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INPUT OUTPUT (I/O) DEVICES

INTRODUCTION
 Input and output devices of a computer system are the devices that connect
you to computer.
 Input devices let you to transfer data and user command into the computer
system.
 I/O devices are used to interact with the computer system.
 For example, you can type in data by using a keyboard, or you can input
data in picture form by using a scanner in computer system.
 Output devices display the result of input data or signals after processing
it.
 Examples of these could be your computer’s monitor, which displays all the
programs which are running on the computer, as well as the printer, which
will print out a hard copy of the information which is saved in your
computer.
 Input and output devices allow the computer system to interact with the
outside world by moving data into and out of the computer system.
 Examples of some input devices are:
o Keyboard
o Mouse
o Touch screen
o Voice input
o Scanner
 An output device is used to send data out of the system.
 The user sees the result after processing of data by the computer through
output devices.
 Examples of some output devices are:
o Monitor
o Printer
o Plotter
o Speaker

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INPUT DEVICES
Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a computer.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input and processes it to
produce the output.

1. KEYBOARD
 The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or any
other electronic device by pressing keys.
 It has different sets of keys for letters, numbers, characters, and functions.
 Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless
communication.
 Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys
or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

THE KEYS ON THE KEYBOARD

1. ALPHANUMERIC KEYS
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the same
layout as that of typewriters.
2. NUMERIC KEYPAD
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set
of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines
and calculators.
3. FUNCTION KEYS
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at
the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some
specific purpose.

4. CONTROL KEYS
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

5. SPECIAL PURPOSE KEYS

Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num
Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

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TYPES OF KEYBOARDS
1. QWERTY KEYBOARD

 It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times.

 It is named after the first six letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular
in countries that do not use Latin-based alphabet.
 It is so popular that some people think that it is the only type of keyboard to use
with computers as an input device.

2. DVORAK KEYBOARD
 This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by
reducing the finger movement while typing.
 The most frequently used letters are kept in a home row to improve typing.

3. MULTIMEDIA KEYBOARD
 The keyboard that has all multimedia buttons is called multimedia keyboard.
 The buttons include play, pause, previous, next, volume up, volume down, mute
and special button to launch media. Also, a button to launch a browser, my
computer, and calculator is available.

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4. VIRTUAL KEYBOARD
 The keyboard used in smartphones is called a virtual keyboard.
 This keyboard appears when needed and disappears when typing is completed.
This can be automatically set as per need.
 Also in the windows system, we can use a virtual keyboard that appears on the
screen. There is no physical object to carry for a virtual keyboard.

5. USB KEYBOARD
 Universal Serial Bus Keyboard has a USB stick with a wire which has to be inserted
into the USB port of the system. And then the keyboard works well.

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2. MOUSE
 It controls the movement of the cursor on the computer screen and allows users to
move and select folders, text, files, and icons on a computer.
 It is an object, which needs to put on a hard-flat surface to use. When the users move
the mouse, the cursor moves in the same direction on the display screen.

WHAT ARE THE USES OF A MOUSE?

1. MOVE THE MOUSE POINTER
 The main function of a mouse is to move the mouse cursor on the screen in the
desired direction.
2. SELECT
 A mouse provides users the option to select the text, file, or folder and many files
at once. For example, if you want to send multi file to anyone, you can select many
files at once and can send them.
3. OPEN OR EXECUTE A PROGRAM
 You can open a folder, icon, or other objects by a mouse. You are required to move
the cursor to a file, folder, or an icon, then double click on the object that you want
to open or execute.
4. DRAG-AND-DROP
 When you select something, it can also be moved from one location to another by
using the drag-and-drop method. In this method, first, you need to highlight the
file or an object that you want to move. Then, move this file while pressing the
mouse button and drop it on the desired location.
5. HOVERING
 When you move the mouse pointer on any object, hover changes the color of links,
and by clicking on that link, you can go on the destination page.
6. SCROLL UP & DOWN
 If you are viewing a long web page or working with a large document, you need to
scroll up or down a page. The mouse's scroll button helps to up and down your
document page; otherwise, you can also click and drag the scroll bar.
7. PERFORM OTHER FUNCTIONS
 Most of the desktop mouse contains buttons, which can perform any function by
programming them according to the requirement. For instance, on the thumb
portion, many mouse have two side buttons that can be programmed to go back on
web pages.
8. PLAYING GAME
 A mouse provides users the option to play various games like chase games, in which
a mouse is used to select any particular objects.

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TYPES OF MOUSE
1. OPTICAL MOUSE
 It is an advanced computer pointing device, first introduced by Microsoft on 19 April
1999.
 It tracks movement by using a laser or light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
 It detects the movement by sensing changes in reflected light.
 It does not require cleaning as it has no moving parts.

2. JOYSTICK

 It is an input device that moves in all directions and

controls a machine or a symbol in a computer program.
 It is much like a mouse, except that if you stop to move
the mouse, the cursor will also stop. But with the
joystick, the pointer does not stop and moves
continuously in the direction the joystick has pointed.
 You must need to return the joystick to its upright
position for stopping the pointer.
 In 1926, C. B. Mirick invented and patented the first
joystick at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory.
 It was originally designed for remotely piloted aircraft,
and was a two-axis electronic joystick, much like to the
joysticks still in use.
 Today, mostly joysticks connect with the computer by
using a USB port. There are different types of ports that
used to connect a joystick such as Bluetooth, Serial
Port, USB, Game port.

3. MECHANICAL MOUSE
 It is a type of computer mouse, also called a ball mouse.
 It consists of a rubber or metal ball on its underside.

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 It contains the sensors, when the user moves a mouse in any direction, the sensors
inside the mouse detect the movement and move the mouse pointer on-screen in
the same direction.
 An optical mouse took the place of the mechanical mouse. Furthermore, a
mechanical mouse is similar in shape and function, but rather than on the ball; it
depends on optical sensors that make it more reliable.

4. CORDLESS (WIRELESS) MOUSE

 It is an input device that connects to a computer without any wire.
 Wireless mouse started to include Bluetooth, infrared radio waves, and radio
frequency technology.
 Commonly, a USB receiver is used to connect the computer with a wireless mouse,
which is plugged into the computer and accepts signals from the wireless mouse.

5. TOUCHPAD
 It is a flat control surface, also known as a glide point, glide pad, trackpad, or
pressure-sensitive tablet.
 It is used to move the cursor by using fingers. It is primarily found on laptops and
used in place of an external mouse.
 It is designed to be operated with your finger. By dragging your fingertip across the
touchpad's flat surface, you can move the mouse cursor in the desired direction on
the screen.
 It also includes two buttons under the touch surface like the most computer mouse,
which correspond to the left and right-click buttons, respectively.

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 Some modern touchpads have multi-touch technology, which allows users to

perform different actions by using their multiple fingers on the computer.
 For instance, some programs need to use two fingers to pinch and zoom on an image
or a document. You can also use two fingers to rotate an image left or right.

6. TRACKBALL
 It is a hardware input device that acts the same function as a mouse, but it includes
a moveable ball on the top that allows users to move the cursor in any direction.
It is designed like an upside-down mouse, which needs less arm and wrist motion as
compared to a regular mouse.
 Because, rather than moving the whole mouse, you are only required to roll the
moveable ball until with your hand to generate motion input.

7. LIGHT PEN

 A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light sensitive wand used in
conjunction with a computer's CRT display.
 It allows the user to point to displayed objects or draw on the screen in a similar way
to a touchscreen but with greater positional accuracy.

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 Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen.

8. STYLUS

 In computing, a stylus (or stylus pen) is a small pen-shaped instrument whose tip
position on a computer monitor can be detected.
 It is used to draw, or make selections by tapping.
 While devices with touchscreens such as newer computers, mobile
devices (smartphones and personal digital assistants, game consoles and graphics
tablets can usually be operated with a fingertip.
 A stylus provides more accurate and controllable input. The stylus has the same
function as a mouse or touchpad as a pointing device; its use is commonly
called pen computing.

3. SCANNER
 This is an Electronic as well as an Input device that converts any type of physical data
into digital data within a minute by eliminating manual data entry. They are able to scan
Text, Pictures, Photos, and Etc.

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TYPES OF SCANNER
1. Flatbed Scanner
 A flatbed scanner works similar to a copy machine except that it creates a file of the
document in memory instead of a paper copy. This is the most popular and common
type of scanner available in the market.
 Once an object is scanned, it can be displayed on the screen, stored on a storage
medium, printed, faxed, attached to as an e-mail message, included in another
document, and posted on a website or photo community for everyone to see.
 High-speed scanning, wireless scanning, easy file management are some pros of this
flatbed scanning device.

2. Photo Scanner
 Photo scanners are the types of scanners especially used for scanning images,
photos, and paintings.
 If you want a scanning device for photos you must go for a photo scanner because
it gives high-quality scanning to your photos. The high resolution and color depth
are the main features of this device.
 Flatbed is also able to scan photos but a photo scanner gives you premium results,
that shouldn’t be compared with other scanned photos.
 Some photo scanner has inbuilt image editing software that improves the quality of
image, is the advantages of this.
 Scanner with image editing software can cost too high in front of others.

3. Document Scanner
 Document or Sheetfed scanner are mainly used for scanning documents of different
sizes without any problem.
 This is the best scanner option if you have to scan multiple pages means thousands
of pager per day. It can easily scan too many pages a day and also have some inbuilt
features to make scanning easy and efficient.

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 More features mean more cost so this is the reason why a document scanner is costly
than a flatbed.
 Capable of duplex scanning takes less space, quality is excellent are some features
of this device.

4. Handheld Scanner
 Portable scanners that are easy to use and carry in your pocket.
 This is a device that is not similar to others in build design but similar in its work, this
is a small rod kind of device that can be used by your hand called a handheld
scanning device. This is the different types of scanner that are used today.
 It detects the result by focusing on the subject, it uses light sensors to read the
subject and give the result.

5. OMR Scanner
 This device reads marks on specific areas of the page. It can identify hand-drawn
marks such as small circles or rectangles made with pens or pencils.
 A person places these marks on a form, such as a test, survey, questionnaire, and
answer sheet.
 For checking a test paper sheet, the Optical Mark Recognition devices first read the
answer key sheet to record correct answers based on patterns of light. The OMR

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device then reads the remaining document and matches their patterns of light
against the answer key sheet.
 OMR are the different types of scanners that are used to check the answer sheets of
competitive exams.

6. Bar Code Scanner

 A bar code is a set of lines of different thickness that represent a number. A bar code
reader also called a bar code scanner is used to input data from bar codes.
 Most products in the shops have bar codes on them. Bar code readers work by
reflecting a beam of light on the lines that makes up the bar codes and identify the
amount of light that is reflected.
 These are the different types of scanners only made for shops to scan the product’s
code and not made for personal or home use.

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OUTPUT DEVICES

1. MONITOR
 One of the most important output devices in computer system is its screen commonly
called monitor.
 It is an output device and displays all the programs and applications which are running
on the computer system.
 A Monitor is the visual display unit of the computer system. It displays images generated
from the video output. It displays images without keeping a permanent record.
 A Graphic display is made up of a series of dots called ‘pixels’ (picture elements) whose
pattern produces images in computer system.

CLASSIFICATION OF MONITORS ON THE BASIS OF COLOR

 MONOCHROME
o These monitors display the result in two colors, i.e., black/white, green/black,
amber/black. One color is for the background of the screen and other for the
foreground.
 GRAY SCALE
o It is a monochrome type of monitor. But it displays the output by using different
shades of gray, made by a combination of black and white.
 COLOR MONITOR
o It can display the output in many colors, ranging from 16 to over 1 million
different colors. These are also called as RGB monitors, because they accept
three separate signals, which are red, green, and blue.

2. PRINTERS
Printers are used for producing output on paper. There are a large variety of printers and
printing devices which can be classified according to the print quality and printing speed.

TYPES OF PRINTERS
Printers can be grouped into two categories. They are as follows: –

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact printers

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1. IMPACT PRINTERS
 Impact printers are printers which works by creating a direct contact between ink
ribbon and paper. These printers are noisy yet popular. Impact printers have
mechanical moving parts to conduct printing.
 Examples: Character printer and line printer

CHARACTER PRINTER
1. Dot-Matrix Printers
 The dot-matrix printer uses 9 to 24 pin print heads. Such pins generate dot
patterns to shape the individual characters on the page.
 The dot-matrix printer of 24 pins produces more dots than a dot-matrix printer
of 9 pins, which results in much better quality and clearer characters.
 The basic rule is that the more pins the letters on the document are clearer.
 The pins hit the ribbon individually as the printing mechanism travels in both
directions along the entire print line, from left to right, then right to left, and so
on.
 With a dot-matrix printer, the user can generate a color output.
 Dot-matrix printers are inexpensive and usually print at speeds of between 100
and 600 characters per second.

2. Daisy-Wheel Printers
 A daisy-wheel impact printer can be used to get quality found in typewriters.
 It is called a daisy-wheel printer because the printing mechanism looks like a
daisy; a completely formed character at the end of each “Petal” creates a solid
line print.
 A hammer hits a “petal” with a character against the ribbon, and it prints on the
paper. Its speed is usually about 25-55 characters per second.
 Working of daisy wheel printer

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LINE PRINTERS
 The character-at-a-time printers are too slow in a business where large quantities
of material are printed; therefore these users need line-at-a-time printers.
 Line printers, or line-at-a-time printers, use special devices that can print a whole
line at once; usually, they can print the range from 1,200 to 6,000 lines per minute.
 Drum printers, chain printers are line-in-time printers.
1. Drum Printer
 A drum printer is a large, cylindrical drum that has raised characters on its
surface in strips.
 The number of print positions over the drum is equal to the number on the
paper. Usually, the number ranges from 80-132 print positions.
 The drum rotates at a strong speed. A print hammer is placed behind the paper
for each possible print position.
 Those hammers hit the paper against the proper character on the drum as it
moves along the ink ribbon.
 Pressing each line requires one drum revolution. Typical drum printer speeds
are between 300 and 2000 lines per minute.

2. Chain Printer
 A chain printer uses a print chain, wrapped around two pulleys. Like the drum
printer, every print location has one hammer.
 Circuitry within the printer can detect when the correct character appears on
the page at the appropriate print spot.
 The hammer then hits the sheet, pressing the paper against a ribbon, and at
the desired print place the character is placed.
 The page left an impression of the character. The chain continues to rotate
until all the print positions needed on the line have been filled.
 The page then goes up to the next line to print. Chain printer speeds vary
between 400 and 2500 characters per minute.

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2. NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
Non-Impact printers don't uses any direct contact between ink ribbon and paper.
These printers are less noisy and don't have mechanical moving parts to conduct
printing
Examples: Inkjet printers and Laser printers.

1. Ink-Jet Printers
 In the inkjet printing mechanism, the print head has several tiny nozzles, also called
jets.
 As the paper moves past the print head, the nozzles spray ink onto it, forming the
characters and images.
 An inkjet printer can produce from 100 to several hundred pages, depending on
the nature of the hard copy, before the ink cartridges must be replaced. There is
usually one black ink cartridge and one so-called color cartridge containing ink in
primary pigments (cyan, magenta, and yellow).
 Some inkjet printers use a single cartridge with cyan, magenta, yellow, and black
ink. A few models require separate cartridges for each primary pigment, along with
a black ink cartridge.

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2. Laser Printers
 Laser printers have become another familiar laser-based consumer product, often
used in conjunction with personal computers.
 Their principle of operation involves electrophotography, also called xerography,
the same process that is used in photocopy machines.
 During printing, the laser will scan the page line by line. There are four laser printer
subtypes available, including monochrome, strong ink, single coloring, and four
colorings.
 The generally accepted writing method is black and white lasers, which offer
content in black text.
 The users who only print pictures from time to time would probably use the laser
color printer.

3. PLOTTERS
 A Plotter is a device that draws pictures on a page as output, after receiving a print
command from the computer. It is also called a graph plotter.
 In plotters pens are used to draw lines on the paper, which is placed in the plotter.
 Plotters produce high quality diagrams on the paper and their output quality is good.
 Engineers, architects and planners use plotters to generate high quality, high-precision
graphic output of different sizes.
 For several design applications such as design of layout of an aircraft, car, and
architectural design of a building and in other computer-aided design applications
plotter are very useful.

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4. SPEAKER
 Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are external speakers, commonly equipped
with a low-power internal amplifier which produces sound as output. External speakers
are connected with a computer by using a plug and socket.
 Computer speakers range widely in quality and in price. Laptop computers have inbuilt
speakers.

5. HEADPHONES
 Headphones are a pair of small loudspeaker drivers worn on or around the head over a
user's ears.
 They are electroacoustic transducers, which convert an electrical signal to a
corresponding sound.
 Headphones let a single user listen to an audio source privately, in contrast to
a loudspeaker, which emits sound into the open air for anyone nearby to hear.
Headphones are also known as ear speakers, earphones.
 Headphones use a band over the top of the head to hold the speakers in place. Another
type, known as earbuds or earpieces consist of individual units that plug into the user's
ear canal.

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STORAGE DEVICES

INTRODUCTION
 Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without
it computer can’t perform simple tasks.
 A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
 Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
 Computer memory is of two basic types – Primary memory (RAM and ROM) and
secondary memory (hard drive, cd, etc).

PRIMARY MEMORY
CACHE MEMORY

 Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed
up CPU.
 It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory.
 It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently
used by CPU.
 The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by
operating system, from where CPU can access them.
 Advantages
1. Cache memory is faster than main memory.
2. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

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3. It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
4. It stores data for temporary use.
 Disadvantages
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

 It is also called read-write memory or the main memory or the primary

memory.
 The programs and data that the CPU requires during the execution of a
program are stored in this memory.
 It is a volatile memory as the data lost when the power is turned off.
 It is very expensive compared to all types of secondary memory in terms of
cost per gigabyte.
 RAM is further classified into two types
1. SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

 The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power

remains applied.
 However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature.

 SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.

 Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to

be refreshed on a regular basis.

 SRAM is faster but also more expensive.

 It is typically used for the cache and internal registers of a CPU.

2. DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory).

 DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain

the data.
 This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data

several hundred times per second.

 DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small.
 All DRAMs are made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one
capacitor and one transistor.

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READ ONLY MEMORY

 The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
 This type of memory is non-volatile.
 The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
 A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer when
electricity is first turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap.
 ROM chip are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items
like washing machine and microwave oven.
 Following are the varioys types of ROM
1. MROM (Masked ROM)
 The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed
set of data or instructions.
 These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs.
 It is inexpensive ROM.
2. PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)
 PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user.
 The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
programmer.
 Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming.
 It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
3. EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
 The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of
upto 40 minutes.
 During programming an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region.
The charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no
leakage path.

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 For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal
window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
 This is a non-volatile memory type i.e. it retains data even when the power is
switched off.
4. EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
 The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically.
 It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.
 Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second).
 In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed.
 EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip.
Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.

SECONDARY MEMORY
 Secondary Memory is also called “storage device” and “auxiliary memory“,
“external memory“.
 Secondary storage devices are volatile in nature, it means that data does not
discard while power turn-off, in which all data store for long time.
 Secondary memory has the speed of access of data is very slow compare
to primary memory, and cheaper as well.
 Without primary memory, those secondary storage devices are useless because
for processing the secondary memory must be needed the primary memory,
first of all data are transferred into primary memory then these data make for
executable.
 Secondary memory (Storage Devices) can be used in computer either internally
or externally.
 Secondary Storage devices (memory) have four examples like as
 Magnetic storage devices
 Optical storage devices
 Solid state storage devices

MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES

 Magnetic storage is also known as “Magnetic Media” or “Magnetic Memory” or
“Magnetic Medium“.
 This magnetic storage has also non-volatile storage nature.

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 In the Magnetic storage devices, all data are stored with using magnetized
medium, and those types of data saved in that medium in the binary form like
as 0 and 1.
 Magnetic storage devices have huge capacities for storing data that it’s more
attractive point. These storage devices are not more costly but their data
accessing power is slow
 There are different types of magnetic storage medium (device):
1. Hard Disk drive
 A computer hard drive (or a hard disk or HDD) is one kind of technology that
stores the operating system, applications, and data files such a documents,
pictures and music that your computer uses.
 Hard-drives have a very large storage capacity (up to 1TB). They can be used to
store vast amounts of data.
 Both surfaces of each disk are capable of storing data except the top and bottom
disk where only the inner surface is used.
 These disks move very higher speed (5500 to 7500 RPM), so any data can be
retrieved immediately from any area on the hard drive.
 In Hard Drive, All data does not discard after getting to discontinue power supply.

2. Floppy Disk
 A floppy disk or floppy diskette is a type of disk storage composed of a thin and
flexible disk of a magnetic storage medium in a square or nearly square plastic
enclosure lined with a fabric that removes dust particles from the spinning disk.
 Floppy disks store digital data which can be read and written when the disk is
inserted into a floppy disk drive (FDD) connected to or inside a computer or
other device.

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 A removable, portable, cheap, low-capacity (1.44MB) storage medium. Floppy

discs are random access devices used for transfer small amounts of data between
computers, or to back-up small files, etc.
 Almost every PC used to have a floppy disc drive. These are obsolete now, having
been replaced by higher capacity technology such as CD-ROMs, DVDs and USB
memory sticks.

3. Zip Disc
 A removable and portable storage medium, similar in appearance to a floppy
disk, but with a much higher capacity (100MB, 250MB or 750MB).
 Zip discs are random access devices which were used for data back-up or moving
large files between computers.
 Another obsolete storage device, zip discs were a popular replacement for floppy
discs for a few years, but they never caught on fully before being superseded by
cheaper media like CD-ROMs and CD-Rs

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OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES

 Optical storage is also known as “Optical Media” or “Optical Memory” or “Optical
Medium“, and it allows all read and write activities which are performed by laser
beam.
 It is a storage device in which optical (light) energy is used.
 Their big advantages are not more costly, light weight, and easy to transport
because it is removable device unlike hard drive.
 WHY TO USE OPTICAL STORAGE
 In the optical storage devices, all data is saved like as patterns of dots which can
be easily read with using of LIGHT. Laser Beam is used like as “Light Source”.
 The data is read while bouncing laser beam on the surface of storage medium. Laser
beam creates the all Dots while reading process, but it is used with high power mode
to mark the surface of storage device, and make a dot. This entire process is also
called the “Burning” data onto Disc.
 TYPES OF OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES
 Read-Only Optical Discs
 CD-ROM
 Compact Disc - Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM) discs can hold around 800MB
of data.
 The data cannot be altered (non-volatile), so cannot be accidently deleted.
CD-ROMs are random-access devices.
 CD-ROMs are used to distribute all sorts of data: software (e.g. office
applications or games), music, electronic books (e.g. an encyclopaedia with
sound and video.)
 DVD-ROM
 Digital Versatile Disc - Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM) discs can hold around
4.7GB of data (a dual-layer DVD can hold twice that). DVD-ROMs are random-
access devices.
 DVD-ROMs are used in the same way as CD-ROMs (see above) but, since they
can hold more data, they are also used to store high-quality video.
 High Capacity Optical Discs
 Blu-Ray
 Blu-Ray disks are a recent replacement for DVDs.
 A Blu-Ray disc can hold 25 - 50GB of data (a dual-layer Blu-Ray disc can hold
twice that). Blu-Ray discs are random-access devices.

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 Blu-Ray discs are used in the same way as DVD-ROMs (see above) but, since
they can hold more data, they are also used to store very high-quality, high-
definition (HD) video.
 HD DVD
 High-density DVD (HD-DVD) discs can hold around 15GB of data (a dual-
layer HD-DVD can hold twice that). HD-DVDs are random-access devices.
 HD-DVD discs are used in the same way as DVD-ROMs but, since they can
hold more data, they are also used to store very high-quality, high-definition
(HD) video.
 Recordable Optical Discs
Recordable optical discs can have data written onto them (‘burnt’) by a computer
user using a special disc drive (a disc ‘burner’).
 CD-R and DVD-R
 CD-Recordable (CD-R) and DVD-recordable (DVD-R) discs can have data
burnt onto them, but not erased. You can keep adding data until the disc is
full, but you cannot remove any data or re-use a full disc.
 CD-RW and DVD-RW
 CD-ReWritable (CD-RW) and DVD-ReWritable (DVD-RW) discs, unlike CD-Rs
and DVD-Rs, can have data burnt onto them and also erased so that the discs
can be re-used.

FLASH MEMORY
 Flash Memory was introduced by Dr. Fujio Masuoka in 1980.
 Flash memory is also known as electronically erasable programmable read only
memory (EEPROM), because in which piece of code like as programming can be
write and erased by electrically.
 Flash memory also uses for the storing data to computers as well as electronic
devices such as USB flash drives, MP3 players, digital cameras and solid-state
drives.
 Flash memory is non-volatile in nature because all data are persisted in the
memory when power is turn-off.
 EXAMPLES OF FLASH MEMORY
1. USB Flash Drive
 USB flash drive is also known as USB thumb drive, USB stick or Pen drive. It is light
weight portable storage device, and it is used as “”Plug and Play.

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2. Memory Card
 Memory card is also known as “Flash Memory Card”, and it is storage medium of
different types of data such as images, video or text.
 Memory card is mostly used into several devices such as digital camcorders,
handheld computers, MP3 players, printer, digital cameras and more.
3. SSD
 SSD stands for “Solid-State Drive”, and it is data storage medium.
 SSD is a non-volatile memory to store and access any types of data.
 It does not contain any moving parts, so it delivers the faster access time, noiseless
operation, higher reliability, and lower power consumption.

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BASICS OF COMPUTER

WHAT IS SOFTWARE
 Computer system is broadly classified as hardware and software. Hardware means
physical components of the computer system.
 We can say that hardware cannot perform any calculation, comparison or
manipulation without being instructed to do so.
 These instructions play a vital role in the performance of a computer.
 A complete set of instructions written to solve a problem on a computer is
called software. i.e., software refers to the set of computer programs that cause
the hardware (computer system) to function in the desired manner.
 Computer software is normally classified into three categories:
1. System Software
2. Application Software
3. Utility software

TYPES OF SOFTWARE
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 System software is a general term which refers to any computer software which
manages and controls the hardware so that application software can perform a
task.
 These programs are held permanently in the machine. The primary objectives of
this software are to:
(i) enhance the efficiency of hardware utilization
(ii) make computers simple to use
 If system software is stored on non-volatile storage such as integrated circuits,
it is usually termed firmware.
 In short, systems software is a set of programs that organize, utilize and control
hardware in a computer system.
 For example, language translators (called compilers and interpreters), operating
systems, utilities and special purpose software.

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OPERATING SYSTEM
 System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and their
interoperability to carry out tasks successfully is called operating system (OS).
 OS is the first software to be loaded into computer memory when the computer is
switched on and this is called booting.
 OS manages a computer’s basic functions like storing data in memory, retrieving files
from storage devices, scheduling tasks based on priority, etc.

LANGUAGE PROCESSOR
 After creating a piece of source code, the programmer must convert the source code
into machine code (break it down to a series of 1s and 0s), before it can run on a
computer. The job of converting the source code is handled by one of the three
types of programs:
1. Compiler
 A compiler converts all the source code into machine code, creating an executable
file. The content of this executable file is called object code.
 The programmer can copy the executable object code onto any similar system and
run the program. In other words, once compiled, the program is a stand-alone
executable file that no longer needs the compiler to run.
 Of course, each programming language requires its own compiler to translate code
written in that language.
 For example, the programming language C, requires a C compiler, while the
language Pascal, and requires a Pascal compiler.
2. Interpreter
 An interpreter also converts source code to machine code.
 It converts the program one at a time and reports errors detected at once, while
doing the conversion.
 Every system that needs the program must have a copy of the interpreter as well
as the source code.
 Example of Interpreted language – JavaScript, Perl, Python.
3. Assembler
 Assembler is a program that translates assembly language into machine language
and vice versa.
 Unlike Interpreter and Compiler that translate high level language into machine
language, Assembler converts mnemonic codes into binary ones.

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APPLICATION SOFTWARE
 Application software is written to perform a specific task or process, such as
accounting, payroll, mailing list, result preparation and so on. The majority of
application software is written in high-level languages.
 Multiple applications bundled together as a package are sometimes referred to
as an application suite. Microsoft Office which bundle together a word processor,
a spreadsheet, and several other discrete applications, are typical examples.
 Application Software include Word Processing (MS-Word), Spreadsheet (MS-
Excel, Lotus etc.), Presentation Package (MS-PowerPoint), Database
Management System (MS-Access, FoxPro), Graphics (CorelDraw, Photoshop
etc.).

UTILITY SOFTWARE
 Application software that assist system software in doing their work is
called utility software. Thus utility software is actually a cross between system
software and application software.
 These software may come along with OS like windows defender, windows disk
cleanup tool. Antivirus, backup software, file manager, disk compression tool all
are utility software.

OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

 Open Source software is the software that is available to users with source code.
Source code is a part of a program or software.
 Users can modify, inspect and enhance it to improve the software.
 Additional features can be added in the source code. Users use source code to
copy, learn and share it.
 An Open source software can either be free of cost.
 Linux is a very good example of this type of software.

FREEWARE
 Freeware software is a software that is available free of cost.
 A user can download freeware from internet and uses it. These software’s do not
provide any freedom of modifying, sharing and studying the program as in open
source software.

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 Users prefer freeware because of following reasons –

 Available free of cost
 Can be distributed free of cost
 Some examples of freeware software are
 Adobe PDF
 yahoo messenger
 Google Talk
 MSN messenger

SHAREWARE
 Shareware software is a software that are freely distributed to users on trial basis.
There is a time limit inbuilt in the software (for example- free for 30 days or 2
months). As the time limit gets over, it will be deactivated. To use it after time limit,
you have to pay for the software.
 Users prefer shareware because of following reasons –
 Available free of cost
 helps to know about the product before buying it
 Some examples of freeware software are –
 Adobe acrobat 8 professional
 PHP Debugger 2.1.3.3
 Winzip

INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT

 An integrated development environment (IDE), also known as integrated design
environment and integrated debugging environment, is a type of computer
software that assists computer programmers in developing a software.
 IDEs normally consist of a source code editor, a compiler and/or interpreter, build-
automation tools, and (usually) a debugger.

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OPERATING SYSTEM
USES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 Operating system is the first software that loads after the computer starts. It means
it is a mandatory software for booting your computer system. It is not only
mandatory for booting computer system but is also essential for running other
application software and utility software.

WHY AN OPERATING SYSTEM?

 Operating system is a mysterious power which controls all hardware and software
on our computer.
 It works as a mediator between hardware and software. Just because of the
operating system, the programmers don't need to know the complexities of
hardware. Programs communicate with hardware through operating system.
 Your computer has many resources such as memory, hard disk, CPU, keyboard,
Network co-ordination etc. The most important objectives of operative system is
to organize these resources.
 An operating system ensures that all applications get proper hardware resources
as required and the applications get enough CPU time to get their commands
processed and they get enough memory to store data. In addition, it also ensures
that there is necessary communication between software and hardware.
 An operating system also provides user interface which helps the user to give
commands to the operating system or run the application of their choice.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

SECURITY

 The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and
similar other techniques.
 It also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.
CONTROL OVER SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

 Monitors overall system health to help improve performance.

 Records the response time between service requests and system response to
having a complete view of the system health.
 This can help improve performance by providing important information
needed to troubleshoot problems.

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JOB ACCOUNTING

 Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and
users, this information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user
or group of users.
ERROR DETECTING AIDS

 The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and
avoid the malfunctioning of a computer system.
COORDINATION BETWEEN OTHER SOFTWARE AND USERS

 Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers,

assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer systems.

PROCESSOR MANAGEMENT

 In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which

processes have access to the processor, and how much processing time each
process has. This function of OS is called process scheduling.

FILE MANAGEMENT

 A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and
usage.
 These directories may contain other directories and other files. An Operating
System carries out the following file management activities.
 It keeps track of where information is stored, user access settings and status of
every file, and more… These facilities are collectively known as the file system.

THE BOOTING PROCESS

 Booting may be defined as process of loading the operating system into
memory. The booting process starts from the moment when we power on
computer and continues till moment, computer is ready for use.

Step 1: Once the computer system is turned on, BIOS (Basic Input /Output System)
performs a series of activities or functionality tests on programs stored in ROM, called
on POST (Power-on Self Test) that checks to see whether peripherals in the system are in
perfect order or not.

Step 2: After the BIOS is done with pre-boot activities or functionality test, it read
bootable sequence from CMOS (Common Metal Oxide Semiconductor) and looks for

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master boot record in the first physical sector of the bootable disk as per boot device
sequence specified in CMOS. For example, if the boot device sequence is:

o Floppy Disk
o Hard Disk
o CDROM

Step 3: After this, the master boot record will search first in a floppy disk drive. If not
found, then the hard disk drive will search for the master boot record. But if the master
boot record is not even present on the hard disk, then the CDROM drive will search. If the
system cannot read the master boot record from any of these sources, ROM displays "No
Boot device found" and halted the system. On finding the master boot record from a
particular bootable disk drive, the operating system loader, also called Bootstrap loader,
is loaded from the boot sector of that bootable drive· into memory. A bootstrap loader is
a special program that is present in the boot sector of a bootable drive.

Step 4: The bootstrap loader first loads the IO.SYS file. After this, MSDOS.SYS file is
loaded, which is the core file of the DOS operating system.

Step 5: After this, MSDOS.SYS file searches to find Command Interpreter

in CONFIG.SYS file, and when it finds, it loads into memory. If no Command Interpreter
is specified in the CONFIG.SYS file, the COMMAND.COM file is loaded as the default
Command Interpreter of the DOS operating system.

Step 6: The last file is to be loaded and executed is the AUTOEXEC.BAT file that contains
a sequence of DOS commands. After this, the prompt is displayed. We can see the drive
letter of bootable drive displayed on the computer system, which indicates that the
operating system has been successfully on the system from that drive.

TYPES OF BOOTING
1. Cold Booting: When the computer starts for the first time or is in a shut-down
state and switch on the power button to start the system, this type of process to
start the computer is called cold booting. During cold booting, the system will read
all the instructions from the ROM (BIOS) and the Operating System will be
automatically get loaded into the system. This booting takes more time than Hot
or Warm Booting.
2. Warm Booting: Warm or Hot Booting process is when computer systems come to
no response or hang state, and then the system is allowed to restart during on
condition. It is also referred to as rebooting. There are many reasons for this state,
and the only solution is to reboot the computer. Rebooting may be required when
we install new software or hardware. The system requires a reboot to set software

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or hardware configuration changes, or sometimes systems may behave abnormally

or may not respond properly. In such a case, the system has to be a force restart.
Most commonly Ctrl+Alt+Del button is used to reboot the system. Else, in some
systems, the external reset button may be available to reboot the system.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

BATCH OPERATING SYSTEM
 The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly.
Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to
the computer operator.
 To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a
group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator
then sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches.
 The problems with Batch Systems are as follows –
o Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
o CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower
than the CPU.
o Difficult to provide the desired priority.

MULTIPROGRAMMING OPERATING SYSTEM

 Multiprogramming is an extension to batch processing where the CPU is always
kept busy. Each process needs two types of system time: CPU time and IO time.
 In a multiprogramming environment, when a process does its I/O, The CPU can
start the execution of other processes. Therefore, multiprogramming improves the
efficiency of the system.
 Advantages of Multiprogramming OS
o Throughout the system, it increased as the CPU always had one program
to execute.
o Response time can also be reduced.

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 Disadvantages of Multiprogramming OS
o Multiprogramming systems provide an environment in which various
systems resources are used efficiently, but they do not provide any user
interaction with the computer system.

MULTITASKING OPERATING SYSTEM

 Time sharing or multitasking is a logical expansion of multiprogramming.
 Unlike multiprogramming, where programs are executed till an I/O is reached or
program is terminated, in timesharing the CPU time is divided among all the
programs.
 The main idea is that all programs have a small slice of the CPU time in turn.
 Each program, beginning from the first program and proceeding towards the last
is allocated a very short period of CPU time (known as time slice, time slot or time
quantum) one by one
 Advantages
 It allows to interact with the program during execution.
 Programs can be easily debugged.
 It reduces CPU idle time.
 Disadvantages
 A very frequent switching of CPU from one process to another required
special CPU scheduling algorithm.
 Since a CPU can switch during the execution of a process special memory
protection mechanism is required to protect one process data from
accessing by other process

MULTIPROCESSING SYSTEM (PARALLEL SYSTEM)

 These type of OS have multiple processor which shares their bus, clock, memory
and input/output devices. These systems are called parallel computers,
multicomputer, or multiprocessors.
 The term multiprocessing is defined as computers with two or more independent
CPUs all having the capability to execute several programs at same time.

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 Multiprocessing system can be further classified into 2 types:

 Symmetric multiprocessing – one OS control all CPU , each CPU has equal rights
 Asymmetric multiprocessing – Master slave architecture, system task on one
processor and application on other as one CPU will handle all h/w interrupts or I/O
devices.
 Advantages
 Improved performance : Multiprocessing enhances the performance of
computer systems by permitting parallel processing of different portions of
programs
 Increase reliability: It gives us a facility of a built-in backup. If one of the
CPUs breaks down, the other CPU(s) automatically takes over the complete
workload until repairs are made.
 Disadvantages
 Existence of multiple processors requires a very sophisticated operating
system.
REAL-TIME OPERATING SYSTEM
 Primary objective is to provide quick response time to meet a scheduling deadline
and to provide user convenience and resource utilization
 A real time OS is one that must react to inputs and responds to them quickly
 Real time system are used when there are time requirements are very strict like
missile system, air traffic control system etc.
 There are 2 types of real time OS
 Soft real time system
 Hard real time system
 Soft real time system
 Used in application where time constraint is less strict.
 If certain deadline are missed then system continues its working with no
failure but its performance degrades.
 In SRTOS a critical real time task gets priority over other task and retains
that priority until it completes.
 Example – Video games
 Hard real time operating system
 This OS guaranteed that critical task be completed within a certain range of
time
 For example : flight control system

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