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Time-Domain Performance
1
Outline
2
Overview
Easy control and adjustment of the transient and steady-state response of a control system is a distinct
advantage of feedback control systems;
To analyze and design a control system, we must define and measure its performance, the controller
parameters may be adjusted to provide the desired response which is often described by design
specifications.
Control systems are inherently dynamic, their performance is usually specified in terms of both the transient
response the steady-state response.
- Transient response is the response that disappears with time;
- Steady-state response is the response that exists for a long time following an input signal initiation.
Closed-loop System
𝒀𝒀(𝒔𝒔) 𝑮𝑮𝒄𝒄 𝑮𝑮
𝑻𝑻 𝒔𝒔 = =
𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔) 𝟏𝟏 + 𝑮𝑮𝒄𝒄 𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮
3
Test Input Signals
Control systems are inherently time-domain systems, so the system transient or time
performance is the response of prime interest for control systems.
4
Test Input Signal in Time and s-Domain
There is a reasonable correlation between the response of a system to a standard test input and the
system’s ability to perform under normal operating conditions.
Many control systems experience input signals that are very similar to the standard test signals.
𝒓𝒓 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒕𝒕𝒏𝒏
𝒏𝒏!
𝑹𝑹 𝒔𝒔 =
𝒔𝒔𝒏𝒏+𝟏𝟏
except for impulse input:
𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 = 𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 = 1
5
Second-Order System
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)
1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
6
Time Response to Impulse Input
𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 = 1
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 2
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 2
𝝎𝝎𝒏𝒏 −𝜻𝜻𝝎𝝎 𝒕𝒕
𝒚𝒚 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒆𝒆 𝒏𝒏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝝎𝝎𝒏𝒏 𝜷𝜷𝜷𝜷)
𝜷𝜷
where 𝛽𝛽 = 1 − 𝜁𝜁 2 ,
0 < 𝜁𝜁 < 1.
7
Time Response to Step Input
1
𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 2 1
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 2 𝑠𝑠
𝟏𝟏 −𝜻𝜻𝝎𝝎 𝒕𝒕
𝒚𝒚 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒆𝒆 𝒏𝒏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝝎𝝎𝒏𝒏 𝜷𝜷𝜷𝜷 + 𝜽𝜽)
𝜷𝜷
where 𝛽𝛽 = 1 − 𝜁𝜁 2 ,
𝜃𝜃 = cos −1 𝜁𝜁
0 < 𝜁𝜁 < 1.
8
Standard Performance Measures
Standard performance measures are often defined in terms of the unit step response of the
closed-loop system.
Peak Value: 𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 Peak Time:
𝜋𝜋
Final Value: 𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣 =1 𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 =
1 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
Time Constant: 𝜏𝜏 =
𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 Rise Time:
2.16𝜁𝜁 + 0.60
𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
(0.3 < 𝜁𝜁 < 0.8)
2% Settling Time:
4
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 ≅
𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
Percent Overshoot:
−𝜁𝜁𝜁𝜁
�
𝑃𝑃. 𝑂𝑂. = 100𝑒𝑒 1−𝜁𝜁 2
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑃𝑃. 𝑂𝑂. = × 100%
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
9
P.O. and Normalized Peak Time vs. 𝜻𝜻
Need
Compromise!
10
Effects of 𝝎𝝎𝒏𝒏 and 𝜻𝜻 on The Step Response
with 𝜁𝜁 =0.2, different 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 with 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 = 5, different 𝜁𝜁
11
Example
Consider the following system, select gain K and the parameter p so that the time-domain specifications to a
unit step input are satisfied.
Specifications: 2% settling time 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 ≤ 4 𝑠𝑠; and percent overshoot 𝑃𝑃. 𝑂𝑂. ≤ 5%.
𝐾𝐾
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2
Poles: −1 ± 𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 2
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 2
Poles:
𝑝𝑝1,2 = −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 ± 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
14
Effects of A Third Pole
Assume 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 = 1, Consider a system with two complex poles and an additional pole
1
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 2
(𝑠𝑠 +2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 + 1)
The time response of a third-order system can be approximated by the dominant roots of the second-order
system as long as the real part of the dominant roots is less than one tenth of the real part of the third pole.
15
Example
System 1.
System 2.
System 1 can be
System 3. approximated by System 2,
while System 3 can NOT!
16
Effects of A Finite Zero
Consider a system:
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 2
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎)
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 2 𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 2
If 𝑎𝑎 ≫ 𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 :
17
Example
Ts=1.6s, P.O.=38%
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
For the second-order 𝑻𝑻 𝒔𝒔 =
𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 + 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
system:
Ts=1.33s, P.O.=9.5%
18
Quiz
19
Quiz
20
The s-Plane Location and The Transient Response
Transfer function for a closed-loop system can be written as:
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) ∑ 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠)∆𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) ∆(𝑠𝑠)
Time response of a system depends on the poles and zeros of its transfer function 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 ; while
for a closed-loop system, the poles of are the roots of the characteristic equation: ∆ 𝑠𝑠 .
Transfer function:
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Time Response of System: General Form
If the system (with DC gain = 1) has no repeated roots, its unit step response can be
formulated as a partial fraction expansion as:
𝑀𝑀 𝑁𝑁
1 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝐵𝐵𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = +� +� 2
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝛼𝛼𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 + (𝛼𝛼𝑘𝑘 2 + 𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 2 )
𝑖𝑖=1 𝐾𝐾=1
where 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 , 𝐵𝐵𝑘𝑘 and 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 are constants; the roots of the system must be either
𝑠𝑠 = −𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 or 𝑠𝑠 = −𝛼𝛼𝑘𝑘 ± 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘
The transient response can be obtained by inverse Laplace transform:
𝑀𝑀 𝑁𝑁
exponential
Steady-state terms Damped sinusoidal
output terms
where 𝐷𝐷𝑘𝑘 is a constant depends on 𝐵𝐵𝑘𝑘 , 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 , 𝛼𝛼𝑘𝑘 and 𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 .
For the response to be stable (bounded for a step input) – the real part of the poles
must be in the left-hand portion of the s-plane.
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Step Response for Various Root Locations in the s-Plane
𝑴𝑴
𝒚𝒚 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏 + � 𝑨𝑨𝒊𝒊 𝒆𝒆−𝝈𝝈𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕
𝒊𝒊=𝟏𝟏
𝑵𝑵
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Root Location and System Design
It is important for the control system designer to understand the complete relationship of the
frequency domain representation of a linear system, the poles and zeros of its transfer
function, and its time-domain response to step and other inputs;
In such areas as signal processing and control, many analysis and design calculations are
done in the s-plane, where a system model is represented in terms of the poles and zeros of
its transfer function;
The control system designer will envision the effects of the step and impulse response of
adding, deleting, or moving poles and zeros of 𝑇𝑇(𝑠𝑠) in the s-plane;
An experienced designer is aware of the effects of zero locations on system response. For
example, moving a zero closer to a specific pole will reduce the relative contribution to the
output response. In other words, if there is a zero near the pole at 𝑠𝑠 = −𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 , then 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 will be
much smaller in magnitude.
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The Steady-State Error of Feedback Control System
One of the fundamental reasons for using feedback, despite its cost and increased
complexity, is the attendant improvement in the reduction of the steady-state error of the
system. Consider a unit negative feedback system (𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) = 1), in the absence of external
disturbances (𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠 = 0) and measurement noise (𝑁𝑁 𝑠𝑠 = 0), tracking error is:
1
𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)
1 + 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
1
lim 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)
𝑡𝑡→∞ 𝑠𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
25
Steady-State Error to Step Inputs
𝐴𝐴� 𝐴𝐴
𝑠𝑠
𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 1 + lim 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠→0
𝐾𝐾 ∏𝑀𝑀
𝑖𝑖=1(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 )
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄𝑄 where 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 ≠ 0, 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ≠ 0.
𝑠𝑠 𝑵𝑵 ∏𝑘𝑘=1(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 )
26
Steady-State Error to Step Inputs
The number of integration indicates a system with type number that is equal to
𝑵𝑵, which determines the steady-state error of the system.
𝐴𝐴
For a type-zero system (𝑁𝑁 = 0): 𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁
For a type-N system with 𝑁𝑁 ≥ 1: 𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim = lim = 0.
𝑠𝑠→0 ∏ 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠→0 𝑁𝑁 ∏ 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖
1 + 𝐾𝐾 𝑁𝑁 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾
𝑠𝑠 ∏ 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ∏ 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘
27
Steady-State Error to Ramp Inputs
𝐴𝐴�
𝑠𝑠 2 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑠𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + lim 𝑠𝑠𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 lim 𝑠𝑠𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠→0 𝑠𝑠→0
𝐾𝐾 ∏𝑀𝑀
𝑖𝑖=1(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 )
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄𝑄 where 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 ≠ 0, 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ≠ 0.
𝑠𝑠 𝑵𝑵 ∏𝑘𝑘=1(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 )
28
Steady-State Error to Ramp Inputs
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
For a type-one system (𝑁𝑁 = 1): 𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim = =
𝑠𝑠→0 ∏(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 ) ∏ 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑣𝑣
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐾𝐾
𝑠𝑠 ∏(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ) ∏ 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝑵𝑵−𝟏𝟏
For a type-N system with 𝑁𝑁 > 1: 𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim = =0
𝑠𝑠→0 ∏(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 ) ∏ 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑵𝑵 𝐾𝐾
𝑠𝑠 ∏ (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ) ∏ 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘
29
Steady-State Error to Acceleration Inputs
𝐴𝐴�
𝑠𝑠 3 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝑠 = 2 =
𝑠𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + lim 𝑠𝑠 2 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 lim 𝑠𝑠 2 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠→0 𝑠𝑠→0
𝐾𝐾 ∏𝑀𝑀
𝑖𝑖=1(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 )
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄𝑄 where 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 ≠ 0, 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ≠ 0.
𝑠𝑠 𝑵𝑵 ∏𝑘𝑘=1(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 )
30
Steady-State Error to Acceleration Inputs
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim = =
For a type-two system (𝑁𝑁 = 2): 𝑠𝑠→0 2 ∏(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 ) ∏ 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠 𝐾𝐾 2 𝐾𝐾
𝑠𝑠 ∏(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ) ∏ 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘
31
Summary Table
The control system error constants 𝑲𝑲𝒑𝒑 , 𝑲𝑲𝒗𝒗 and 𝑲𝑲𝒂𝒂 , describe the ability of a system to reduce or eliminate the
steady-state error. Therefore, they are utilized as numerical measure of the steady-state performance. The designer
determines the error constants for a given system and attempts to determine methods of increasing the error
constants while maintaining an acceptable transient response.
32
Example – Mobile Robot Steering Control
𝐾𝐾(𝐾𝐾1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾2 )
Loop transfer function: 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) =
𝜏𝜏𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑠
33
Example – Mobile Robot Steering Control
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
When 𝐾𝐾2 = 0 -> 1
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) = 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏+1 -> type-0 system:
𝐾𝐾(𝐾𝐾1 𝑠𝑠+𝐾𝐾2 )
When 𝐾𝐾2 > 0 -> 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) = -> type-1 system:
𝑠𝑠(𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏+1)
For step input: 𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0
34
Transient response of the system to a triangular wave input when 𝐾𝐾2 > 0
35
Example – Steady-State Error for A Nonunity Negative Feedback System
Consider the following system, determine K so that the ESS for a unit step input is minimized.
36
Example – Steady-State Error for A Nonunity Negative Feedback System
Solutions:
𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = [1 − 𝑇𝑇(𝑠𝑠)]𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)
Therefore:
37
Performance Index
A performance index is a quantitative measure of the performance of a system and is
chosen so that emphasis is given to the important system specifications.
A system is considered an optimum control system when the system parameters are adjusted so
that the index reaches an extremum, commonly a minimum value.
General form:
38
39
Optimum Coefficients for T(s) based on ITAE Criterion
40
Design Example – Hubble Space Telescope Control
For the following control system, choose 𝑲𝑲𝟏𝟏 and 𝑲𝑲, to satisfy:
(1) Percent overshoot of the output to a step command r(t) is 𝑃𝑃. 𝑂𝑂. ≤ 10%
(2) Steady-state error to a ramp command is minimized;
(3) Effect of a step disturbance is reduced.
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Design Example – Hubble Space Telescope Control
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Step 2. Obtain Y(s) and E(s) in terms of R(s), Td(s) and system parameters.
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) 1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑
1 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) 1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) 𝑑𝑑
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Step 3. Consider requirement (1): 𝑃𝑃. 𝑂𝑂. ≤ 10% for a step input.
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝑠𝑠 = 0 𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝐾1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾 = 0
For 𝑃𝑃. 𝑂𝑂. ≤ 10%, it must be satisfied that 𝜁𝜁 ≥ 0.6. we choose 𝜁𝜁=0.6, therefore
−𝜁𝜁𝜁𝜁 𝐾𝐾1
� = 𝐾𝐾
𝑃𝑃. 𝑂𝑂. = 100𝑒𝑒 1−𝜁𝜁 2 1.2
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1 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) 1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) 𝑑𝑑
Step 4. Consider requirement (2): minimize ESS to a ramp input: assume 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠 = 0
1 𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝐾1 𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴
𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 = 2
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾 𝑠𝑠 2
𝐴𝐴
𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠→0 𝐾𝐾/𝐾𝐾1
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 1 𝐵𝐵
𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠 = − 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠 = − 2
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾 𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝐵
𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 = −
𝑠𝑠→0 𝐾𝐾
Therefore,
𝐴𝐴
ESS for a ramp input is ≈ 0.12𝐴𝐴, ESS
8.33
for a step disturbance is
𝐵𝐵
− = −0.01𝐵𝐵.
100
All the requirements have been satisfied.
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