A CORPUS-BASED SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF THAT-

RELATIVE CLAUSE IN THE CORPUS OF

CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN ENGLISH (COCA)

SILVIA CHRISTINA
1701541117

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
UDAYANA UNIVERSITY
2021
A CORPUS-BASED SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF THAT-RELATIVE

CLAUSE IN THE CORPUS OF CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN

ENGLISH (COCA)

An undergraduate thesis as partial fulfillment to obtain S.S. Degree at

English Department, Faculty of Humanities, Udayana University

SILVIA CHRISTINA
1701541117

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
UDAYANA UNIVERSITY
2021

ii
 MOTTO OF UDAYANA UNIVERSITY

“Taki-takining Sewaka Guna Widya”

VISION OF UDAYANA UNIVERSITY

“Udayana University seeks to be a leading university that produces high potential

graduates who become the best in their generation, develop further towards self-
reliance; and remain fully engaged with our local indigenous knowledge and
practices”

VISION OF FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

“The realization of the Faculty of Humanities which has excellence and

independence in the fields of education, research, and community service by
applying culture-based knowledge”

VISION OF ENGLISH STUDY PROGRAM

“To be an excellent and internationally recognized study program in English

language and literature research that is imbued with the Indonesian cultural values
in 2027”

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iv
 THIS UNDERGRADUATE THESIS HAS BEEN APPROVED AND
ASSESSED BY THE EXAMINING BOARD OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
UDAYANA UNIVERSITY
IN JULY 2021

Based on the decree of Dean of Faculty of Humanities, Udayana University

No : 2340/UN14.2.1/TD.06/2021
Date : June 23rd, 2021

The Examining Board

Chairperson : Dr. I Made Netra, S.S., M.Hum.
Secretary : Gede Primahadi Wijaya Rajeg, S.S., M.Hum., Ph.D
Members : 1. Prof. Dr. Made Budiarsa, M.A.
2. Ni Ketut Sri Rahayuni, S.S., M.Hum.
3. I Nyoman Tri Ediwan, S.S., M.Hum.

v
 PLAGIARISM STATEMENT

Hereby, I undersigned below:

Name : Silvia Christina
Student Number 1701541117
Title : A Corpus-Based Syntactic Analysis of That-Relative
Clause in the Corpus of Contemporary American English
(COCA).
Majors : English Department
Faculty : Faculty of Humanities

Stated that the undergraduate thesis entitled A Corpus-Based Syntactic

Analysis of That-Relative Clause in the Corpus of Contemporary American English
(COCA) and all the content is truly my own work and I did not do the plagiarism
towards any other works. The opinions and writings that refer to, are based on the
prevailing ethic applicable to scientific work writing techniques.
If in the future it is proven that this thesis contains the characteristics of
plagiarism and any other forms of imitation which are considered to be a rule
violation, subsequently, I am willing to accept sanctions over the actions that I have
done under the applicable regulations.

Denpasar, 28th July 2021

Who made the statement,

Silvia Christina

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Jesus

Christ for His blessing that guides and strengthens me to complete this

undergraduate thesis entitled A Corpus-based Analysis of That-Relative Clause in

the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA).

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the dean of the Faculty of

Humanities, Dr. Made Sri Satyawati, S.S., M.Hum., and the head of the English

Department, Prof. Dr. I Nyoman Sedeng. I would like to extend my gratitude to

my supervisors, Dr. I Made Netra, S.S., M.Hum and Gede Primahadi Wijaya Rajeg,

S.S., M.Hum., Ph.D for giving me valuable and constructive insight, advice, and

guidance. The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without their

support and input. I am grateful to have an amazing academic supervisor, Ni Ketut

Alit Ida Setianingsih, S.S, M.Hum, who has guided me throughout the years of my

study. I appreciate all lecturers of the English Department for all the knowledge that

have been given to me through my academic years.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents for the endless love,

prayers, and encouragement that constantly motivate me to become a better person.

My special thanks are extended to class D and all my friends whose names cannot

be mentioned one by one. Thank you for the emotional support you have given to

me and for being the ones whom I can always count on.

vii
 I realize that this undergraduate thesis is far from perfect. Therefore, any

constructive suggestions are highly appreciated. Hopefully, this undergraduate

thesis can be helpful for all the readers.

Denpasar, 28th July 2021

Silvia Christina

viii
 ABSTRACT

This thesis entitled A Corpus-Based Syntactic Analysis of That-Relative Clause in

the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) investigates the
distribution (namely, relative frequencies or proportion) of syntactic and semantic
properties of the English relative clause (RC) marked with that relativizer. The
distribution of the syntactic properties includes (i) the syntactic functions of the gap
filled with that and (ii) the RC‟s position within the complex sentences, including
their structures and their antecedent‟s animacy; the semantic property is the
(in)animacy of the antecedents. The study was based on a random sample of fifty
sentences taken from the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). The
study adopted a mixed-method approach that combines quantitative and qualitative
analysis. The findings show that subject relative is the dominant syntactic functions
of that-relative marker, and most of the antecedents are inanimate. The result of this
study also provides quantitative supports for Yule‟s claim (2004) regarding the
tendency of RC to be located in final position, and that the RCs in final position
typically modify the main clause‟s subject and RCs in medial position typically
modify the main clause‟s object.

Keywords: Relative clause, relative marker that, Corpus of Contemporary

American English

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 Background of Study............................................................................ 1

1.2 Problems of Study ................................................................................ 3
1.3 Aims of Study ...................................................................................... 4
1.4 Scope of Discussion ............................................................................. 4
1.5 Research Method .................................................................................. 5
1.5.1 Data Source .............................................................................. 5
1.5.2 Method and Technique of Collecting Data .............................. 5
1.5.3 Method and Technique of Analysing Data............................... 6
1.5.4 Method and Technique of Presenting Data .............................. 6

2.1 Literature Review ................................................................................. 7

2.2 Concepts ............................................................................................. 10
2.2.1 Concept of Clauses ................................................................. 10
2.2.2 Concept of RCs ...................................................................... 11
2.2.3 Concept of Syntactic Functions.............................................. 12
2.2.4 Concept of Animate and Inanimate Nouns ............................ 13
2.3 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................... 14
2.3.1 Syntactic Functions of Relative Pronouns.............................. 14
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 2.3.2 Position of the RC within a Sentence ..................................... 15
2.3.3 Structure of Sentences Containing RCs ................................. 15

3.1 Syntactic Functions of the Relative Marker That and (In)animacy of

the Head Nouns .................................................................................. 18
3.1.1 Subject Relatives .................................................................... 20
3.1.2 Object Relatives ..................................................................... 23
3.1.3 After-preposition Relatives .................................................... 27
3.2 Position and Structure of RCs ............................................................ 28
3.2.1 Medial Position....................................................................... 29
3.2.2 Final Position.......................................................................... 34

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3-1 The number of that's syntactic functions and head nouns' animacy .... 19

Figure 3-2The distribution of RC's position ......................................................... 29

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 ABBREVIATIONS

ACAD Academic

Adj Adjective

Adv Adverb

AdvP Adverb Phrase

AUX Auxiliary

COCA Corpus of Contemporary American English

COMP Complementizer

Conj Conjunction

DET Determiner

FIC Fiction

Inf Infinitive

MAG Magazine

N Noun

N' Noun bar

N'' Noun double bar

P Preposition

PP Prepositional Phrase

QP Quantifier Phrase

RC Relative Clause

S Sentence

S' Sentence bar

xiii
SPOK Spoken

V Verb

V' Verb bar

V'' Verb double bar

xiv
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

A relative clause (henceforth RC) is a dependent clause that must be

combined with an independent clause to form a complex sentence. It is embedded

as a modifier for the head noun in a noun phrase, which in turn appears in the

main/independent clause. The inclusion of RCs creates a larger noun phrase

constituent (Morenberg, 1997, p. 133). The original noun phrase that the RC

modifies is called the antecedent. Consider example (1-1):

(1-1) I‟m talking about a book that doesn‟t make me fall asleep (Yule,

2004, p. 240)

The sentence shown in (1-1) is a complex sentence formed by an

independent clause I’m talking about a book and a RC that doesn’t make me fall

asleep. The RC is embedded into a noun phrase a book that functions as the object

of the preposition about. A book is the RC‟s antecedent as the RC identifies which

book is meant, which is the book that doesn‟t make the speaker fall asleep.

RCs in English are introduced by relative pronouns such as which, who,

whom, whose, that, and relative adverbs such as where, when, why, or zero relative

markers. These relative markers substitute a noun phrase in the RC and are used as

subordinators of the complex sentence. Because they function as subordinators,

they are generally located at the beginning of, or precedes, the RC.

1
 2

Among all relative pronouns, the relative marker that is the most flexible

and apparently the most frequently used compared to other relative pronouns

(Morenberg, 1997, p. 142). It is different to (i) who that is only used for human

noun phrases functioning as subjects, (ii) whom that is only used for human noun

phrases functioning as objects, and (iii) which that is only used for noun phrases

that do not refer to humans. That is flexible because it can be used to modify both

animate (living) and inanimate (non-living) nouns, whether it is human, human-

like, or non-human entities (Yule, 2004, p. 252). It can also be used to modify

subjects, objects, or object of prepositions. In other words, it neutralizes the typical

distinction between who and whom, as well as between who and which. These

flexibilities make that relative marker worth investigating for its usage behaviours.

RCs can be located either in the middle, as shown in (1-2), or at the end of

the main clause, as shown in (1-3). It tends to occur in medial position if it modifies

the subject of the main clause, and it tends to be placed in final position if it modifies

the object of the main clause. According to Yule ( 2004, p. 254), RC in final position

is more common than RC in medial position. This study attempted to test these

claims by quantifying the position of RC and the antecedent it modifies. Besides,

constituent structures with tree diagrams are also presented to give a clearer image

of the RC‟s position within the complex sentence (see §3.2 for details).

(1-2) The woman that the man wants to marry has a large dog (Yule,

2004, p. 245)

(1-3) I also met the woman that he wants to marry (Yule, 2004, p. 246)
 3

The RC in (1-2) is modifying the subject of the main clause the woman and

is located in the middle of the main clause, that is between the noun phrase the

woman and a verb phrase has a large dog. Meanwhile, the RC in (1-3) is modifying

the object of the main clause the woman and is located at the end of the main clause.

RC is a very common modifier in English (Larsen-Freeman et al., 2016, p.

605). Therefore, it can be found in many genres of texts, such as in formal and

informal writing, fiction, speaking, and movies. Such various text types can be

found in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) (Davies, 2010).

COCA is a corpus that offers a great number of texts that come from various sources

and is composed of various genres such as TV/movies, blog, web, spoken, fiction,

popular magazine, newspapers, and academic texts.

Several researchers have investigated RCs. One of them is Ariesta (2014)

who analysed patterns, structures, and types of RCs from a novel. Other previous

works on this topic are discussed in the literature review (see §2.1).

1.2 Problems of Study

This thesis addressed the following two main research questions:

1. What is the proportion of (i) syntactic functions of the gap filled by the

relative marker that and (ii) the (in)animacy of the head nouns modified

by that-RCs?

2. What is the proportion of (i) the RCs‟ position within the complex

sentence and (ii) the syntactic functions of their antecedents?

 4

1.3 Aims of Study

Based on the problems above, the aims of this study are:

1. To quantify and explain the proportion of (i) syntactic functions of the

gap filled by the relative marker that and (ii) the (in)animacy of the head

nouns modified by that-RCs.

2. To quantify and describe the proportion of (i) the RCs‟ position within

the complex sentence and (ii) the syntactic functions of their antecedents.

1.4 Scope of Discussion

The limitations of this study are set as follows:

1. As the function of RCs can be analysed from different perspectives such

as syntax, semantic, and pragmatic, thus, this study is limited to analyse

the syntactic functions of the relative marker that (a syntactic property),

and the (in)animacy of the RC‟s antecedent (a semantic property).

2. The position of the RC was analysed based on two positions, which are

in the middle or at the end of the main clause. Furthermore, among many

ways to present the sentence structure, this study only used tree diagrams

of the surface structure to represent the constituent structure and show

the RC‟s position within the sentence. The RCs‟ antecedents are analysed

based on their syntactic functions.

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1.5 Research Method

1.5.1 Data Source

This research is a corpus-based study in which the data were collected from

the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) (Davies, 2010) that can be

accessed through https://www.english-corpora.org/coca. It is the largest corpus of

American English that contains many texts from various genres. The data of this

study was taken from all genres in COCA, namely TV/movies, blog, web, spoken,

fiction, popular magazine, newspapers, and academic texts. This corpus was created

by Mark Davies and provides more than 25 billion words of text from 1990 through

2019. It is chosen as the data source because it offers enough number of RCs to

analyse.

1.5.2 Method and Technique of Collecting Data

The data were collected using the documentation method. Considering that

COCA offers a wide variation of RCs, only fifty random sentences were retrieved

as data. The note-taking technique was done in stages. Firstly, data were searched

in COCA by inputting the keywords such as „NOUN that‟ and „PRONOUN that‟

in the search column. Secondly, fifty data from all genres in COCA were chosen

and copied. Lastly, the data were grouped and codified based on the that-syntactic

functions. The analysed data is published open access on figshare:

https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.14701392.v1 (Christina, Rajeg and Netra,

2021).
 6

1.5.3 Method and Technique of Analysing Data

The data were analysed using a mixed-method approach (Creswell, 2014),

which integrates a quantitative and qualitative analysis. The analysis of the data

was first done by classifying the sentences based on relative pronouns‟ syntactic

functions and the positions of RCs within the complex sentences using the theory

proposed by Yule (2004). Secondly, the number of that’s syntactic functions, types

and syntactic functions of head nouns, and the positions of RCs were analysed and

quantified using descriptive statistics (Gries, 2013), namely frequency count and

proportion/relative frequency/percentages. Thirdly, the functions of the relative

pronoun and the animacy of the antecedents were described and explained using

the theory proposed by Yule (2004). Lastly, the positions of RCs, structures, and

their antecedents‟ syntactic functions were analysed based on the theory proposed

by Yule (2004) and Van Valin (2001).

1.5.4 Method and Technique of Presenting Data

This study was presented using both formal and informal methods. Thus, the

results and analysis were presented in two ways: simple statistical (formal method)

and descriptive form (informal method). The data were presented based on that‟s

syntactic functions (§3.1) and the positions of RCs within the complex sentences

(§3.2) group. Afterwards, the relative pronouns‟ syntactic functions and the types

of head nouns were quantified and descriptively described. Lastly, the positions of

RCs within sentences and their antecedents‟ syntactic functions were quantified

and described, and the structure of each sentence was presented using the tree

diagram.
 LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTS, AND THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK

2.1 Literature Review

This section reviews three theses and two international journal articles that

investigated the topic of RCs.

Fajri (2009) investigated the types and functions of RCs and the percentage

of RCs used in the 85 pages play by George Bernard Shaw. Theoretically, the study

uses the theory of RCs by Oshima and Hogue (2006). The data is descriptively

analysed to show the RCs‟ types and functions and quantitatively using simple

statistical to show the percentage of each RC. The study shows that the relative

pronoun functioning as the subject is the dominant type found in the data. However,

his is limited in terms of the data where the data cannot provide all types of RCs.

His study is relevant to this study as both analyse RCs, but this study focused on

RCs introduced by the relative marker that. Moreover, this study also analysed the

antecedent‟s (in)animacy and the RCs‟ position within the complex sentence.

Ariesta‟s (2014) qualitative research, based on data from the novel the

Pearl, discussed the pattern, structure, and type of RCs using Chomsky‟s (1971)

and Radford‟s theory (1988), supported by Murphy‟s argument (1985). Her

qualitative-descriptive study shows that RCs may have necessary information

(restrictive RC), optional information (non-restrictive RC), and headless noun

phrase (free RC). It also shows that RC can be embedded to the subject or object of

7
 8

a free clause or sentence and that RC can be formed with three patterns. However,

it fails to provide detail analysis for each pattern and type of RCs. Her study is

relevant to this study since both identified RCs, but this study focused on RCs

introduced by the relative marker that. Besides, this study also analysed the

antecedent‟s (in)animacy and the RCs‟ position within the complex sentence.

Amres (2016) studied about types of RCs, syntactic functions of RCs, and

relative pronouns in the features columns in Jakarta Post using a qualitative

approach. A theory by Yule (2004) is adopted to describe the types of RCs, a theory

by Murcia & Freeman (1999) to explain syntactic functions of the RC, and theories

from Close (1975), Leech & Svartvic (1975), and Yule (2004) to describe the

relative pronouns‟ syntactic functions. The results of the study show that the

difference between defining RCs and non-defining RCs can be seen in the function

of RCs, the information inside the RCs, the existence of separation marker, quantity

expressions, and relative pronoun. The second result of the study shows that all

functions of RCs are found in the data. His study is insightful as it provides clear

analysis for each example. However, his study uses too many theories to explain

the relative pronoun‟s syntactic functions. His study and this study are relevant as

both discuss RC, but this study focused on RCs introduced by the relative marker

that. Furthermore, this study also analysed the antecedent‟s (in)animacy and the

RCs‟ position

Aldwayan (2012) conducted a qualitative study on the difference between

RCs and appositive clauses that are analysed through syntactic argumentations. The

result of this study shows that RCs are different from appositive clauses that can be
 9

seen on how (1) RCs should directly follow the head nouns, while head nouns in

appositive clauses can be moved, (2) Appositive clauses are considered as tending

more toward complementation, while RCs tend toward post-modification, and (3)

that in the appositive clause does not play any grammatical functions but can never

be omitted, while that in RCs can be omitted under certain circumstances. This

study is insightful as it gives a clear understanding of the differences between RCs

and appositive clauses that are similar. However, the study does not give explicit

statement whether the RCs described applying for all types of RCs as the author

only gives examples of restrictive RCs. This research is relevant to this study as

they still discuss RCs. However, this study extended the discussion on RCs itself

instead of contrasting them to other kinds of clauses.

Deveci and Nunn (2018) investigated the use of RCs and aims to find the

frequency of RCs found in the chosen articles, the ratio of active voice to passive

voice in RCs, and the average sentence length. The data is examined qualitatively

using the theory by Fitz, Chang, and Christiansen (2011), Cowan (2008), DeCapua

(2017), and Swales and Feak (2012) and quantitatively using the Pearson product-

moment correlation coefficient and student‟s t-test. In this wide-ranging study, they

found that RCs appeared the most in introduction and literature review sections,

followed by discussion, conclusion, method, and abstract. The RC reduction was

more common instead of the full RC. The study also shows that passive voice

appeared more frequently in the chosen RCs rather than active voice. The longest

average sentence length was found in the discussion and conclusion sentence,

followed by the introduction and literature review section. However, this study is
 10

too broad, has many questions to answer, and uses too varied theories that goes

beyond the scope of this thesis. Deveci and Nunn‟s study relates to this study as

both discuss RCs, but this but this study focused on RCs introduced by the relative

marker that. Furthermore, this study also analysed the antecedent‟s (in)animacy and

the RCs‟ position

2.2 Concepts

Several related concepts are used in this study. Those are the concept of

clauses, the concept of RCs, the concept of syntactic functions, and the concept of

animate and inanimate nouns.

2.2.1 Concept of Clauses

A clause refers to the group of words composed of at least a noun phrase

functioning as a subject and a finite verb phrase functioning as the predicate

(Morenberg, 1997). A single clause has only one predicate (Elson and Pickett,

1962). For instance, I am eating is a clause where I function as the subject and am

eating functions as the predicate.

Clauses are divided into independent and dependent clauses. Independent

clauses are sentences by themselves in which they are not embedded within other

clauses, while dependent clauses should be embedded in other clauses to form

sentences. Based on the potential function, dependent or subordinate clauses can be

classified into several categories, namely nominal clauses, adverbial clauses,

comparative clauses, and RCs (Quirk, 1985, p. 1047).

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2.2.2 Concept of RCs

A RC is a kind of dependent clause or subordinate clause embedded in a

noun phrase constituent. It generally functions to modify the head noun of a noun

phrase in the main clause. The head noun that the RC modifies is called the

antecedent.

RCs are introduced by relative pronouns such as who, whom, whose, which,

that or relative adverbs such as when, where, why. Furthermore, RCs can also have

zero relative pronouns, meaning that it does not include any relative markers that

connect the independent clause and the RC. Consider example (2-1):

(2-1) The problems that we see already will only get worse in the

future (WEB, 2012).

The sentence above contains a RC that we see already. It is marked by the relative

pronoun that, and functions to modify its head noun the problems. The RC gives

restriction to which problems that the speaker is referring to, which is the problems

that we see already. Thus, the problems is called the antecedent of the RC.

RCs can be restrictive or non-restrictive (Oshima and Hogue, 2006, p. 232).

Restrictive clauses function to restrict the noun or pronoun being modified. The RC

in this type contains necessary information and thus cannot be omitted. Besides, it

does not use a comma or any separation markers between the main clause and the

RC. Meanwhile, non-restrictive clauses function to provide supplementary

information so that the existence of the RC is optional or can be omitted. Other

characteristics of non-restrictive clauses are that (i) the main clause and the RC are

separated by commas or other separation markers, and (ii) they can be introduced
 12

by all relative pronouns and adverbs except that and zero relative. Because this

study focuses on RCs that are introduced by a relative marker that, the type of RCs

that will be discussed in this study is the restrictive clause.

2.2.3 Concept of Syntactic Functions

Syntactic functions (or also called grammatical functions, grammatical

relations) refer to the relations between constituents of a clause. There are several

syntactic functions in a sentence, such as subjects, objects, predicative

complements, oblique complements, and modifiers (Kim and Sells, 2008, p. 36).

A Subject generally refers to a person or thing (thus, its syntactic form is

noun phrase) who performs an action denoted by the verb or who is being described

by the verb. For instance, the cat in the sentence the cat devoured the rat (Kim and

Sells, 2008, p. 36) acts as the subject since it does the action of devouring.

A direct object typically refers to a noun phrase that undergoes the process

shown by the verb. It would become the subject of the sentence if the sentence is

passivized. For instance, the noun phrase this computer in the sentence his

girlfriend bought this computer for him (Kim and Sells, 2008, p. 36) functions as

the sentence‟s direct object as it would be the subject if the sentence is passivized

(this computer was bought for him by his girlfriend).

An indirect object refers to a noun phrase that precedes a direct object and

has the semantic roles of goal, recipient, or benefactive. Different to direct objects,

indirect objects cannot be the subject if the sentence is passivized. For instance, the

puppy in the sentence I threw the puppy the ball (Kim and Sells, 2008, p. 37)

functions as the indirect object and has the semantic role of the goal.
 13

Predicative complements refer to words functioning as the subjects‟ or

objects‟ predicate. For instance, the noun phrase a great doctor in the sentence I

made Kim a great doctor functions as a predicative complement. It acts as the

predicate of the sentence‟s object, Kim.

Oblique complements are typically in the form of prepositional phrases and

their presence is obligatory. For instance, for the student in the sentence John

bought a book for the student (Kim and Sells, 2008, p. 37) is an oblique

complement. It is in the form of prepositional phrase and its presence is essential.

Therefore, it cannot be omitted.

Modifiers (also called adjuncts or adverbial expressions) are optional

elements that typically give information about the manner, location, time, or reason.

For instance, suddenly in the sentence the bus stopped suddenly (Kim and Sells,

2008, p. 37) is a modifier which explains the manner or how the bus stopped.

2.2.4 Concept of Animate and Inanimate Nouns

Yule (2004, p. 299) stated that animate nouns refer to living objects which

includes humans and animals. For instance, boy, cat, and my mother are animate

because they refer to living entities. On the contrary, inanimate or non-animate

refers to objects that are not alive. It includes non-alive things and ideas, such as

table, chair, and laptop. Besides, the categorization of animate and inanimate nouns

in this study is also based on the ability of the object to move on its own (Moore et

al., 2013). Objects that are able to move on their own are categorized into animate

nouns and objects that are not able to move on its own are referred as inanimate

nouns.
 14

2.3 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework discusses the theories that are used to interpret

the data. In this section of the study, the syntactic functions of relative pronouns,

the position of RCs, and the structure of sentences containing RCs are discussed.

2.3.1 Syntactic Functions of Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns fill the gap of certain syntactic functions within RCs.

They may occupy the functions of subject, object, after-preposition, and possessive

relatives (Yule, 2004, p. 241).

In subject relatives, the relative pronouns who, which, or that substitute for

a noun phrase which should be functioning as the subject in the RC. In object

relatives, the relative pronouns whom, which, that, or zero relative substitute a noun

phrase which should be functioning as the object in the RC. In after-preposition

relatives, relative pronouns whom or which are used together with prepositions such

as in and to. They are generally located after the preposition to substitute a noun

phrase which should be functioning as the object of a preposition. In this case, that

cannot replace which or whom unless the preposition is not fronted (i.e., located

before the relative pronouns to introduce the RCs), but stranded at the end of the

RC. Lastly, in possessive relatives, the possessive form whose or of which is used

to mark possessive relatives. Below is an example of a sentence containing a RC.

a. Did you take the book? The book was on the desk.

b. Did you take the book which was on the desk? (Yule, 2004, p. 241)

The sentence in (a) consists of two separated sentences. These two sentences

can be combined to form a complex sentence as shown in (b). The sentence in (b)
 15

consists of an independent clause did you take the book and a RC which was on the

desk. The relative pronoun which replaces the antecedent the book which functions

as the subject in the clause. Therefore, the syntactic function of the relative pronoun

which in this example is subject of the RC.

2.3.2 Position of the RC within a Sentence

According to Yule (2004), RCs can be located either in medial (in the

middle) or in final (at the end) of the main clauses. RCs tend to appear in medial

position when the RC modifies the main clause‟s subject. In contrary, RCs tend to

appear at the end of the sentence (in final position) if it modifies the main clause‟s

object. Example:

a. The woman that the man likes has a large dog. (Yule, 2004, p. 246)

The italicized RC above is in medial position, that is between its head noun

the woman and a verb phrase has a large dog. It modifies the noun phrase the

woman which functions as the subject of the verb has in the independent clause.

2.3.3 Structure of Sentences Containing RCs

According to Van Valin (2001), constituent structure (or is also sometimes

called phrase structure) refers to the hierarchical organization of constituents

(words which are grouped into a larger unit) within a sentence. Based on

transformational grammar, there are two types of phrase structure: deep structure

and surface structure. Deep structure refers to the concept, thoughts, and ideas of

the clause and has a relation to the semantic study, while surface structure refers to

the form of the phrase that is used to represent the deep structure itself. In this study,
 16

only the surface structure that will be used following the modern trend in syntactic

theories that no longer subscribes to transformation (Goldberg, 2002).

There are several ways to represent the constituent structure of the sentence.

One of these ways is by using tree diagrams. Tree diagrams represent the structure

of a sentence by marking which sequence of words are grouped as a constituent.

They consist of nodes and branches. Branches are the lines that connect the nodes.

The higher node is the mother node, while the lower one is the daughter. The mother

node always immediately dominates or is connected to its daughter, meaning that

there should be no intervening node between them. A mother node can have more

than one daughter, but when there is more than one sister under one mother, these

nodes are called sisters of each other. In terms of the tree structure, constituents

refer to a group of words which are dominated by a node. Below is the example of

a tree diagram.
 17

The tree diagram above shows that the sentence has two daughters: an N‟‟

the woman that the man likes and a V‟‟ has a large dog. They are called daughters

because they are immediately dominated by the sentence. The RC is shown by node

S‟, which is embedded into a larger constituent N‟‟ the woman. In the RC, there

seems to be a missing N‟ or noun phrase which should be functioning as the object

of likes. This missing noun phrase refers to the head noun phrase of the RC, the

woman, which is substituted by the relative marker that. The phrase structure of the

sentence is as follows.

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ V‟‟  V‟ + N‟‟

N‟‟  DET + N‟ N‟‟  N‟ V‟  V

N‟  N‟ + S‟ N‟  DET + N N‟‟  DET + N‟

N‟  N V‟‟  V‟ N‟  Adj + N‟

S‟  COMP + S V‟  V N‟  N
 A CORPUS-BASED SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF THAT-RELATIVE

CLAUSE IN THE CORPUS OF CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN

ENGLISH (COCA)

This chapter presents the analysis of the syntactic functions filled by the

relative marker that, the animacy of RCs‟ antecedents (§3.1), and the structure of

RCs in English grammar (§3.2). The data were analysed using Yule‟s (2004) theory

of RCs and Van Valin‟s (2001) theory of constituent structure and phrase structure

rules.

3.1 Syntactic Functions of the Relative Marker That and (In)animacy of the

Head Nouns

The most frequent syntactic function of that relative marker is subject

relative (31 sentences; 62% of the total fifty sentences), followed by object relative

(18 sentences; 36%) and after preposition relative (1 sentence; 2%). Inanimate

antecedents dominate the occurrence of the antecedents with the percentage of 64%

(32 sentences) compared to animate antecedents with the percentage of 36% (18

sentences). Figure 3-1 visualises the distribution of the (in)animacy of the head

nouns across the syntactic functions of that relative marker. The height of the bars

represents percentages and the raw numbers are given inside the bars.

18
 19

40%
36%
35%
18
30%
26% 26%
25%
PERCENTAGE

13 13
20%
Animate
15%
10% Inanimate
10%
5
5% 2%
0% 1
0%
Subject Relative Object Relative After-Preposition
Relative
SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

Figure 3-1 The number of that's syntactic functions and head nouns' animacy

From Figure 3-1, we can see two general trends. First, the proportion of animate

antecedent is higher in the subject than in object function, suggesting a relative

preference of this semantic type of antecedent in the subject position than object

position; similar trend can be observed for the inanimate antecedent which is

relatively more frequent in the subject function. These preferences could be simply

due to the overall highest frequency of subject function (than the other two

functions) of the that RC in the sample. Hence, higher likelihood for the two types

of antecedents to appear in the subject relative. The second trend is that inanimate

antecedent is always relatively more frequent than the animate antecedent in both

subject and object relative. This indicates that the that RC preferably targets

inanimate antecedent in both functions.

 20

3.1.1 Subject Relatives

Subject relatives refer to RCs in which the relative markers replace a noun

phrase functioning as the subject (Yule, 2004). Below are examples of subject

relatives.

(3-1) A party that chooses power over principle will lose both (COCA, BLOG,

2012).

Two clauses construct the sentence in (3-1). They are a main clause a party

will lose both and a RC that chooses power over principle. This complex sentence

can be separated into two independent clauses below.

a. A party will lose both.

b. A party chooses power over principle.

The first clause refers to the main clause of the complex sentence, while the

second clause refers to the RC of the complex sentence. In the RC of the complex

sentence, there is a missing noun phrase which should be functioning as the subject,

that is something being described by the verb or something that does an action. This

missing noun phrase refers to a party as shown in the clause (b), and is replaced by

a relative marker that in the complex sentence. That functions as the subordinator

of the complex sentence and fills the syntactic function of the subject in the RC.

The RC modifies the subject of the main clause, a party. It identifies which

party that will lose both, which is a party that chooses power over principle. The

antecedent is categorized as an inanimate noun since party refers to a non-living

object.
 21

(3-2) Children that do not learn in school about history are doomed to repeat

the lessons of history (COCA, BLOG, 2012).

The sentence in (3-2) consists of a main clause children are doomed to

repeat the lessons of history and a RC that do not learn in school about history.

This complex sentence can be separated into two independent clauses below.

a. Children are doomed to repeat the lessons of history.

b. Children do not learn in school about history.

The word children in both clauses functions as the subject since it refers to people

who do an action stated by the verb. The second sentence is changed into a RC by

substituting children with a relative marker that. That functions as a subordinator

of the complex sentence and fills the syntactic function of the subject in the RC.

In this complex sentence, the RC modifies the subject of the main clause,

children. It identifies which children that are doomed to repeat the lessons of the

history, which is children that do not learn in school about history. It is an animate

noun since children refer to people, living-entities. Thus, the antecedent of the RC

is animate.

(3-3) The animals that die the soonest learn the fastest (COCA, FIC, 2000).

The complex sentence in (3-3) is made up by a main clause the animals

learn the fastest and a RC that die the soonest. It can be separated into two

independent clauses below.

a. The animals learn the fastest.

b. The animals die the soonest.

 22

A noun phrase the animals in both sentences functions as the subject because it is

the one being described by the verb. The second sentence is changed into a RC by

replacing the animals with a relative pronoun that. That functions as the

subordinator of the complex sentence and fills the syntactic function of the subject.

The RC modifies the subject of the main clause, the animals. It identifies

which animals that learn the fastest, which are ones that die the soonest. It is

categorized as an animate noun because it refers to living entities.

(3-4) The journal accepts papers that will influence policy and practice in the

fields of child and family welfare (COCA, ACAD, 2016).

A main clause the journal accepts papers and a RC that will influence policy

and practice in the fields of child and family welfare form the complex sentence in

(3-4). This sentence can be split into two independent clauses as follows.

a. The journal accepts papers.

b. Paper will influence policy and practice in the fields of child and family

welfare.

In the RC of the complex sentence, there is a missing noun phrase which should be

functioning as the subject. As it has been shown in the sentence (b), the noun papers

is interpreted as having the same function of the missing noun phrase in the RC.

This missing noun phrase is substituted by a relative pronoun that and retains its

syntactic function, which is as the subject.

The object of the main clause papers is the antecedent of the RC. The

presence of the RC is necessary to give restriction of the antecedent. It identifies

which papers that the speaker is referring to, which are papers that will influence
 23

policy and practice in the fields of child and family welfare. It is categorized as an

inanimate noun since it refers to non-living objects.

(3-5) It‟s about a boy that runs away or is kidnapped (COCA, WEB, 2012).

The sentence in (3-5) is constructed by a main clause it’s about a boy and a

RC that runs away or is kidnapped. If the sentence is separated into two

independent clauses, it would be:

a. It‟s about a boy.

b. A boy runs away or is kidnapped.

A boy functions as an object of the preposition in the first clause and a subject in

the second clause. In the complex sentence, there is a missing noun phrase which

should be functioning as the subject. This missing noun phrase is referring to a boy

as shown in clause (b), and is substituted by a relative marker that. Thus, that fills

syntactic function of the subject as it replaces a noun phrase functioning as the

subject.

A noun phrase a boy is modified by the RC in which the RC gives restriction

to which boy that is being described by the speaker. It is an animate noun since boy

refers to human, which is a living entity.

3.1.2 Object Relatives

Object relatives refer to the condition in which the relative pronouns fill the

position of the objects in the RC (Yule, 2004). Below are some examples of object

relatives.

(4-1) Now you‟ll have the subject that I like best (COCA, MAG, 1997).
 24

The complex sentence in (4-1) consists of a main clause now you’ll have the

subject and a RC that I like best. It can be split into two independent clauses as

follows.

a. Now you‟ll have the subject.

b. I like the subject best.

The clause in (b) is changed into a RC by replacing the sentence‟s object the

subject with a relative pronoun that. That functions as the subordinator of the

complex sentence and fills the syntactic function of the object. Although that fills

the syntactic function of the object in the RC, its position should be moved into

the beginning of the RC to connect the main clause and the RC.

The RC is modifying a noun phrase the subject. The subject, which is the

antecedent of the RC, is inanimate since it refers to non-living object.

(4-2) His new public schools that he backed up so much are failing (COCA,

WEB, 2020).

The sentence in (4-2) above consists of a main clause his new public schools

are failing and a RC that he backed up so much. This complex sentence can be

separated into two independent clauses below.

a. His new public schools are failing.

b. He backed up his new public schools so much.

The noun phrase his new public schools functions as the subject in (a) and as the

object in (b). His new public schools in (b) is substituted by a relative marker that

and the whole sentence becomes the RC. That functions as a subordinator of the
 25

complex sentence and fills the syntactic function of the object in the RC. However,

its position is moved into the beginning of the RC.

In this complex sentence, the RC is modifying the subject of the main

clause, his new public schools. It identifies which new public schools that are

failing. It is an inanimate noun since school refers to a building, a non-living object.

Thus, the antecedent of the RC is inanimate.

(4-3) This is the girl that they hired at the factory the other day (COCA, MOV,

2005).

A main clause this is the girl and a RC that they hired at the factory the

other day are combined to make the complex sentence in (4-3). Two independent

clauses can be formed from this sentence:

a. This is the girl.

b. They hired the girl at the factory the other day.

In the complex sentence, there is a missing noun phrase which should be

functioning as the object of the RC. This missing noun phrase is referring to the

girl as shown in (b) and is substituted by a relative pronoun that. It functions as

the subordinator in the complex sentence and fills the position of the object in

the RC. Although that fills the syntactic function of the object in the RC, its

position should be moved into the beginning of the RC to connect the main

clause and the RC.

The RC modifies a noun phrase the girl. It identifies which girl that the

speaker refers to. It is categorized as an animate noun since girl refers to human,

which is a living entity.

 26

(4-4) My first dog was a shelter dog that I rescued (COCA, SPOK, 2016).

The sentence in (4-4) is a combination of a main clause my first dog was a

shelter dog and a RC that I rescued. It can be split into two independent clauses

below.

a. My first dog was a shelter dog.

b. I rescued a shelter dog.

The clause in (b) is changed into a RC by replacing a shelter dog, which is the

object of the verb rescued, with a relative pronoun that. That functions as the

subordinator of the complex sentence and fills the syntactic function of the object.

Although that fills the syntactic function of the object in the RC, its position should

be moved into the beginning of the RC to connect the main clause and the RC.

The RC modifies the object of the main clause, a shelter dog. It identifies

which shelter dog that the speaker is talking about, which is the one that is rescued.

It is categorized as an animate noun because it refers to animal, living-entities.

(4-5) It was me that you helped earlier (COCA, TV, 2019).

Two clauses form the sentence in (4-5) above. They are a main clause it was

me and a RC that you helped earlier. This complex sentence can be separated into

two independent clauses below.

a. It was me.

b. You helped me earlier.

Clause (a) refers to the main clause and clause (b) refers to the RC of the complex

sentence. In the RC, there is a missing noun phrase which should be functioning
 27

as the object. This missing noun phrase refers to me as shown in (b) and is

replaced by a relative marker that. That functions as the subordinator of the

complex sentence and fills the syntactic function of the object. Although that

fills the syntactic function of the object in the RC, its position should be moved

into the beginning of the RC to connect the main clause and the RC.

The RC modifies the object of the main clause, me. It is categorized as an

animate noun because it refers to human, a living entity.

3.1.3 After-preposition Relatives

After preposition relative is when the relative pronoun is filling the gap of

the object of the preposition in the RC. In the sample, this type is the least frequent.

Consider the first example in (5-1).

(5-1) He currently has six computers that he’s worked on at home (COCA,

NEWS, 2006).

A main clause he currently has six computers and a RC that he’s worked on

at home form the complex sentence in (5-1). If the sentence is split into two simple

sentences, it becomes:

a. He currently has six computers.

b. He‟s worked on six computers at home.

Clause (a) refers to the main clause, and clause (b) refers to the RC of the complex

sentence. In the complex sentence, the relative pronoun that substitutes a noun

phrase six computers which functions as the object of the preposition in clause (b).

However, its position is fronted to the beginning of the RC to connect the main

clause and the RC.

 28

The RC is modifying a noun phrase six computers. It identifies which

computers that the speaker is referring to. It is an inanimate noun since computer

refers to a non-living object.

3.2 Position and Structure of RCs

This sub-chapter is divided into two based on the position of the RC that is

analysed using the theory proposed by Yule (2004, p. 245). This section attempts

to test Yule‟s claim regarding the relative preference of RC in final position than in

medial position, as well as the syntactic function of the RC‟s antecedent. The

structure of the complex sentences is analysed based on the theory of constituent

structure and phrase structure rule proposed by Van Valin (2001). Tree diagrams of

the surface structure are used to present the structure of the sentences containing

that-RCs.

The number of RCs in final position (41 sentences, 82%) is much higher

than RCs in medial position (9 sentences, 18%). It supports Yule‟s claim regarding

the preference of RC in final position. Furthermore, most of RC in final position is

modifying the object of the main clause (26 sentences, 52%), followed by the

predicative complement (12 sentences, 24%) and the object of the preposition (3

sentences, 6%) (See Figure 3-2). By way of contrast, all RCs in medial position

modifies subject of the main clause. This data is also in line with Yule‟s theory

(2004) which explained that RC in final position typically occurs when it modifies

object of the main clause and in medial when it modifies subject of the main clause.

These observations are summarised in Figure 3-2, showing the distribution of RC‟s

position and the antecedent it modifies.

 29

60%
52%
50% 26

40% Modifying Subject

Percentage

30% Modifying Object

24%

20% 18% Modifying Predicative

12
Complement
9
Modifying Object of Preposition
10% 6%

0% 3 0% 0% 0%
0%
Final Medial
RC's position

Figure 3-2 The distribution of RC's position

3.2.1 Medial Position

(3-1) A party that chooses power over principle will lose both (COCA, BLOG,

2012).

The sentence in (3-1) dominates an N‟‟ a party that chooses power over

principle and a V‟‟ will lose both. The N‟‟ is made up by the head noun, a party,

and a RC symbolised by S‟ that chooses power over principle. The RC is modifying

its head noun phrase, a party, which serves as the main clause‟s subject. In terms

of the position, the RC is placed in the middle of the sentence (in the medial

position), that is between an N‟‟ a party and a V‟‟ will lose both. The structure of

the sentence is further described by a tree diagram below.

 30

The structure of the sentence is described as follows.

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ S  V‟‟ PP  P + N

N‟‟  DET + N‟ V‟‟ V‟ + N‟‟ V‟‟  AUX + V‟

N‟  N‟ + S V‟  V V‟  V + N‟‟

N‟  N N‟‟  N‟ + PP N‟‟  N‟

S‟  COMP + S N‟  N N‟  N

(3-2) Children that do not learn in school about history are doomed to repeat

the lessons of history (COCA, BLOG, 2012).

Sentence (3-2) dominates the N‟‟ children that do not learn in school about

history and the V‟‟ are doomed to repeat the lessons of history. The N‟‟ has two
 31

daughters. They are an N‟, which dominates an N children, and a S‟, which is the

RC. The RC modifies its head noun, children, which functions as the main

clause‟s subject. In terms of the position, the RC is placed in the middle of the

sentence (in medial position), which is between the noun children and the V‟‟ are

doomed to repeat the lessons of history. The tree diagram below describes the

structure of the sentence

The structure of the sentence is described as follows.

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ V‟  Adv + V‟ V‟  V +V‟

N‟‟  N‟ + S‟ V‟  V + PP V‟  Inf-to + V‟
 32

N‟  N PP  P + N‟ V‟  V + N‟‟

S‟  COMP + S N‟  N + PP N‟‟  DET + N‟

S  V‟‟ PP  P + N N‟  N + PP

V‟‟  AUX + V‟ V‟‟  AUX + V‟ PP  P + N

(3-3) The animals that die the soonest learn the fastest (COCA, FIC, 2000).

The sentence in (3-3) dominates an N‟‟ the animals that die the soonest and

a V‟‟ learn the fastest. That die the soonest symbolised by S‟ is the RC that is

embedded within its head noun, the animals. It modifies the main clause‟s subject,

the animals, and is placed in the middle of the sentence (in the medial position).

The structure of the sentence is further described by a tree diagram below.

The structure of the sentence can be described as follows.

 33

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ S  V‟‟ V‟‟  V‟ + Adv

N‟‟  DET + N‟ V‟‟  V‟ V‟  V

N‟  N + S‟ V‟  V + AdvP AdvP  DET + Adv

S‟  COMP + S AdvP  DET + Adv

(4-2) His new public schools that he backed up so much are failing (COCA,

WEB, 2012).

Two constituents are immediately dominated by the sentence in (4-2) above.

They are an N‟‟ his new public schools that he backed up so much and a V‟‟ are

failing. The N‟‟ is constructed by its head noun phrase his new public schools and

a RC that he backed up so much. He is a pronoun, which is a subcategory of noun.

Thus, it is written as N in the tree diagram. In terms of its position, this RC is placed

in the middle of the sentence (in the medial position), that is between a noun phrase

his new public schools and a verb phrase are failing, and modifies the main clause‟s

subject, his new public schools. The structure of the sentence is further described

by a tree diagram below.

 34

The structure of the sentence can be described as follows.

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ S‟  COMP + S V‟‟  V‟ + AdvP

N‟‟  DET + N‟ S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ AdvP  Adv + Adv

N‟  Adj + N‟ N‟‟  N‟ V‟‟  AUX + V‟

N‟  Adj + N‟ N‟  N V‟  V

N‟  N + S‟

3.2.2 Final Position

(3-4) The journal accepts papers that will influence policy and practice in the

fields of child and family welfare (COCA, ACAD, 2016).

 35

There are two constituents that are immediately dominated by the sentence

in (3-4) above. They are an N‟‟ the journal and a V‟‟ accept papers that will

influence policy and practice in the fields of child and family welfare. The V‟‟

consists of a verb accept and an N‟‟. The N‟‟ has two daughters: An N papers, and

a S‟ (or the RC) that will influence policy and practice in the fields of child and

family welfare. This RC is placed in final position and modifies the main clause‟s

object, papers. The structure of the sentence is presented by a tree diagram below.

The structure of the sentence can be described as follows.

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ N‟  N N‟  DET + N

N‟‟  DET + N‟ S‟  COMP + S PP  P + N‟‟

N‟  N S  V‟‟ N‟‟  N‟

V‟‟  V‟ + N‟‟ V‟‟  V‟+ N‟‟ N‟  N + Conj + N‟

 36

V‟  V V‟  AUX + V N‟  N + N

N‟‟  N‟ + S N‟‟  N‟ + PP

(3-5) It‟s about a boy that runs away or is kidnapped (COCA, WEB, 2012).

The sentence shown in (3-5) dominates a N‟‟ it and a V‟‟ is about a boy that

runs away or is kidnapped. It is a pronoun, which is a subcategory of noun. Thus,

it is written as N in the tree diagram. The RC is embedded within the N‟‟ a boy,

which is dominated by a PP about. Therefore, the RC modifies a boy that serves

as the main clause‟s object of preposition. In terms of the position, the RC is

placed at the end of the sentence (in final position). The tree diagram below

describes the structure of the sentence.

 37

The structure of the sentence can be described as follows.

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ PP  P + N‟‟ V‟‟  V‟ + Conj + V‟‟

N‟‟  N‟ N‟‟  DET + N‟ V‟  V + Adj

N‟  N N‟  N + S‟ V‟‟  AUX + V‟

V‟‟  V‟ + PP S‟  COMP + S V‟  V

V‟  V S  V‟‟

(4-1) Now you‟ll have the subject that I like best (COCA, MAG, 1997).

The sentence in (4-1) above immediately dominates an adverb now, an N‟‟

you and a V‟‟. The V‟‟ consists of a V‟ will have and a N‟‟ the subject that I like

best. The subject is the head noun phrase that serves as the main clause‟s object and

is modified by the RC symbolised by S‟. The lexical nodes you and I are actually a

pronoun. However, they are written as N in the tree diagram as pronoun is a

subcategory of noun. In terms of the position, this RC is placed at the end of the

sentence (in final position). The structure of the sentence is further described by a

tree diagram below

 38

The structure of the sentence would be:

S  Adv + N‟‟ + V‟‟ N‟‟  DET + N‟ N‟  N

N‟‟  N‟ N‟  N + S‟ V‟‟  V‟

N‟  N S‟  COMP + S V‟  V‟ + Adv

V‟‟  V‟ + N‟‟ S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ V‟  V

V‟  Aux + V N‟‟  N‟

(4-3) This is the girl that they hired at the factory the other day (COCA, MOV,

2005).

The sentence in (4-3) dominates an N‟‟ this and a V‟‟ is the girl that they

hired at the factory the other day. The V‟‟ dominates two daughters: a V‟ is, and a

N‟‟ the girl that they hired at the factory the other day. The girl is the head noun
 39

serving as the main clause‟s predicative complement that is modified by the RC

symbolised by S‟. This and they are actually pronouns, which is the subcategory of

noun. They are written as N in the tree diagram. The RC is in final position, as it is

located at the very end of the sentence. The structure of the sentence is presented

by a tree diagram below.

The structure of the sentence can be described as follows.

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ N‟  N + S‟ V‟  V + PP
 40

N‟‟  N‟ S‟  COMP + S PP  P + N‟‟

N‟  N S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ N‟‟  DET + N‟

V‟‟  V‟ + N‟‟ N‟‟  N‟ N‟  N

V‟  V N‟  N N‟‟  DET + Adj + N

N‟‟  DET + N‟ V‟‟  V‟ + N‟‟

(4-4) My first dog was a shelter dog that I rescued (COCA, SPOK, 2016).

The sentence in (4-4) above dominates an N‟‟ my first dog and a V‟‟ was a

shelter dog that I rescued. The V‟‟ is the mother node of a V‟ was and a N‟‟ a

shelter dog that I rescued. A shelter dog is the head noun phrase of the N‟‟

functioning as the main clause‟s predicative complement and is modified by the RC

symbolised by S‟. The word I is actually a pronoun, but it is written as N in the tree

diagram as pronouns are the subcategory of nouns. The RC is located at the end of

the sentence (in final position). The structure of the sentence is further described by

a tree diagram below.

 41

The structure of the sentence can be described as follows.

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ V‟  V S  N‟‟ + V‟‟

N‟‟  DET + N‟ N‟‟  DET + N‟‟ N‟‟  N‟

N‟  QP + N‟ N‟‟  N‟ + S‟ N‟  N

N‟  N N‟  N + N V‟‟  V‟

V‟‟  V‟ + N‟‟ S‟  COMP + S V‟  V

(4-5) It was me that you helped earlier (COCA, TV, 2019).

The sentence in (4-5) above dominates a N‟‟ it and a V‟‟ was me that you

helped earlier. The V‟‟ is formed by a V‟ was, and a N‟‟ me that you helped earlier.

Me is the head noun of the N‟‟ functioning as the main clause‟s predicative
 42

complement and is modified by the RC. The words me and you are pronouns, which

are the subcategory of noun. Therefore, the non-terminal node for these two words

is N. The RC is located in final position as it is located at the end of the sentence,

and modifies the main clause‟s predicative complement, me. The structure of the

sentence is presented by a tree diagram below.

The Structure of the sentence can be described as follows.

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ V‟  V N‟‟  N‟

N‟‟  N‟ N‟‟  N‟ + S‟ N‟  N

N‟  N S‟  COMP + S V‟‟  V‟ + Adv

V‟‟  V‟ + N‟‟ S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ V‟  V

 43

(5-1) He currently has six computers that he’s worked on at home.

Two constituents are immediately dominated by the sentence in (5-1)

above. They are a N‟‟ he and a V‟‟ has six computers that he’s worked on at home.

The V‟‟ is the mother node of a V‟ currently has and a N‟‟ six computers that he’s

worked on at home. The RC is symbolised by S‟ and modifies its head noun

functioning as the main clause‟s object, six computers. The word he is a pronoun

that is written as N in the tree diagram as pronoun is a subcategory of noun. In terms

of the position, the RC is placed at the end of the sentence (in final position). The

structure of the sentence is presented by a tree diagram below.

 44

The structure of the sentence above can be described as follows.

S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ N‟  QP + N V‟  AUX + V‟

N‟‟  N‟ S‟  COMP + S V‟  V + PP

N‟  N S  N‟‟ + V‟‟ PP  P

V‟‟  V‟ + N‟‟ N‟‟  N‟ PP  P + N‟‟

V‟‟  Adv + V N‟  N N‟‟  N‟

N‟‟  N‟ + S‟ V‟‟  V‟ + PP N‟  N
 CONCLUSION

Based on the analysis of the study, there are two main points of conclusion

that can be drawn. The first point is the syntactic functions of that and the

(in)animacy of the antecedents. There are three syntactic functions of that relative

clause found in the data. That replaces a missing noun phrase in the RC and occupy

the syntactic function of subjects, objects, and object of prepositions. From 50

random sentences taken from all genres COCA, the subject relative dominates the

occurrence of the RC, and the antecedents are primarily inanimate (see Figure 3-1).

The proportion of subject relative is 31/50 (i.e., 62%), the object relative is 18/50

(i.e., 36%), and the after-preposition relative is 1/50 (i.e., 2%). Furthermore, the

proportion of animate antecedents (i.e., 18/50, or 36%) is lower than that of

inanimate antecedent (i.e., 32/50, or 64%). From 18 animate antecedents, 16

antecedents are referring to humans or people. It shows that besides the relative

pronoun who/whom, the relative pronoun that can also be used to refer to people.

However, the number of inanimate head nouns is still relatively higher than the

animate head noun referring to people. This is presumably because there is a

tendency to use who instead of that when it is used to refer to people.

The second point is the structure of sentences containing RCs. RCs can be

located either in the middle or at the end of the sentences (see Figure 3-2). It is

embedded into its antecedent and thus located right after the noun phrase serving

45
 46

as the antecedent. From the data, nine sentences have the RCs located in the middle

of the sentence and forty-one sentences contain RCs that are located at the end of

the sentence (in final position). This finding supports Yule‟s (2004) theory

regarding the RC‟s tendency to be in final position rather than in medial position.

Furthermore, this study also supports Yule‟s claim (2004) that RCs in final position

typically modify the main clause‟s object and RCs in medial position typically

modify the main clause‟s subject as the data show that all RCs in medial position

modifies the main clause‟s subject and most RCs in final position modifies the main

clause‟s object (26 sentences; 52%). Besides, from the data it can be found that RCs

in final position are not only modifying the main clause‟s object, but also objects

of preposition (3 sentences, 6%) and predicative complements (12 sentences, 24%).

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