Controls Formula

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CONTROL SYSTEM
FORMULA SESSION
Control System Analysis
Transfer Function Approach State Model Approach

TRANSFER FUNCTION
APPROACH
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑂𝑓 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Transfer Function=
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑂𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Initial Condition=0
𝐿[𝑐 𝑡 ] 𝐶(𝑠)
𝑇 𝑠 = = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0
𝐿[𝑟 𝑡 ] 𝑅(𝑠)
CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM
Open Loop Control System
Reference Controller Process Reference

Input output
CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM
Closed Loop Control System
Reference Controller Process Reference

Input output
±
Feedback ,H(s)
1
𝑇 𝑠 = 1
(1 ∓ 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ) 𝐸 𝑠 /𝑅(𝑆) =
(1 ∓ 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 )
Effect Of Negative Feedback
Stability
Negative Feedback decreases Gain
Improves Dynamic Response Of System
Reduces the effect of disturbance signal or
noise
Improves the Bandwidth
Sensitivity Call 7471118489 for discount related query
𝜕𝑇/𝑇 %𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 .𝐺 1
𝑆𝐺𝑇 =
𝜕𝐺/𝐺
=
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺
=
𝜕𝐺 .𝑇
= 1∓𝐺𝐻
𝜕𝑇/𝑇 %𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 .𝐻 −𝐺𝐻

𝑇
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜕𝐻/𝐻
=
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐻
=
𝜕𝐻 .𝑇
= 1∓𝐺𝐻
≅ −1
SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

SFG Call 7471118489 for discount related query
𝐶(𝑠) σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 Δ𝑖
=
MASON’S RULE: 𝑅(𝑠) Δ
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains of all
possible two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the products of the gains
of all possible three loops that do not touch each other) + … and so forth with sums
of higher number of non-touching loop gains
∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-th forward
path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)
TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS Call 7471118489 for discount related query
Introduction
The time response of a control system means as to how a system behaves in
accordance with time when a specified input test signal is applied.
The time response of control system is divided in two parts:
(a) Transient response
(b) Steady state response
Transient part of time response reveals the nature of response and its speed, where as
steady state part of time response reveals the accuracy of a control system.
Standard Input Test Signals
r(t)= Au (t)
(a) Step function
(b) Ramp Function

r(t)= Atu (t)
(c) Parabolic function R(t) = At2 U(t)

2
First Order System
Time response of a first order control system
1/ST
Transfer Function
𝐶(𝑠) 1
=
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑆𝑇 + 1
Response to Unit Impulse Input Function
1 −𝑡 Call 7471118489 for discount related query
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑇 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑇
Response to Unit step Input Function
1
𝐶 𝑆 =
𝑆(𝑆𝑇 + 1)
−𝑡
𝑐 𝑡 = (1 − 𝑒 𝑇 )𝑢(𝑡)
−𝑡
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑇 𝑢(𝑡)
−𝑡
𝑒𝑆𝑆 = lim 𝑡 ∞𝑒 𝑇 𝑢 𝑡 = 0
Response to Unit ramp Input Function

1
𝐶 𝑆 = 2
𝑆 (𝑆𝑇 + 1)
−𝑡
𝑐 𝑡 = (𝑡 − 𝑇 − 𝑒 𝑇 )𝑢(𝑡)
−𝑡
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑐 𝑡 = (𝑇 − 𝑒 𝑇 𝑢 𝑡 )
−𝑡
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑡 ∞(𝑇 − 𝑒 𝑇 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑇
Second Order System
Time response of a Second order control system

𝜔2𝑛
𝑠(𝑆 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛) ωd= 𝜔2𝑛 (1 − 𝛿2)
Transfer Function
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔2𝑛
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2δω𝑛 + 𝜔2𝑛
=
Response to Unit step Input Function
Case-1 δ<1 underdamped Response
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
𝑐 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑑𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑢(𝑡)
1 − 𝛿2 φ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
−1
√(1 − 𝛿2
δ
Case-2 δ=0 undamped Response
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
Case-2 δ=1 critically Damped Response
− ω𝑛𝑡
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 + 𝜔𝑛𝑡 [1 − 𝑒 ]
POLE LOCATIONS FOR DIFFERENT CASES, FOR A
SECOND ORDER SYSTEM.
TRANSIENT RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS OF
SECOND ORDER CONTROL SYSTEM
(a)Delay Time (td)

It is the time required for the response to rise from
0 to 50 % of the final value.
(b) Rise Time (tr)
It is the time required for the response to rise from
0 to 100% ( underdamped)
5 to 95% ( Critical damped)
10 to 90% ( over damped)
of the final value
(c) Peak Time (tp)
It is the time required for the response to rise from zero to
peak of the time response.
Where,
for n-1,2,3,…..
n-1, first overshoot
n- 2, first undershoot
(d) Settling Time (ts)
It is the time required for response to rise and reach
to the tolerance band.
For 2% tolerance band,
For 5% tolerance band,

(e) Peak over shoot (Mp)

It gives the normalised difference between the
steady state output to first peak of the time response.
The time period of the oscillation before
reaching the steady state.
T oscillation=2 π/ⴍd
Number of Oscillation before reaching steady
state is
N= T settling/TOscillation
Steady state Error

Steady state error is caused by imperfection in the system
components deterioration and ageing of components.
E(s)
R(s)
G(s)
-
E(s) = R(s)
1+G(s)H(s)
H(s)
error E(s) depends on input as well the system components
and their layout. Also depends on the type of system
STATIC ERROR COEFFICIENTS
Static position Error Coefficient
Kp = lim G(s)H(s)
s 0
Static velocity Error coefficient

Kv = lim sG(s)H(s)
s 0
Static Acceleration Error coefficient

Ka = lim S2 G(s)H(s)
s 0
STEADY STATE ERROR FOR STEP,RAMP AND PARABOLIC INPUT
FOR DIFFERENT NUMBER TYPE OF SYSTEM.
Number Type Error e (∞)
constants
Kp Kv Ka R R R
1+Kp Kv Ka
0 finite 0 0 finite ∞ ∞
1 ∞ finite 0 0 finite ∞
2 ∞ ∞ Finite 0 0 Finite
≥3 ∞ ∞ ∞ 0 0 0
STABILITY
STABILITY
A Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is said to be
stable if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. If the system is excited by a bounded input, the
output must be bounded.
2. If input to the system is zero, the output must be
zero, irrespective.
• Marginal Stable System
A LTI system is said to be marginal stable if for the bounded

input, the output maintains the constant amplitude and
frequency.
• Absolute Stable System
System is stable for all the value of system gain (K) from 0 to ∞.
• Conditional Stable system

System is stable for a certain range of K.
ROUTH HURWITZ (R-H) CRITERION
Purpose
To find:
1. Closed loop system stability
2. Number of closed loop pole in right side or left of the s- plane.
3. Range of K for Conditionally stable system.
4. Value of K required for marginal stability and thereby, determine
the frequency of oscillations.
5. To find a closed loop system stability by using R-H criteria we
need characteristic equation.
General nth order characteristics equation is

a0sn + a1sn-1 + a2sn-2 + . . . + an-1s1 + an = 0
• Routh array
1. For closed loop system to be stable, all the coefficient in the
first column must be positive and there should not be any
missing coefficient in the first column.
2. If there is any sign change in the first column of the Routh
array then system is unstable.
3. Number of sign changes is equal to number or roots lying in
the rights side of the s- plane.
• Magnitude and sign of every term in each row and column
depend on first column element, therefore we always see first
column term.
• The presence of zero in the first column of the Routh’s tabulation
leads to following conclusions.
1. Equal real roots with opposite signs.
2. Pair of conjugate roots on imaginary axis.
Difficulties and Limitations of Routh Array
1. The routh array is applicable to LTI System only.
2. It determines poles in LHS or RHS of s- plane but not their exact location.
3. whenever any one coefficient is zero in first column then replace zero by
smallest positive constant (ϵ) and continue the Routh array, finally
substitute ϵ = 0 and check for the sign change.
4. When routh array ends, abruptly, Construct an auxilliary equation and
differentiate it to get new coefficient to complete to the routh array.
5. When the system is marginally stable, find the frequency of sustained
oscillations from auxilliary equation should be an even polynomial of
order two only.
RELATIVE STABILITY ANALYSIS USING ROUTH
ARRAY Call 7471118489 for discount related query
• The characteristic equation of the system under study is then modified by shifting the
origin of the s- plane to (s -σ1, )i.e. by the subsititution.
σ1
• If the new characteristic equation in s1 satisfies the Routh’s criterion, it implies that all
the roots of the original characteristic equation are more negative than –σ1.
ROOT LOCUS
Root Locus
Root locus is defined as the locus of closed loop poles
obtained when system gain K is varied from 0 to ∞.
Angle Condition
Angle condition is used for checking whether certain points lie on
root locus or not and hence, the validity of root locus for closed
loop poles. For a point to lie on root locus, the angle evaluated at
that point must be an odd multiple of ± 1800 i.e. ±(2q + 1)1800 .
Magnitude condition
The magnitude condition is used for finding the system gain K
at any point on root locus.
|G(s) H(s) | = 1
CONSTRUCTION RULES OF ROOT LOCUS
1. Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

2. Let P = Number of open loop poles
Z = Number of open loop zeros
If P > Z
Then (a) The number of branches of root locus =P
(b) The number of branches terminating at zero = Z
(c) The number of branches terminating at infinity = P – Z
3. A point, on real axis is said to be on root locus if, to the right side of
this point, the sum of number of open loops poles and zeros is an
odd number.
ANGLE OF ASYMTOTES Call 7471118489 for discount related query
• Number of asymptotes = P – Z
• Angle of = (2q + 1) 1800 ( where, q 0, 1,2,. . .)
CENTROID Call 7471118489 for discount related query
Centroid is the point of intersection of asymptote on the real

axis.
Centroid = ∑Real part of open loops - ∑Real of open loop Zeros
P-Z
BREAK AWAY POINT Call 7471118489 for discount related query
They are the points where multiple roots of characteristic

equation occurs.
Procedure to find out break away point:
(a)Construct characteristic equation i.e. 1+G(s) H(s) = 0.
(b)Write K in terms of s.
(c)Find dK
ds
(d) The root of dK = 0 give break away points.
ds
INTERSECTION OF ROOT LOCUS WITH IMAGINARY AXIS
Roots of auxiliary equation at K =K(marginal) from routh array

gives intersection of root locus with imaginary axis.
ANGLE OF DEPARTURE AND ARRIVAL
The angle of departure is tangent to the root locus at the

complex poles.
ɸD = 180o + ɸ
The angle of arrival is tangent to the root locus at the complex

zero.
ɸA = 180o - ɸ
ɸ = ɸZ - ɸp
Where, ɸZ :- Sum of all the angles subtended by remaining zeros
ɸp :- Sum of all the angle subtended by poles
EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POLE
1. Operating range of K decreases for system to be stable.
2. Relative stability reduces.
3. System becomes more oscillatory.
4. The break away point shift towards the imaginary axis.
5. Damping factor decreases and system becomes unstable.
6. Setting time (Tr ) and bandwidth increases.
7. Rise time (Tr ) decreases.
EFFECT OF ADDITION OF ZERO
1. System become stable.
2. Relative Stability improves.
3. Range ok K for stability increases.
4. System becomes less oscillatory.
5. Break away point shift towards the left side of the s- plane.
6. Damping factor increases.
7. Bandwidth decreases.
…………………………………
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
SPECIFICATION
FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPCIFICATION
𝐺(𝑠)
𝑀 𝑠 = Putting 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔
(1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) |𝐺 𝑗ω |
|𝑀 𝑗ω| =
|(1 + 𝐺 𝑗ω 𝐻(𝑗ω)|
For a second Order Control System
𝜔2𝑛
𝑀(𝑠) = 2
𝑠 + 2𝑠δω𝑛 + 𝜔2𝑛
𝐵𝑊 = 𝜔𝑐 = 𝜔𝑛√(1 − 2𝛿2 + 4𝛿4 − 4𝛿2 + 2 )
𝜔2𝑛
𝑀(𝑗ω) =
−ω2 + 𝑗2δω𝑛 + 𝜔2𝑛
𝜔2𝑛
|𝑀 𝑗ω | =
√( 𝜔2𝑛−ω2 +𝑗2δω𝑛+𝜔2𝑛
Stability from Frequency Response Plot
Phase Margin
𝑃𝑀 = 1800 + < 𝐺 𝐽𝜔 𝐻(𝐽𝜔)
1 1
Gain Margin (G.M) 𝐺. 𝑀 = =
𝐺 𝐽𝜔 𝐻 𝐽𝜔 𝑋
1 𝜔 𝜔 𝑃𝐶
=
𝐺. 𝑀 𝑑𝐵 = 20log( )Stable ωgc< ωpc G.M, P.M POSITIVE
𝑥
Unstable ωgc>ωpc G.M ,P.M NEGATIVE
Marginally Stable ωgc=ωpc G.M , P.M ZERO

𝐵𝑊 = 𝜔𝑐 = 𝜔𝑛√(1 − 2𝛿2 + 4𝛿4 − 4𝛿2 + 2 )
1 ωr= 𝜔2𝑛 (1 − 2𝛿2)

𝑀𝑟 =
2𝛿√(1 − 𝛿2)
POLAR PLOT
POLAR PLOT
It is a plot of absolute values of magnitude and phase angle in
degree of open loop transfer function G(jω) H(jω) versus ω
drawn on polar coordinates
im [G(jω) H(jω
[re G(jω) H(jω)]

General shapes of Polar Plot
Type -0/ order – 1 im [G(jω) H(jω
G(s) = 1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

1 + Ts

(1 + T1s) (1+T2 s)

(1 + T1s) (1+T2 s) (1+T3 s)


(1 + T1s) (1+T2 s) (1+T3 s) (1+T4 s)

(s2)

(s2)(1 + Ts)

(s2)(1 + T1s) (1 + T2s)

(s2)(1 + T1s) (1 + T2s) (1 + T3s)

(s3)(1 + Ts)
NYQUIST STABILITY
CRIETERIA
• Nyquist stability criteria.

• It is mapping of imaginary axis of S- Plane to G(s) H(s) plane.
• This mapping is unique.
• Closed contour on S- plane does not include any pole (open
loop).
N=Z-P
N Number of encirclement of ( -1 + j0) point in clockwise
direction.
Z Number of closed loop poles on the right half of S – Plane.
P Number of poles ( open pole) on the right of S- plane.
For system to be stable Z Must be zero i.e. N =-P.
It implies that encirclement of ( -1 + j0) point must be equal to
number of right half plane poles (open loop) in anticlockwise
direction.
• For minimum phase system Nyquist stability criteria says that there
should be no encirclement of ( -1 + j0) point.
• For minimum phase system polar plot is sufficient to investigate
whether or not the closed loop system is stable.
• It is applicable to both minimum and non minimum phase system.
BODE PLOT
Bode plot is Variation of magnitude of Sinusoidal
transfer Function expressed in decibel and
corresponding phased angle in degrees being plotted
w.r.t frequency on a logarithmic scale in rectangular axis
𝑀𝑑𝐵 = 20log |𝐺 𝑗ω 𝐻( 𝑗ω |
− 1 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
< ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
Bode Plots of K Call 7471118489 for discount related query
M φ
20log10K 1800
log10ω log10ω
-1800
1 Call 7471118489 for discount related query
Bode Plots of N
𝑆
M φ
-20NdB/decade
-N900
log10ω log10ω
-1800
1 Call 7471118489 for discount related query
Bode Plots of
(1+𝑆𝑇)
M φ
𝜔=1/T 𝜔=1/T
log10ω log10ω
-450
-20NdB/decade -900
Bode Plots of (1+ST) Call 7471118489 for discount related query
M φ
900
20NdB/decade
450
𝜔=1/T log10ω 𝜔=1/T log10ω

-450
STATE SPACE
ANALYSIS
U1(t)
I U2(t) Y1(t) O
{
. Y2(t)
N U
}
. .
P
MIMO T
. .
. .
U . P
T Uk(t) U
Yk(t)
T
. . . . . .
X1 X2 …………………. .XK
}
STATE
.
𝑋𝑛 × 1= 𝐴 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑢
𝑛×𝑛
𝑛×1
𝑛×𝑚 𝑚×1
𝑌𝑝 × 1 =
𝐶 𝑥+𝐷 𝑢
𝑝×𝑛
𝑛×1 𝑝×𝑚 𝑚×1
−1
𝑇. 𝐹. = 𝐶 𝑆𝐼 − 𝐴
𝐴𝑡 −1 −1
𝑒 =𝜑 𝑡 =𝐿 𝑆𝐼 − 𝐴
Properties Of STM
a)φ(0)=I(identity matrix)
b) φ-1(t)=φ(-t)
c) φ(t)k =φ(kt)
d) φ(t1+t2)=φ(t1) φ(t2)
Controllability and Observability
2 −
𝑛 1𝐵]
𝑄𝑐 = [𝐵: 𝐴𝐵: 𝐴 𝐵: … … . . 𝐴
𝑄 𝐶 ≠ 0 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑇 2 𝑇 𝑛 −1 𝑇
𝑄𝑐 = [𝐶𝑇: 𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑇: 𝐴 𝐶 : … … . . (𝐴𝑇) 𝐶 ]
𝑄 𝑂 ≠ 0 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

Phase Lead Compensator
1
𝑠+ 𝛼(1 + 𝑠𝑇)
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝑇 =
1 (1 + 𝑠𝛼𝑇)
𝑠+
𝛼𝑇
𝑅1
𝛼= ; 𝑇 = 𝑅1𝐶
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Phase Lead Compensator Bode Plot
20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒
1
20𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝛼
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜔
−1 1−𝛼 −1 1−𝛼
𝜑 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 [ ] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ ]
2 𝛼 1+𝛼
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜔
ωc1 ωm ωc2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑚
1 1 1 𝛼=
1 + sin 𝜑𝑚
𝑇 𝑇√𝛼 𝑇𝛼
1 −1 1 −𝛼 −1 1−𝛼
𝜔𝑚 = 𝜔 𝑐1𝜔 𝑐2 = 𝜑 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 [ ] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ ]
𝑇√𝛼 2 𝛼 1+𝛼

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Call 7471118489 for discount related query

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Transfer Function Approach State Model Approach

𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑂𝑓 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Reference Controller Process Reference

Reference Controller Process Reference

𝜕𝑇/𝑇 %𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 .𝐻 −𝐺𝐻

SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

(b) Ramp Function

(c) Parabolic function R(t) = At2 U(t)

Time response of a first order control system

Response to Unit ramp Input Function

Time response of a Second order control system

Case-1 δ<1 underdamped Response

(a)Delay Time (td)

For 2% tolerance band,

For 5% tolerance band,

(e) Peak over shoot (Mp)

Steady state Error

Static velocity Error coefficient

Static Acceleration Error coefficient

• Marginal Stable System

A LTI system is said to be marginal stable if for the bounded

• Conditional Stable system

General nth order characteristics equation is

1. Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

Centroid is the point of intersection of asymptote on the real

They are the points where multiple roots of characteristic

Roots of auxiliary equation at K =K(marginal) from routh array

The angle of departure is tangent to the root locus at the

The angle of arrival is tangent to the root locus at the complex

Unstable ωgc>ωpc G.M ,P.M NEGATIVE

Marginally Stable ωgc=ωpc G.M , P.M ZERO

𝐵𝑊 = 𝜔𝑐 = 𝜔𝑛√(1 − 2𝛿2 + 4𝛿4 − 4𝛿2 + 2 )

1 ωr= 𝜔2𝑛 (1 − 2𝛿2)

[re G(jω) H(jω)]

G(s) = 1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

G(s) = 1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

G(s) = 1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

Call 7471118489 for discount related query

G(s) = 1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

G(s) = 1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

G(s) = 1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

G(s) = 1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

G(s) = 1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

G(s) = 1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

• Nyquist stability criteria.

𝜔=1/T log10ω 𝜔=1/T log10ω

𝑄 𝑂 ≠ 0 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

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