Informática

Ing. Aeroespacial

Computers

C3: Digital systems

DISCA: Departamento de Informática de Sistemas y Computadores

Rev. 06
Introduction Informática

Do you know that computers can be constructed using a

single basic element?
Which are the foundations of these systems?
Do they depend only on the current state?

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Digital systems Informática

Boolean algebra
Combinational and sequential systems
Digital systems
Examples of digital systems in avionics

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Boolean algebra Informática

First, some algebra…

Definition:
- Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra in which the values of the
variables are the truth values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0
Based on predicates: sentences that assert or deny unambiguously an
attribute. Example: “Mary is wearing a flower on her head” (true / false)
Boolean domain B={0, 1}, 0→false, 1→true.
Operators:
- AND: x ⋀ y , (x ∙ y) - true if both x and y are true and false otherwise.
‣ Example: The machine starts working if “The green light is on” ∧ “The
button is pushed”.
- OR: x ⋁ y , (x + y) - true if either x or y are true and false otherwise.
‣ Example: The machine stops working if “The button is pushed” ∨ “There is
an emergency”.
- NOT: ¬x , x - true if x is false and false if x is true
‣ Example: The machine is working if ¬“The red light is on”.
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Boolean algebra Informática

Laws
Laws similar to ordinary algebra:
- Commutativity of ∨ and ∧: x∨y=y∨x x∧y=y∧x
- Associativity of ∨ and ∧: x∨(y∨z) = (x∨y)∨z x∧(y∧z) = (x∧y)∧z
- Distributivity: x∨(y∧z) = (x∨y)∧(x∨z) x∧(y∨z) = (x∧y)∨(x∧z)
Additional laws:
- Idempotence of ∨ and ∧: x∨x=x x∧x=x
- Absorption 1 and 2: x∨(x∧y) = x x∧(x∨y) = x
- De Morgan 1 and 2: ¬(x∧y) = ¬x ∨ ¬y ¬(x∨y) = ¬x ∧ ¬y
- Opposites: x ∨ ¬x = 1 x ∧ ¬x = 0
- Neutral elements: x∨0=x x∧1=x

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Boolean algebra Informática

Laws (alternative notation)

Laws similar to ordinary algebra:
- Commutativity of + and ·: x+y=y+x, x·y=y·x
- Associativity of + and ·: x+(y+z) = (x+y)+z x·(y·z) = (x·y)·z
- Distributivity: x+(y·z) = (x+y)·(x+z) x·(y+z) = (x·y)+(x·z)
Additional laws:
- Idempotence of + and ·: x+x=x x· x=x
- Absorption 1 and 2: x+(x·y) = x x·(x+y) = x
- De Morgan 1 and 2: (x·y) = x + y (x+y) = x · y
- Opposites: x+x=1 x·x=0
- Neutral elements: x+0=x x·1=x

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Boolean algebra Informática

You can test it using Matlab

Remember “Disco” example
- Commutativity of + and ·:
if (age > 20) && (age < 40) ≡ if (age < 40) && (age > 20)
- Idempotence of + and ·:
‣ if (age > 20) && (age > 20) ≡ if (age > 20)
- Absorption 1 and 2:
‣ if (age > 20) && ((age > 20) || handsome) ≡ if age > 20
- De Morgan 1 and 2:
‣ if ~((age > 20) && (age < 40)) ≡ if (~(age > 20)) || (~(age < 40))
- …

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Digital systems Informática

Boolean algebra
Combinational and sequential systems
Digital systems
Examples of digital systems in avionics

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Combinational and sequential systems Informática

REMEMBER: Continuous time vs. discrete time systems

Continuous-time system: inputs and outputs are defined over a time domain
which is continuous. Example: T=[0,5]
Discrete-time system: the time domain is a discrete set of values. Example
T= {0,1,2,3,4,5}. Inputs are only sampled at time instants in the domain and
outputs are reevaluated each time the inputs are sampled.

Continuous-time Y(t) = adder(2,t) Discrete-time Y(t) = adder(2,t)

?
?

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Combinational and sequential systems Informática

A/D conversion A/D conversion

Analog and digital signals process
Digital conversion
uses 4 bits.
This allows 24=16
levels:
(0..15V)
Analog signal The analog signal
(voltage) is sampled
at fixed periods of
time

Digital signal ?
A voltage of 9.9V is
rounded to a value ?
of 10, that in binary
is 1010.

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Combinational and sequential systems Informática

Definition
Combinational system: outputs at time t are exclusively a function of the
inputs at time t:

Sequential system: outputs at time t depends on the present inputs at time t,

and on the history in time of the inputs:

NOTE: The time in the discrete time domain is usually represented with an
integer variable (typically i,j,k).

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Combinational and sequential systems Informática

Sequential systems
Example: accumulator (discrete time integration)

Note: Y(k) = 0 for k<0

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Combinational and sequential systems Informática

Sequential systems
Memory property: allows a system to store and maintain a given value over
time.
Register: system with the memory property.
- It samples a value when it is triggered by a CLK signal and it keeps it stored
or memorized until a new CLK signal.
- A CLK signal generates a pulse at a constant frequency, and it is used to
coordinate the actions of a digital system.

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Combinational and sequential systems Informática

Sequential systems
Example: accumulator
- Implementation with a register

accumulator
X1
adder Y
register
CLK

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Combinational and sequential systems Informática

Implementing combinational systems in Matlab

Combinational systems can be mapped to Matlab functions.

inputs
outputs

invocation

composition: function calls

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Combinational and sequential systems Informática

Implementing sequential systems in Matlab

The memory property can be implemented using persistent variables.
- Not created and destroyed on each function invocation.
Not “pure functions”.

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Digital systems Informática

Boolean algebra
Combinational and sequential systems
Digital systems
Examples of digital systems in avionics

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Digital systems Informática

Logic gates
It is an idealized electronic device implementing a Boolean primitive
function.
They are combinational systems.
Behavior described by truth tables.

X1 X1·X2 X1 X1+X2
X2 X1 X1
X2

AND gate OR gate NOT gate

Digital systems Informática

Logic gates
Additional gates

X1 X1⊕X2
X2

XOR gate

X1 X1·X2 X1 X1+X2 X1 X1⊕X2

X2 X2 X2

NAND gate NOR gate XNOR gate

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Digital systems Informática

Everything can be built from NAND gates…

It’s a UNIVERSAL gate.
OR gate?

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Digital systems Informática

It is easy to implement….

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Digital systems Informática

Megaprocessor… too freaky!!!

http://www.megaprocessor.com

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Digital systems Informática

Boolean functions
Function of the form f: Bn → B, B={0, 1}
- f(x1,x2,...,xn), where xi are Boolean variables.
They can be represented using expressions or truth tables.
- Example: majority voting of three binary juries

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Digital systems Informática

Boolean functions
Shannon Expansion Theorem: A boolean function can be expanded in two
canonical forms: sum of minterms and product of maxterms.
- Example: majority voting of three binary juries

•Sum of minterms: by 1’s

•Product of maxterms: by 0’s

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Digital systems Informática

Implementation of boolean functions using logic gates

Expression "should” be simplified before implementing it.
‣ We are not doing it now. Next year!

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Digital systems Informática

Boolean expressions in programming

Matlab has a data type called logical to support Boolean variables.
Logical operators:

Example:
% voting.m

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Digital systems Informática

Sequential systems
They have the memory property: they can keep the value of an input even
when the input changes.
The truth table must consider:
- Xi(k) : inputs at time instant k
- Yi(k − 1) : previous outputs (at time k-1)
Represented using a chronogram.
Example:

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Digital systems Informática

Basic sequential circuits

Registers: they memorize the value of the last input.

X
register Y
CLK

RS-bistable: they memorize a value that can be Set (S) or Reset (R).

R
RS
CLK Q
bistable
S

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Digital systems Informática

Boolean algebra
Combinational and
sequential systems
Digital systems
Examples of digital
systems in avionics

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Digital systems in avionics Informática

Example of a combinational system (1)

Landing gear door warning logic.
- There are five switches that detect whether or not the respective landing gear door is
open.
- There are five warning indicators in the overhead panel that show which door(s) are
open.
- There is a master indicator in the pilot’s panel that provides a warning if some of the
doors is open.

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Digital systems in avionics Informática

Example of a combinational system (2)

Normal flight state
- All doors are closed

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Digital systems in avionics Informática

Example of a combinational system (3)

Warning state
- Nose door open

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Digital systems in avionics Informática

Example of a combinational system (4)

Warning state
- Nose and left wing doors open

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Digital systems in avionics Informática

Example of a sequential system (1)

The APU (Auxiliary Power Unit) starter logic
- During flight electric supply is generated by the engines.
- The APU is started after landing and in case of failure.
Airbus 320

Three inputs:
- APU start button
X1
- APU shutdown button X2
- APU running: detects if it is running Y
Functionality:
- You should press the APU START button
to start it.
- A timeout timer stops the starter if the
APU does not start in 60 sec in order not to
exhaust the battery.

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Digital systems in avionics Informática

Example of a sequential system (2)

60 sec
a b c d
APU START
APU SHUTDOWN
APU RUNNING
X1

X2
Y

X1

X2

(a) Initial state

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Digital systems in avionics Informática

Example of a sequential system (3)

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Digital systems in avionics Informática

Most systems can be implemented with Digital Systems

Typical example of 60-70s cabin (DC-9)

Nevertheless, systems were getting more complex so....

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Sample: Airbus A380 Informática

And now, practically all systems are computer based

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