the system or of the system’s
components. It is usually represented by W(s), W(p), or
simply W (s or p represents the argument of a Laplace
transform).
 Transfer Function of an Individual Component

• Foregoing figure shows the elements of block

diagrams: (a) linear component, (b) function
generator, (c) branch point, (d) summer. W(s) is a
transfer function, y, U, and z are input signals, and
x is an output signal.
• Any linear segment of an automatic control system
with lumped parameters may be broken down into
elementary units that cannot be further resolve
• There are four types of such units:
•integrating,
•differentiating,
•scalar,
•and additive.
 Transfer Function of an Individual Component

• Real automatic control systems, in which the power of the

numerator of the transfer function is not greater than the
power of the denominator, may usually be represented by
units of only three types (excluding differentiating units).
The resolution into elementary units is convenient in
modeling automatic control systems on analogue
computers. In other methods of study, the linear segment
is usually broken up into more complex units: first-order
units (non-ideal differentiating, integrating-differentiating,
and aperiodic units) and second-order units (non-ideal
integrating, cycling, and time-delay units). The order of a
linear unit of a block diagram is determined by the order of
the dynamics of the differential equation describing the
unit.
 Block Diagram Algebra
• What is the basis for framing the rules of
block diagram reduction technique?
• The rules for block diagram reduction
technique are framed such that any
modification made on the diagram does
not alter the input output relation.
Block Diagram Algebra (Cont…)
• Since the transfer function of a system adequately
describes the system’s dynamic properties, a block
diagram may replace another, equivalent diagram with
the single necessary and sufficient condition that the two
transfer functions be equal. The transformation of
ordinary linear block diagrams is governed by the rules
of transformation of the simplest types of connections:
series, parallel, and feedback. Block diagrams as a
whole and units of any order greater than second may
be replaced by several block diagrams of less than
second order, which significantly simplifies the analysis
and synthesis of an automatic control system.
Block Diagram Algebra (Cont…)

• There are four basic forms of block

diagrams by which the control subsystem
are connected together:
• Cascade form or Blocks in Series
• Parallel form
• Feedback form
• Feedforward form
Block Diagram Algebra: Blocks in
Series
• Transfer functions of control system
components connected in series are
combined by multiplication
 Block Diagram Algebra: Blocks in Parallel
• Transfer functions connected in parallel are
combined by addition
Block Diagram Algebra: Feedback System
• The general feedback form (simplified model) is
shown in figure below:

Fig.3: Feedback Control lopp (Closed-loop Control)

Block Diagram Algebra: Feedback System
• Many real world and academic systems will adhere to
the standard block diagram format shown by Fig.3. We
know that the block diagrams are ways of representing
relationships between signals in a system.  Here is a
block diagram of a typical control system.  Each block in
the block diagram establishes a relationship between
signals

Figure 4: Standard Block Diagram of Closed-loop Systems

• Here E(s) = U(s) - X(s)

Block Diagram Algebra: Feedback System
• This relationship is for the summer/subtractor or
comparator (shown with a blue circle)
W(s) = GC(s)E(s)
• This shows how W(s) - the control effort that drives the
system, GP(s) - is related to the error. 
• The controller is probably an amplifier - probably a power
amplifier - that provides and output to drive the plant,
GP(s).
Y(s) = GP(s)W(s)
• This shows how the output, Y(s), is related to the control
effort that drives the plant (system being controlled ) with a
transfer function, GP(s).
X(s) = GS(s)Y(s)
• This shows how the sensor output, X(s), is related to the
output of the system, Y(s).  There are many sensors that
have dynamics that need to be accounted for with a
transfer function.  For example:
Block Diagram Algebra: Feedback System
• Temperature sensors have thermal time constants and don't
respond immediately to a sudden temperature change.
• Gyroscopes - used to measure altitude in aircraft,
submarines, etc. - are second order systems with natural
frequencies, damping ratios, etc.
•  Now, we can combine all of those relationships and get an
overall relationship between the input and the output in the
system as follows:
• Note that Y(s) = G(s)W(s), W(s) = KE(s), and use that in the
equation for Y(s).  That gives us: Y(s) = G(s)W(s) =
G(s)KE(s)
• Note that the error is given by E(s) = U(s) - Y(s), and we can
use that in the equation for Y(s).
Y(s) = G(s)W(s) = G(s)KE(s) = G(s)K[U(s) = Y(s)]
• Now, solve for Y(s), and we get:
Y(s) = U(s)KG(s)/[1 + KG(s)]
• That's what you need to know, and the final relationship will
allow you to compute the output given knowledge of the
system components and the input.
 Block Diagram Algebra: Feedback System
• What if you have a more complex system?  Here is a block
diagram of a slightly more complex system.

Figure 5: Extended Block Diagram of Closed-loop Systems

• A description of this system is as follows:
– The plant being controlled includes a pump motor.  The
output is the height of a liquid in a tank
– It takes some threshold voltage on the pump to get it
started.  After the voltage exceeds the threshold, the flow
rate into the pump depends upon the amount by which the
threshold is exceeded.
 Block Diagram Algebra: Feedback System
• In the block diagram model above, the threshold voltage VT
and standard effects are modeled using another summer.
– The controller has a transfer function, GC(s).
– The sensor has a transfer function, GS(s).
• We can write the mathematical relationships that exist in this
block diagram.
Y(s) = GP(s)[W(s) - VT(s)]
Y(s) = GP(s)[GC(s)E(s) - VT(s)]
Y(s) = GP(s)[GC(s)(U(s) - GS(s)Y(s)) - VT(s)]
• Now, solving for Y(s), we get:
Y(s) = U(s)GP(s)GC(s)[1 + GP(s)GC(s)GS(s)] - VT(s)GP(s)[1 +
GP(s)GC(s)GS(s)]
• Now, notice that the output has two components.  One of
those components is due to the input - something we know
about.  The other component of the output is due to the
threshold voltage - something we might not have expected.
 Block Diagram Algebra: Feedback System
(Cont…)

• Forward path transfer function, G(s)

• Feedback path transfer function, H(s)

• Open-loop transfer function, G(s)H(s)

• Closed-loop transfer function, c(s)/R(s)

 Block Diagram Algebra: Feedforward System

Fig.6: Feed Forward Loop Transfer Function

The Feedforward or Loop Transfer Function is essentially all of

the blocks between y and r on the top half of the block
diagram. In other words, we are concerned about the
relationship of y to r. In order to analyze just the relationship of
y to r
Feedforward Transfer Function (cont….)

Fig.12: Step 1 - Set All Inputs, Except r, to 0

Fig.7: Step 2 - Remove Summing Junctions

Feedforward Transfer Function (cont….)

Fig.8: Step 3 - Use Block Algebra for Blocks in Series to

Determine Final Transfer Function

Then the resulting Loop Transfer Function can be found

by inspection
 Feedforward Transfer Function (cont….)

Notes:
(i) The Loop Transfer Function is GKW which appears to be
backwards given that the blocks appeared as WKG
when the system is read left to right. For SISO systems
the order is arbitrary. However, for MIMO systems this
backwards order must be maintained. This is because
the system is represented with matrices and in Linear
Algebra (matrix math) the order of execution is vital -
there is no Commutative property for matrix
multiplication. Remember that the transfer function is
• Notice that with the backwards order the reference input,
r, is is multiplied by the prefilter, W, first then K then G
just as the block diagram would imply.
• Open Loop Transfer Function: The Open Loop
Transfer Function is
Feedforward Transfer Function (cont….)

Open Loop Transfer Function

For SISO systems the Open Loop transfer function is

used to calculate the Phase and Gain margins. The other
key performance metric is the Open Loop Crossover
Frequency. The Open Loop Crossover is the frequency at
which the Open Loop Transfer Function has a magnitude
of 0 dB.
 Feedforward Transfer Function (Cont….)

where

Then

Closed-loop Transfer Function

Feedforward Transfer Function (Cont….)

• For most controls texts and courses there

is no prefilter, so . Also, often times the
sensor transfer function is assumed to be
unity, . As a result the SISO closed loop
transfer function can be written like this
Feedforward Transfer Function (Cont….)
for SISO with unity sensor

then the closed loop system can be written like this

The closed loop transfer function is often calculated in

this manner because it is very convenient - especially
in MATLAB.
>> OL = G*K;
>> CL1 = (G*K) / (1 + G*K*H);
>> CL2 = OL / (1 + OL);
Block Diagram Algebra (Cont…)
• Feedback Form
Block Diagram Algebra: Summing Junction
& Pick-off Point
• When multiple subsystems are interconnected, a
few more schematic elements must be added to
the block diagram.
• There new elements are summing junctions and
pickoff points.
Block Diagram Algebra (Cont…)
• Moving blocks to create familiar forms -
Block diagram for summing junctions

Block moved to the left past a summing junction

Block Diagram Algebra (Cont…)

• Block moved to the right past a summing

junction
Block Diagram Algebra (Cont…)

• Block moved to the left past a pickoff point

Block Diagram Algebra (Cont…)

• Block moved to the right past a pickoff point

Rules of Block Diagram Algebra
Rules of Block Diagram Algebra (Cont…)
Rules of Block Diagram Algebra (Cont…)
 Block Diagram Algebra (Cont…)
Procedure for reduction of complex block
diagrams:
1. Reduce the cascade blocks
2. Reduce the parallel blocks
3. Reduce the internal feedback loops
4. It is advisable to shift take-off points toward
right and summing points toward left.
5. Repeat step 1 to step 4 until the simple form
is obtained.
6. Find the transfer function of the overall
system using the formula C(s)/R(s).
 Example 1: Find the overall transfer function
of the following closed-loop system:

• Solution: Use Rule #1 to combine the two

series blocks
Use Rule #3 to obtain the transfer function as follows
Example #2: Find the overall transfer function of
the following closed-loop system:
 Solution to Example #2

• Use Rule #3 to simplify the inner feedback

loop to obtain the following block diagram.
 Use Rule #1 to combine the two series blocks into one.

• Use case 3 to obtain the transfer function for the standard

feedback system.
 Example #3
• Reduce the block diagram shown in figure
below to a single transfer function.
Solution to Example #3
 Example #4
• Reduce the block diagram shown in figure below to a
single transfer function.
Solution to Example #4
Solution to Example #4 (Cont…)
 Assignment Problems
• Problem #1: Find the equivalent transfer function,
T(s) = C(s)/R(s), for the system shown below
Problem #2: Find the transfer function
of the closed-loop system below
 Problem #3: The following figure shows the block diagram of a
system with two inputs, 1) the setpoint, R(s) and 2) the load
disturbance, D(s). Find the overall transfer function of the system

Fig.. System with two inputs