4

Coastal Marine
Ecosystems
Jorge Cortés (Costa Rica), Alicia Villamizar (Venezuela),
Gustavo J. Nagy (Uruguay), Pascal O. Girot (Costa Rica),
Karina S.B. Miglioranza (Argentina), and Sebastián Villasante (Spain).

This chapter should be cited as:

Cortés, J., A. Villamizar, G.J. Nagy, P.O. Girot, K.S.B. Miglioranza, and S. Villasante,
2020: Coastal and Marine Ecosystems. In: Adaptation to Climate Change Risks in
Ibero-American Countries — RIOCCADAPT Report [Moreno, J.M., C. Laguna-Defior,
V. Barros, E. Calvo Buendía, J.A. Marengo, and U. Oswald Spring (eds.)], McGraw Hill,
Madrid, Spain (pp. 123-150, ISBN: 9788448621667).
 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems

C O N T E NT S

Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 125

 4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 125
4.1.1. Conceptual framework..................................................................................................................................................................................... 125
4.1.2. Key figures on coastal marine ecosystems ........................................................................................................................................... 126
4.1.3. Coastal marine ecosystems and climate change................................................................................................................................ 128
4.1.4. Previous IPCC reports ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 128
 4.2. Components of climate change risk in coastal marine environments ................................................................................................ 131
4.2.1. Hazards..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 131
4.2.2. Exposure .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 131
4.2.3. Vulnerability ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 131
 4.3. Characterization of risks and their impacts ....................................................................................................................................................... 132
 4.4. Adaptation measures ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 135
4.4.1. Adaptation options ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 135
4.4.2. Planned adaptation activities....................................................................................................................................................................... 135
4.4.2.1. Supranational scale ......................................................................................................................................................................... 137
4.4.2.2. National scale...................................................................................................................................................................................... 137
4.4.2.3. Local scale ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 138
4.4.3. Autonomous adaptation activities ............................................................................................................................................................ 138
 4.5. Barriers, opportunities and interactions.............................................................................................................................................................. 138
 4.6. Indicators of adaptation effectiveness................................................................................................................................................................. 139
 4.7. Case studies ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 139
4.7.1. Vulnerability assessment, alternative scenarios and Ecosystem-based Adaptation: Uruguay ................................ 139
4.7.1.1. Case summary .................................................................................................................................................................................... 139
4.7.1.2. Introduction to the case problem ............................................................................................................................................. 140
4.7.1.3. Case description................................................................................................................................................................................ 140
4.7.1.4. Limitations and interactions ....................................................................................................................................................... 140
4.7.1.5. Lessons learned ................................................................................................................................................................................. 140
4.7.2. Mangrove restoration in El Delgadito, Baja California, Mexico: successful community-based adaptation
to climate change ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 141
4.7.2.1. Case summary .................................................................................................................................................................................... 141
4.7.2.2. Introduction to the case problem ............................................................................................................................................. 141
4.7.2.3. Case description ............................................................................................................................................................................... 141
4.7.2.4. Limitations and interactions ....................................................................................................................................................... 142
4.7.2.5. Lessons learned ................................................................................................................................................................................. 142
 4.8. Main knowledge gaps and priority lines of action .......................................................................................................................................... 142
 4.9. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 143
Frequently Asked Questions ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 143
Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 144
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 144

124 RIOCCADAPT REPORT


Executive Summary
Ibero-America harbors an extraordinary biological diversi-
ty and the Latin American and Caribbean region is con-
sidered a superpower in terms of biodiversity, with major
long-term economic potential. A significant proportion of
this biodiversity is found in the coastal and marine ecosys-
tems of countries belonging to the Ibero-American Network
of Climate Change Offices (RIOCC), including, among others,
mangroves, estuaries, marshes, seagrass beds, coral reefs,
macro-algae forests, and deep-sea regions.
Coastal and marine ecosystems of RIOCC countries are
already being affected by direct and indirect human activity
and by the effects of climate change. Deforestation, soil
conversion for agriculture, shellfish farming, dam construc-
tion, large-scale salt mining, and the discharge of polluted
effluents into the sea, among other stressors, exacerbate
impacts associated with climate change on Latin America’s
coastal marine environments.
Ocean temperatures are increasing and some of the con-
sequences include rising sea levels, changes in the distri-
bution, behavior and reproduction of marine species, and
alterations of ocean current patterns. The results of these
anthropogenic and climate transformations impact ecosys-
tems by significantly reducing their resistance and resilience,
jeopardizing their capacity to provide goods and services,
and even leading to the extinction of certain species. Severe
impacts on these flows of goods and services for human
well-being are expected, such as, reduced economic benefits
from the migration of catch species, reduced employment,
loss of traditional knowledge of coastal populations, and a
decline in the social cohesion of coastal communities, ulti-
mately leading to greater inequality in the region.
The impacts of climate change on coastal and marine eco-
systems in RIOCC countries are apparent in a context of
pre-existing vulnerability. Vulnerability originates from human
activities that take place around the coastal marine ecosys-
tems (tourism, unplanned urban expansion, pollution from land-
based sources, and the aquaculture boom). These represent
a threat to fish populations, corals and mangroves. Some of
these impacts, such as coral bleaching in the Caribbean, have
already been observed in the region, especially linked to rises
in temperature and the loss of mangrove cover in Latin Amer-
ica. Human activities located in low-lying coastal areas of the
region also contribute to the increased exposure and vulnera-
bility of human populations to the effects of climate change,
such as sea level rise, coastal erosion and tidal swells.
The sustainable and integrated management of coastal
environments is one of the pillars of Ecosystem-based Adap-
tation, enabling the enhancement of ecosystem functions
and services. Ecosystem-based Adaptation is a common
practice in marine and coastal areas and is relevant for the
management of mangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs and
sandy beaches. These ecosystems have the natural capac-
ity to regulate or mitigate impacts generated by, for exam-
Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
ple, storms and floods, or driven by the effects of sea level
rise. Sustainable management of coastal environments (e.g.
fisheries and aquaculture) contributes to Ecosystem-based
Adaptation by enhancing ecosystem functions and services.
Protected marine areas are one of the main mechanisms
for restoring coastal and marine ecosystems. In regions
protected for conservation purposes, the recovery of species,
population abundance and ecosystem functions has been
achieved through the regulated use of marine and coastal
organisms. RIOCC countries have a significant proportion of
coastal marine ecosystems under some form of legal protec-
tion, although protection is not actually provided in practice.
Options are available for climate change adaptation in
RIOCC countries. These options include the restoration of
key species and ecosystems for the recovery of ecologi-
cal functions, reestablishment of species and populations
to increase the resilience of coastal marine ecosystems,
and Ecosystem-based Adaptation. Projects in several RIOCC
countries are focusing on restoring altered ecosystems so
that they may contribute to climate change adaptation and
mitigation. Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture projects
are also available and these could lead to the recovery of
ecosystem services.
In order to define local, national and regional adaptation
actions, further basic research is required to understand
the current state of ecosystems, the ecosystem services
they provide, and their responses to observed and projected
future changes. Basic and applied research in RIOCC coun-
tries, especially in Latin America and particularly in marine
and coastal environments, requires greater and improved
institutional, governmental and international support. Train-
ing of professionals in different areas of basic, social, eco-
nomic and legal sciences is needed to generate the nec-
essary knowledge for maintaining, protecting, conserving,
restoring, and monitoring marine and coastal ecosystems,
their species and ecological functions.
4.1. Introduction
4.1.1. Conceptual framework
Coastal marine environments are defined as those located on
the coast with a distinct marine influence, such as estuaries
and mangroves, as well as the marine environment itself, with
both pelagic and deeper environments. They include the lower
end of river watersheds, bays, estuaries and coastal lagoons,
rocky areas, beaches, reefs, continental shelves and slopes,
as well as upwelling areas (FAO, 2019). The ecosystem ser-
vices provided by these environments are key to achieving the
UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG
1 (End Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 6 (Clean Water
and Sanitation), SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth),
SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), SDG 13
(Climate Action), and SDG 14 (Life Below Water) (Sherman and
Hamukuaya, 2016; Claudet et al., 2020).
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 125
 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems

Climate change involves the combined effects of multiple
stressors, such as rising sea-surface temperatures, acidifi-
cation, deoxygenation, and sea-level rise (Figure 4.1). These
multiple drivers interact in additive, synergistic, neutral or
even counteracting ways. Climate multi-stressors cause dif-
ferent impacts on ecosystems (biodiversity decline, species
migration, functional changes), aggravated by local/regional
anthropogenic impacts (eutrophication, urban construction,
aquaculture, deforestation, and overfishing).
4.1.2. Key figures on coastal marine
ecosystems
Latin American and Caribbean countries account for more
than 40% of the Earth’s biodiversity and are among the
most biologically diverse areas in the world, including coast-
al marine ecosystems (Bovarnick et al., 2010). The Ibe-
ro-American region represented by the countries belonging
to the Ibero-American Network of Climate Change Offices
(RIOCC; http://www.lariocc.es) includes a wide diversity of
coastal and marine environments, described further below
(Table 4.1). Maritime coasts in 19 of the 22 RIOCC coun-
tries exhibit very heterogeneous characteristics, i.e. from
tropical to polar environments, and including subtropical and
temperate habitats (Figure 1.12 in Chapter 1). This diversi-
ty extends up along the actual coastal zones and down to
deep marine regions, which present heterogeneous hydro-
graphic and climatic conditions, either regularly exposed to
storms and hurricanes, or completely protected from their
impacts. The differences in coastal geomorphology and
hydrographic conditions determine the presence and level

Change in sea level

Warming

Acidification

Shift in currents

Deoxygenation

Figure 4.1. Summary of climate-related hazards in coastal marine environments: [1] intertidal areas (coastal lagoons, rocky areas, sandy beaches,
estuaries, mangroves, and marshes); [2] shallow ecosystems (seagrass beds, coral reefs, rhodolith beds, soft and rocky bottoms); [3] continental
shelf (plankton, benthic communities, pelagic environments, methane seeps), and [4] deep regions (continental slopes, hydrothermal vents,
seamounts, abyssal plains, trenches, pelagic environments). The color gradient refers to depth (darker shades represent deeper regions). Source:
Compiled by the authors.

126 RIOCCADAPT REPORT

 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems

Table 4.1. Major tropical, subtropical and temperate coastal marine ecosystems in RIOCC countries. Source: Compiled by the authors from
the sources cited in the table.
Ecosystem Relevant characteristics References
Sandy beaches and rocky intertidal Important for turtle nesting and tourism; rocky intertidal areas Defeo et al., 2009; Cortés, 2016
areas represent habitats for species used for local consumption.
Soft bottoms Sedimentary areas and habitats for species of ecological and Sibaja-Cordero et al., 2016
commercial interests, such as shrimp and fish.
Mangroves Strategic habitats for biodiversity, high productivity, local and Nava-Escudero, 2008; Polidoro et al.,
commercial fishing resources, erosion control, coastal stabilization and 2010; Martínez et al. 2014; Alongi and
tourism. They act as a carbon sink for greenhouse gases. Thirteen of Mukhopadhyay, 2015; Herrera-Silveira et al.,
22 RIOCC countries have mangroves with a total area of approximately 2016; Feller et al., 2017; Beck et al., 2018
260,000 km2.
Marshes Subtropical and temperate environments of intertidal phanerogams, Idaskin and Bortolus, 2011
featuring high productivity and biodiversity. Significant environments for
coastal protection and carbon sequestration.
Estuaries and coastal lagoons (also Estuaries are environments associated with river mouths to the sea, Medina and Barboza, 2006; Day et al., 2011;
known as albuferas) and coastal lagoons are bodies of water isolated or occasionally Blanco et al., 2012
connected to the sea. They are characterized by a wide gradient of
salinity and temperature, have a high primary productivity, and are
important for fisheries.
Seagrass beds Major and extensive shallow ecosystems in the Caribbean Sea, Hemminga and Duarte, 2000; Mazarrasa et al.,
formed by marine phanerogams. Highly biodiverse sites, extremely 2015, 2018; Cullen-Unsworth and Unsworth,
productive, assist in the elimination of pathogens and have an 2018
important role in carbon sequestration.
Hard or rocky bottoms Hard or rocky bottoms (shallow coastlines typical of high- Villasante, 2009; Wahl, 2009; Macho et al.,
energy environments resulting from intense waves and currents) 2013
possessing great biological diversity and high net primary
productivity.
Rhodolith beds Formed by calcareous algae that grow in a spherical shape, they Amado-Filho et al., 2010; Foster et al., 2013;
are considered highly diverse sites and significant as breeding Cortés et al., 2017
grounds for species that later drift to other marine environments.
Coral Reefs The most diverse marine ecosystems. They form barriers for coastal Birkeland, 2015; Hallock, 2015; Cortés et al.,
protection. are used as artisanal fishing areas and sources of new 2017; Hughes et al., 2017, 2019; Cortés,
chemical-pharmaceutical compounds, and constitute a major attraction 2019a
for tourism in many tropical countries. Corals and reefs contain
excellent paleoclimate records.
Macro-algae forests Highly productive intertidal or subtidal ecosystems at high latitudes; Ríos and Mutshke, 2009; Miller et al., 2018
provide habitat for a great diversity of species. Important for coastal
protection.
Mesophotic regions Mesophotic or low light regions, between 50 and 150 m deep; are Kahng et al., 2014; Cortés, 2019b
being studied as refuges for species displaced by warming of surface
waters.
Pelagic environments Extensive open water, neritic regions on the continental shelf and Da Rocha et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2015
oceanic regions in waters over 200 m deep. Surface zones close to
200 m in the tropics in very clear waters. The world’s main fisheries
operate in neritic regions, especially in upwelling regions, and are
increasingly moving toward deeper areas (tuna, Iberian sardine).
Abyssal trenches and plains Abyssal trenches and plains are scantly studied environments given Levin and Le Bris, 2015; Levin et al., 2016;
the difficulties in working at depths of 1,000 meters or more. These Llatas et al., 2018
areas should be researched and explored, as both fishing and mineral
exploitation is being conducted in increasingly deeper waters; moreover,
the impact of climate change on these areas is little-known.

of development of certain benthic or pelagic communities in the diversity and productivity of coastal marine systems
(coral reefs, pelagic fish, among others). The presence of due to the continent’s contribution of nutrients (Escobar-Bri-
surface freshwater aquifers and river discharge are some ones et al., 2015; Torres-Bejarano and Torres-Marchena,
of the ecological drivers that will also determine changes 2017; Villamizar and Cervigón, 2017; Canty et al., 2018).

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 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
In general, land uses in basins that influence the coastal
zone are also stressors that, in synergy with the impacts of
climate change, can compromise the health of ecosystems
and consequently the ecosystem services they provide and,
ultimately, their resilience and adaptive capacity to climate
effects, natural or induced (Deutsch et al., 2007).
The coastal region of RIOCC countries extends across 13
biogeographic sub-provinces (Figure 1.12 in Chapter 1), with
a wide diversity of coastal marine ecosystems due to their
climatic, oceanographic and geographic specificities (Milo-
slavich et al., 2011, 2015) (Table 4.1). The region, which is
large in size and latitudinally wide, covers the 19 countries
with marine coasts and presents differentiated character-
istics in terms of bathymetry, hydrography, productivity,
oceanographic and climatic processes (FAO, 2012; Botello
et al., 2017). The coastal marine ecosystems existing in this
vast territory have been grouped as tropical (five regions)
or temperate (eight regions), highlighting their ecosystemic
diversity, the ecosystem services they provide and sustain,
and providing local and regional examples of select repre-
sentative ecosystems.
Of the 22 countries grouped in RIOCC (Figure 1.1 in Chap-
ter 1), 15 (68.2%) have tropical coastal marine environ-
ments in the Tropical Eastern Pacific (Colombia, Costa
Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama and Peru), in Easter Island (Chile), in
the Tropical Western Atlantic (Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicara-
gua, Panama and Venezuela), and in the northern Brazilian
plateau (Brazil and Venezuela). Additionally, 36.4% (8 coun-
tries) have coastal marine environments in subtropical or
temperate zones, such as in the warm temperate Northeast
Pacific (Mexico), the warm temperate Southeast Pacific
(Chile and Peru), the Magellanic province (Chile and Argen-
tina), the warm temperate Southwest Atlantic (Argentina,
Brazil and Uruguay), the warm Northwest Atlantic (Mexico),
the Lusitanian province (Spain and Portugal), and the Med-
iterranean Sea (Spain).
A significant proportion of RIOCC countries’ coastal marine
environments receive some form of legal protection (OAS,
2008; De Oliveira-Miranda et al., 2010; Garcia et al.,
2011; CPPS/UNESCO/CI/Hivos, 2015), which additionally
represents another advantage over climate change. Per-
centages of protected coastal marine areas vary widely in
RIOCC countries (Table 4.2). The fact that coastal marine
territories of RIOCC countries receive some form of protec-
tion translates into a legal condition that could facilitate the
inclusion of climate change adaptation measures. More-
over, there are regional institutions and adaptation and mit-
igation initiatives that have recently increased awareness
of the importance of the ecosystem services of coastal
marine resources, and the risk that climate change rep-
resents for their preservation and their economies. Diverse
initiatives have also emerged aimed at defining adaptation
and mitigation measures within the RIOCC framework for
action (Table 4.3).
128 RIOCCADAPT REPORT
4.1.3. Coastal marine ecosystems
and climate change
The most significant impacts on coasts stemming from the
effects of long-term climate change are linked to rising sea
levels, rise in sea surface temperatures, acidification, chang-
es in salinity, waves, tides, and extreme events (Table 4.4).
These impacts can potentially cause, among other occur-
rences, erosion and flooding problems, impacts on port,
urban, industrial and tourism infrastructure, coral bleaching,
and alterations to the flow of sediments and to biodiversity
(ECLAC, 2012, 2015).
Since the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovern-
mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), potential impacts
of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity have
been identified on a global scale (Bijlsma et al., 1996). Sig-
nificant trends in precipitation and temperature observed in
Latin America and changes in climate variability and extreme
events demonstrate that the coastal region has been severe-
ly affected (Magrin et al., 2014; Bidegain et al., 2018). There
is evidence for Latin America and the Caribbean of warming
between 0.7°C and 1°C (in the last 30 to 50 years), except
for the west coast of South America, from Peru to Chile,
where temperatures have cooled by -1°C during the same
period. On the extremely arid coast of northern Chile, rain,
temperature and cloudiness show strong inter-annual and
decadal variability since the mid-1970s (Magrin et al., 2014).
4.1.4. Previous IPCC reports
The IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in
a Changing Climate (SROCC) (2019) focuses on climate
change impacts on oceans. The impact of sea level rise is
exacerbated by the combination of other climate events (hur-
ricanes, tidal waves, El Niño) and by the degradation of the
coastal zone by human activity. This will result in the loss
of biodiversity and ecosystem functionality, a reduction in
the area of mangroves in most cases due to the inability
of these ecosystems to migrate inland, and a possible lim-
itation in the resistance and resilience of coastal marine
ecosystems (IPCC, 2019). The recovery capacity of coastal
marine ecosystems will decrease owing to the exposure to
increasingly intense and recurrent climatic and non-climatic
impacts. However, it is possible to adapt to such changes
by mitigating these impacts through a less destructive use
of coastal areas and their ecosystems, protecting existing
ones, restoring ecosystems, and creating new marine pro-
tected areas based on scientific evidence (Carr et al., 2019).
Another notable issue brought up by the SROCC is the fact
that coastal retreat is already occurring in many countries.
In Latin America, coastal retreat has been recorded in Gua-
temala, the Costa Rican Caribbean, and western Colombia.
Saline or brackish water intrusion driven by sea level rise
in combination with tidal waves and human-induced sinking
leads to an increase in residual salinity, as already recorded
in the Ebro Delta, Spain (Magnan et al., 2019).
 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems

Table 4.2. Marine protected areas in Latin America and the Iberian Peninsula. Sources: Compiled from FAO (2015) and Protect Planet (2018),
and supplemented by the authors.
Land and Marine Marine % protected
Total Land Total Marine # of % of marine
Country # of PAs Protected Area Protected of the entire
Area (km2) Area (km2) MPAs area of PAs
(km2) Area (km2) marine area
Argentina 2,785,328 1,083,151 458 363,373 43 127,462 35,07 11,77
Brazil 8,529,321 3,672,584 1,515 3,487,114 274 977,793 28,04 26,62
Chile 759,821 3,657,313 211 1,661,657 33 1,506,502 90,66 41,19
Colombia 1,141,748 928,680 56 294,282 14 124,737 42,39 13,43
Costa Rica 51,636 576,110 187 19,055 24 4,802 25,20 0,83
Cuba 111,643 365,756 105 34,300 57 15,819 46,12 4,33
Dominican Republic 258,139 1,079,901 45 200,105 17 144,125 72,02 13,35
Ecuador 20,753 94,238 118 2,471 4 665 26,91 0,71
El Salvador 507,013 1,005,717 1,863 226,517 14 84,220 37,18 8,37
Guatemala 109,922 118,336 305 23,104 7 1,065 4,61 0,90
Honduras 113,291 219,971 91 36,204 16 9,144 25,26 4,16
Mexico 1,965,285 3,284,660 174 1,000,442 63 715,465 71,51 21,78
Nicaragua 129,222 223,935 72 33,305 8 7,895 23,71 3,52
Panama 75,498 332,643 89 21,366 43 5,593 26,18 1,68
Peru 1,298,537 838,330 134 280,809 3 4,037 1,44 0,48
Portugal 92,141 1,724,156 166 306,689 8 285,588 93,12 16,56
Spain 48,510 270,774 123 61,352 33 48,625 79,25 17,96
Uruguay 178,460 130,098 11 7,082 8 932 13,16 0,72
Venezuela 917,368 473,325 400 513,201 49 16,500 3,21 3,49

Table 4.3. Regional institutions and initiatives for adaptation and mitigation in the coastal marine zone implemented in RIOCC territories. Legend:
CC: Climate Change; SD/SDG: Sustainable Development/Sustainable Development Goals; REDD: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation from
Developing Countries (UN Program); EcoCC: Economics of Climate Change; Biodiv: Biodiversity. The symbol X indicates issues addressed by each
institution. Sources: Compiled by the authors from www.celac.org; www.oei.es/en; www.sica.int; www.oas.org; www.caricom.org; www.aladi.org;
www.parlatino.org; www.unasursg.org; www.oecs.org; www.parlacen.int.
Institution CC SD/SDG REDD EcoCC Biodiv
Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) X X X
Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) X
Central American Integration System (SICA) X X X
Alliance for Sustainable Development (ALIDES) X
Organization of American States (OAS) X
Caribbean Community (CARICOM) X X X X X
Latin American Integration Association (LAIA/ALADI) X
Latin American and Caribbean Parliament (PARLATINO) X
Union of South American Nations (USAN/UNASUR) X X X
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) X X X
Central American Parliament (Parlacen) X
Universities and research centers X X X X X
ECOMAR Network X X X
National Climate Councils X X X X X

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 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems

Table 4.4. Climate stressors and main extreme events on the region’s coasts. Sources: Compiled by the authors from Peel et al. (2007), Calil
et al. (2017), Nagy et al. (2018).
Country Climate stressors and main extreme events in coastal areas
Argentina El Niño, storms, river flooding, coastal flooding, sea level rise
Brazil El Niño, extra-tropical cyclones, river flooding, sea level rise, ocean acidification
Chile El Niño, river flooding, tidal swells, sea level rise
Colombia El Niño, river flooding, sea level rise, ocean acidification
Costa Rica El Niño, storms, river flooding, coastal flooding, sea level rise, ocean acidification
Cuba Hurricanes, storms, sea level rise, ocean acidification
Dominican Republic Storms, hurricanes, sea level rise, ocean acidification
Ecuador El Niño, river flooding, coastal flooding, sea level rise, ocean acidification
El Salvador El Niño, hurricanes, river flooding, sea level rise, ocean acidification
Guatemala Hurricanes, river flooding, sea level rise, ocean acidification
Honduras Hurricanes, river flooding, sea level rise, ocean acidification
Mexico El Niño, hurricanes, storms, river floods, sea level rise, ocean acidification
Nicaragua Hurricanes, river flooding, sea level rise ocean acidification
Panama El Niño, storms, river flooding, coastal flooding, sea level rise, ocean acidification
Peru El Niño, storms, river floods, sea level rise
Portugal Storms, river floods, sea level rise
Spain Storms, river floods, sea level rise
Uruguay El Niño, storms, river flooding, coastal flooding, sea level rise
Venezuela El Niño, river flooding, sea level rise, ocean acidification

The SROCC also provides evidence that it is likely that ocean
warming has continued in the abyssal zone and in the deep
ocean below 2000 m, particularly in the southern hemi-
sphere and the Southern Ocean. There is also increasing evi-
dence that the ocean carbon sink is dynamic on decadal time
scales, especially in the Southern Ocean, affecting ocean
carbon sequestration on a global scale (medium confidence).
It is virtually certain that surface ocean pH will decline by
0.036-0.042 or 0.287-0.290 pH units by 2081-2100, rela-
tive to 2006-2015, for the RCP 2.6 or RCP 8.5 scenarios,
respectively. These pH changes are very likely to cause the
Southern Oceans to become corrosive for the major mineral
forms of calcium carbonate under RCP 8.5, but these chang-
es are avoidable under the RCP 2.6 scenario (Bindoff et al.,
2019). Recent evidence suggests that mesophilic coral reefs
will be affected by ocean acidification. All coastal ecosys-
tems will be at high to very high risk by the end of the 21st
century under the RCP 8.5 scenario, especially coral reefs
(transitioning from high to very high risk 0.6-1.2°C), seagrass
beds (2.2-3.0°C), kelp forests (2.2-2.8°C) and rocky shores
(2.9-3.4°C). These ecosystems have low or moderate adap-
tive capacity, rendering them highly sensitive to ocean warm-
ing, sea heat waves, and acidification. For example, kelp
forests and seagrass beds will continue to decline with more
frequent extreme temperatures and their low dispersal capac-
ity will increase the risk of local extinction. Shallow biogenic
reefs with calcified organisms (e.g., corals, mussels, calci-
fied algae) are particularly sensitive to ocean acidification
and the effects of rising temperatures, sea level rise, and
increased extreme events, making these ecosystems highly
vulnerable (with low resilience) to further warming scenarios.
In addition, almost all coral reefs will significantly decline,
even if global warming remains below 2°C. Any coral reef that
survives to the end of the century will not be the same due
to irreversible changes in habitat structure and functioning,
including species extinctions and food network disturbances;
these changes are already occurring (Hughes et al., 2017).
Conversely, ecosystems with strong influences of physical
factors (e.g., sediment accretion and subsidence) present
no change in their vulnerability to sea level rise, suggesting
a strong resilience in some coastal ecosystems. However,
in areas such as the Caribbean, mangroves cannot exceed
current rates of sea level rise and may disappear. The tran-
sition to new states by unpredictable pulses of progressive
climate disturbances and hazards will have adverse impacts
on ecosystem services (Bindoff et al., 2019).
Adaptation responses to climate change are most effec-
tive when developed within institutional frameworks that
include effective planning and inter-sectoral integration. Evi-
dence-based decision making for climate adaptation is strong-
ly supported in the literature by an enhanced understanding
of coastal ecosystems and human adaptation responses,
as well as the consideration of non-climate change drivers.

130 RIOCCADAPT REPORT


Relevant research includes participatory planning, cross-bor-
der ocean management, and ecosystem-based and com-
munity-based adaptation. Fresh knowledge of climate and
non-climate variables in coastal adaptation planning could
substantially improve planning, implementation and monitor-
ing of climate adaptation responses for marine systems, if
research processes are participatory and inclusive.
Integrated adaptation planning in many countries is under-
mined by uncoordinated, top-down approaches, lack of polit-
ical will, insufficient resources and access to information.
Successful adaptation frameworks include: a robust but flex-
ible approach that takes into account the increasing uncer-
tainty; well-coordinated participatory processes; and well-de-
veloped monitoring systems that adopt a complete systems
approach, identifying additional benefits for human develop-
ment and the environment. The literature on coastal adap-
tation is less studied in Africa and in the Caribbean. Unlike
many examples of proposed frameworks for climate-resilient
coastal adaptation, few studies have assessed their suc-
cess, possibly due to the delay between implementation,
monitoring, evaluation and reporting. More effective coordi-
nation among relevant actors and stakeholders, within and
between organizations, especially in developing countries,
would strengthen the global response to coastal adaptation
(Oppenhaimer et al., 2019).
4.2. Components of climate
change risk in coastal
marine environments
4.2.1. Hazards
Rising ocean temperatures modify the distribution of marine
species and cause rising sea levels (IPCC, 2014; Uribe-Bote-
ro, 2015; Villamizar and Cervigón, 2017). The combination
of these drivers adversely affects megadiverse ecosystems
such as coral reefs, clearly manifested through coral bleach-
ing and diseases in reef species. Changes also affect the
structure and function of kelp forests (Bas Ventín et al.,
2015) and increase the likelihood of toxic algal blooms (Ama-
do-Filho et al., 2010; Cróquer et al., 2018; Outeiro et al.,
2018). The years 2005 and 2010, recognized by the NOAA
as the hottest years in recent decades in the Caribbean, saw
bleaching events affecting coral reefs (Eakin et al., 2010;
Cróquer et al., 2018). Most of the coral reefs in Morrocoy
National Park and Los Roques (two of the most important
coastal marine protected areas in Venezuela) were affected
in the 2005 event, however, “they eventually recovered, with-
out the stress period ending in mass mortalities” (Villamizar
et al., 2014).
Changes in temperature and salinity are causing alterations
in current patterns, which will affect the dispersion and dis-
tribution of species. These changes, along with direct human
Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
impacts such as eutrophication, have led to an expansion of
anoxic regions and increased hypoxia in oceans, while the
dissolution of CO2 in the oceans is lowering the pH (ocean
acidification). This change in ocean chemistry impacts living
organisms, altering their calcification, life cycles, and behav-
ior (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007; Baker at al., 2008; Vergara,
2009; Gatusso and Hansson, 2011; Schmidtko et al., 2017;
Palter et al., 2018; Hughes et al., 2019).
There is evidence indicating that sea level change and non-cli-
mate stressors generate hazards to fisheries, corals, man-
groves, tourism and recreation, and disease control in the
coastal region (Olivo et al., 2012; Godoy and de Lacerda,
2015). Sea level change is largely due to the thermal expan-
sion of water and the inflow of water from the continents as
a result of glacier and polar ice melting. Sea levels are rising
rapidly, from 1.4 mm per year in the 1901-1990 period to
3.2 mm per year between 1993 and 2015, and 3.6 mm per
year in the 2005-2015 period (IPCC, 2019). In Latin America
and the Caribbean, sea level change has been increasing
from 2 to 7 mm per year over the past 60 years (Magrin et
al., 2014). Recurrent episodes of coral bleaching linked to
ocean warming and acidification have also been recorded
along the Caribbean and Colombian Pacific coasts (Rojas
Higuera and Pabón-Caicedo, 2015), in the Mesoamerican
coral reef corridor, and in the southern Caribbean (Villamizar
and Cervigón, 2017). However, available information on sea
level change in the region is limited, lacking sufficiently long
series, except in Buenos Aires and Montevideo; therefore,
predicting its actual impact is difficult (Nagy et al., 2019).
4.2.2. Exposure
Most of the region’s coastal areas are exposed to climate
change, ENSO variability, and extreme weather events (sea
level rise, tidal waves and waves). Because of their geo-
graphical location, the risk is higher in low-elevation coastal
zones (LECZ), including ecosystems, cities and infrastructure
(Villamizar et al., 2017; Calil et al., 2017; Nagy et al., 2019).
Due to these hazards to coastal marine ecosystems, coastal
environments and their ecosystem services, coastal human
populations and economic activity will be affected. Coastal
marine ecosystems supply a series of services including
food supply, water purification, wave protection, and rec-
reation. The loss of these ecosystem services will impact
coastal communities through coastal erosion, salinization
of aquifers, loss of landscape, safe docking, and changes
in fisheries. These effects will impact other economic areas
such as tourism and fishing, jeopardizing the well-being of
individuals, communities, regions and countries of RIOCC.
4.2.3. Vulnerability
An ecosystem’s vulnerability is determined by its likelihood
of experiencing climate change impacts and its resilience,
which determine how, and how quickly, it recovers from these
impacts (IPCC, 2014). The resilience and resistance of natu-
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 131
 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems

ral systems, in turn, enhance their capacity of autonomous Table 4.5. Ranking of RIOCC countries in the Global Ocean Health
adaptation (Klein and Nicholls, 1999). Human intervention, Index. A lower ranking indicates healthier seas. Source: Compiled by the
particularly through integrated coastal zone management authors from http://www.oceanhealthindex.org; revised June 24, 2019.
and adaptation measure planning, can improve ecosystems’
capacities to respond to and recover from the impacts of Country Ranking
extreme climate events, as well as to adapt to changing Portugal 25
local conditions (BIOMARCC-SINAC-GIZ, 2013). In bioregional Chile 54
conservation approaches, the emphasis in prioritizing pro-
Cuba 87
tected areas for in situ conservation lies on the representa-
tion of relevant ecosystem samples to ensure their perma- Ecuador 65
nence over time (Miller, 1996; Andrade et al., 2011). In the Argentina 93
case of climate change, representativeness and ecosystem Mexico 97
conservation as criteria for the creation of protected areas
should be supplemented by approaches such as the search Spain 104
for redundancy in the representation, as permanence will be Brazil 124
affected in many ecosystems, particularly in coastal zones. Honduras 125
The resilience to climate impacts of protected areas is deter-
Dominican Republic 129
mined by the adaptive capacity of species and their connec-
tivity in landscapes and seascapes (Barber et al., 2004). Panama 132

The vulnerability of built structures depends on society’s Uruguay 146

intrinsic ability to prevent, live or cope with climate change
impacts, in particular its capacity for adapting at the same
rate as the natural systems on which they depend (Klein and
Nicholls, 1999; Klein et al., 1999). These local development
conditions are determined by the population’s socio-econom-
ic and health circumstances, its local environment (acces-
sibility, employment, environmental quality), and the local
institutional capacities to provide continuity of public services
(Retana et al., 2017). Therefore, to a large extent, priorities
for adaptation in coastal areas must be defined taking into
account the limitations and potential of the local context.
Adverse coastal and marine impacts and vulnerability lead
to losses that pose significant challenges and costs to soci-
eties, particularly in developing countries (Hoegh-Guldberg
and Bruno, 2010). For example, the Ocean Health Index
(Halpern et al., 2012) measures the integration and health
of the human-ocean system for each country and includes
parameters related to climate change. The index includes key
elements of ocean health: biological, physical, economic and
social, for the purpose of informing decisionmakers on how
to manage ocean sustainably (http://www.oceanhealthindex.
org). Values of RIOCC countries range from very favorable,
e.g. Portugal, to very unfavorable, e.g. some Central Ameri-
can countries (Table 4.5).
4.3. Characterization of risks
and their impacts
In addition to the observations outlined in Section 4.1.3, cli-
mate risk in coastal areas is also the outcome of a combination
of biophysical drivers with socio-cultural, economic and institu-
tional drivers that can generate major and permanent impacts
on marine life and on the well-being of human populations that
live in and depend on healthy ecosystems for their livelihood.
Costa Rica 154
Venezuela 171
Guatemala 181
Peru 188
Colombia 192
El Salvador 203
Nicaragua 219
The fourth IPCC report (IPCC, 2007) observed, and the Spe-
cial Report on Oceans and Cryosphere (IPCC, 2019) later
reaffirmed, with a high level of confidence, that some unique
and threatened systems are already at risk from climate
change and that this risk will increase if additional warming
of around 1°C occurs. The situation will be graver still for
many species and systems with limited adaptive capacity,
i.e. coral reefs (Wang et al., 2017). The SROCC also warns
that the risk level of serious impacts on biodiversity and the
structure and function of coastal ecosystems will be higher
due to increased temperatures associated with higher emis-
sion scenarios (~1760 ppm CO2 RCP 8.5), compared to lower
emission scenarios projected for the 21st century (~490
ppm CO2 RCP 2.6). Sea level projections display regional
differences around the global average level. Processes such
as local sinking caused by natural phenomena and human
activities are important for relative sea level changes on the
coast. While the relative importance of climate-driven sea
level rise is expected to increase over time, there is a need
to consider local processes within sea level projections and
impacts. Lack of continuity in public management, fluctua-
tions in national economies, dependence on fossil fuels and
accelerated urban growth in Latin America and the Caribbean
have complicated the consolidation of effective environmen-
tal management of the coastal zone. As a result, the risk
of loss of biodiversity and key ecosystems for the provi-

132 RIOCCADAPT REPORT


sion of ecosystem services increases, both inside and out-
side coastal protected areas (Yerena et al., 2018). Climate
change is expected to be a significant driver to further deg-
radation of most coastal ecosystems, biodiversity and eco-
system services in Latin America and the Caribbean (IPBES,
2018), resulting in an adaptation deficit for coastal areas in
the region (Nagy et al., 2019). On the other hand, it is esti-
mated that 100 to 300 million people living in coastal areas
worldwide will face greater risks due to the loss of protection
provided by marine and coastal ecosystems (IPBES, 2018).
In terms of the coastal and marine resources of RIOCC coun-
tries, the recent warning of risks associated with a rise in the
average temperature of the planet above 1.5°C, as reported
by the IPCC (2018), anticipates a greater hazard. Not exceed-
ing 1.5°C is conditioned by the greenhouse gas emissions
trajectory and, consequently, by the economic development
model that the global society decides to follow. Keeping the
rise in temperature below 1.5°C would mean a slower sea lev-
el rise rate that would allow for greater opportunities for the
adaptation of ecosystems in small island territories, low-lying
coastal areas and deltas, while at the same time offering a
greater likelihood of managing and restoring natural coast-
al ecosystems and strengthening infrastructure. Hazards
include changes in the distribution patterns of many marine
species at higher latitudes and increased damage to many
ecosystems, as well as further declines of coastal resources
and reduced productivity of fishing and aquaculture (espe-
cially at low latitudes). Coral reefs are projected to shrink
their live coral cover by 70-90% at 1.5°C, with higher losses
(> 99%) at 2°C. Record temperatures in 2015-2016 led to the
largest coral bleaching episode since mass bleaching was
documented in the 1980s (Hughes et al., 2017). Some indig-
enous peoples and local communities that depend on agricul-
ture or coastal livelihoods represent the most disadvantaged
and vulnerable populations, with a disproportionately higher
risk of adverse consequences with a global warming of 1.5°C
(Allison et al., 2009; IPCC, 2018; 2019).
According to projections from integrated climate models
(IPCC, 2014), known as Representative Concentration Path-
ways (RCPs), by mid-century it will be feasible to detect the
global redistribution of marine species and the reduction
of marine biodiversity in vulnerable regions, which would
adversely impact fishing productivity and other ecosystem
services. Spatial relocation of marine species due to project-
ed warming will lead to invasions at high latitudes and high
rates of local extinction in the tropics and semi-enclosed
seas. The progressive expansion of areas with low oxygen
levels and anoxic “dead zones” will further limit fish habitat
(Breitburg et al., 2018). A total of 400 areas of hypoxia in
the seas have been reported worldwide, generating dead
zones covering more than 245,000 km2 (IPBES 2018). Net
primary production in the high seas will be redistributed
and, by 2100, will decrease globally in all RCP scenarios
(IPCC, 2014). By 2100, ocean primary productivity will have
declined by 3-10% and marine fish biomass will be reduced
by 3-25% due to climate change (IPBES, 2018). Key risks
include those stemming from changes in ice conditions, snow
Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
cover, permafrost and fresh/marine water, with effects on
the quality of habitat, areas of distribution, phenology and
productivity of species, as well as on their dependent econ-
omies, which will affect the southern regions of the South
American continent (IPCC, 2014).
Potential impacts on Latin America and the Caribbean include
floods linked to sea level change for which the probabili-
ty of flooding is estimated to be higher in locations show-
ing > 40% change over the last 60 years in total sea level
(not including hurricanes); beach erosion in locations where
potential sediment transport and seaports have increased;
and threaten the reliability of coastal structures (Magrin et
al., 2014). For Latin America, climate change risks for coastal
marine environments will be exacerbated by pollution, land
use, flooding, erosion and urban, industrial and tourist devel-
opments emerging along the region’s coasts (Magrin et al.,
2014). Among climate change-related risks, there are con-
cerns about the increase in coral bleaching in the Caribbean
(Bastidas et al., 2012), coupled with an evident limitation of
corals for autonomous genetic adaptation. A sharp degrada-
tion of mangroves, wetlands, corals and seagrasses in the
region’s island territories and in continental South America
has direct effects on their economies (Villamizar et al., 2016;
Wilson, 2017; ECLAC, 2018; Gaines et al., 2019; Murray et
al., 2019). The degradation of groundwater and freshwater
ecosystems due to saline intrusion from sea level change
also poses a risk, in addition to degradation due to pollution
and groundwater extraction (Carson et al., 2016).
Impacts generated from non-climate stressors that compromise
the health and existence of coastal ecosystems in Latin Ameri-
ca and the Caribbean include the loss of mangroves as a result
of deforestation and the conversion of soils for agriculture and
shrimp farming (FAO, 2016). In Ecuador, for example, between
2008 and 2014, 47,000 hectares (ha) of mangrove forests
were converted to other uses, mainly agriculture. The coun-
try’s Ministry of the Environment stated that the figure is high;
however, deforestation has been reduced by 49% (MAE, 2014).
In Colombia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Venezuela, nearly a
third of the population lives in coastal areas directly exposed to
climate events. In Nicaragua and Honduras, a high percentage
of households use firewood for cooking; the largest amount of
firewood is extracted from the mangrove, and according to the
FAO (2015) approximately 120,000 m3 of wood is extracted
per year for firewood in both countries. In Venezuela, the con-
struction of dams and large-scale salt mining within protected
coastal areas has resulted in the diversion of freshwater flow
to the mangrove, a habitat of the endangered coastal caiman
(Crocodylus acutus) (Villamizar, 2003; Rodríguez et al., 2010;
Nagy et al., 2019). In Galicia (Spain), pollution from agricultur-
al activities and the construction of reservoirs are causing a
reduction in the abundance of key commercial species (slimy,
fine and blonde clams) for the development of shellfish pick-
ing, an activity that provides direct employment to more than
4,500 women in the region, the highest figure in Europe (Pita
et al., 2019). Table 4.6 presents examples of threatened eco-
systems, climate change-related impacts, vulnerabilities, and
risks in select RIOCC countries.
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 133
 134
Table 4.6. Examples of threatened ecosystems, climate change-related impacts, vulnerabilities, and risks in select RIOCC countries. Source: Compiled by the authors from various sources.
Country/Source Threatened ecosystems Impacts Vulnerabilities Risks
Argentina Lower Paraná River Delta Due to rising sea levels: flooding Hydrological and climatic regulation Susceptible to industrial, urban and agricultural
Wetlands (Insular; advancing delta front). and displacement of wetlands and (floods); carbon sinks; livelihood of pollution; erosion and marshalling; change in

RIOCCADAPT REPORT
International and low coasts; coastline erosion and
DCCSADS (2010) retreat and increased storm flooding;
increased salinity in estuaries and
hazard to aquifers; alteration of tidal
range in rivers and bays; alteration
fishermen; livelihood of reed gatherers
and otter hunters; water supply for urban
areas; biogeographical and ecological
specificities; relevant species for
conservation (marsh deer, dusky-legged
communities due to rising sea levels; fires; loss of
biodiversity due to land-use modifications; invasion of
non-native species; alteration of local water regime due
to the construction of canals and dikes.
Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems

of sedimentation patterns; and Guan, giant otter); beekeeping activities

reduced amount of light received by (native flora).
the seabed.
Colombia Cartagena Bay Loss of numerous islands and Presence of living corals on Isla Arena, Increased exposure of the coastline and low-tide lands
Andrade Armaya (Natural systems protecting the extensive mangrove areas. west of Pueblo Nuevo, Bolívar, where of Cartagena to systematic, gradual and constant
et al. (2017) coastline). coral communities are growing despite flooding, much faster than the global average, as a
adverse conditions of high sedimentation result of sea level rise due to global warming and land
associated with materials brought by the subsidence.
Magdalena River.
Costa Rica Térraba-Sierpe Delta Significant changes in the river- Meander channels in which mangrove Rising sea levels threaten to increase the erosion rate
Acuña-Piedra and (Aquifers, groundwater, beach marine system morphology. vegetation prevails. of coastal bars, constant geomorphological processes
Quesada-Román texture, mangroves, fisheries, alternating with sedimentation in this deltaic system
(2016) biodiversity). over the last six decades, due to climate variability and
changes in land use in the basins that feed coastal
dynamics.
El Salvador MAP Los Cóbanos, home to El Reef ecosystems are being Two coral bleaching events of considerable Increase in temperature and variability of accumulated
Chicas-Batres et Salvador’s single coral reef. monitored by the Coral and Rock intensity occurred simultaneously with the annual precipitation recorded in the country, compared
al. (2015) Other threatened coastal Reef Program, carried out by the high temperature caused by the El Niño to recent decades.
ecosystems along the country’s Institute of Marine Sciences and phenomenon (2014 and 2015, between Increase in saline intrusion in certain locations in
coast: estuaries, coastal Limnology (ICMARES), Universidad de 80%-100% respectively of the surface of the coastal zone, due to the lack of plant cover, the
lagoons, mangroves, sandy El Salvador. the colonies, and a loss of coverage of emptying of aquifers and reduced land drainage.
and rocky beaches, near-shore about 10% in 2014).
agricultural crops.
Guatemala South Pacific Coast. Region constantly affected by floods Firewood extraction, coal processing, Traditional agricultural export activities may present
Government Aquaculture, agriculture, fishing, and river overflows. construction materials, and gathering of conflicting interests and disagreements over the
of Guatemala mangroves, pastures, wetlands. coast-related fauna-derived products. conservation of biodiversity in the coastal zone.
(2011)

4.4. Adaptation measures
Adaptation measures represent options and actions that can
be implemented to improve adaptation to climate change,
whether to reduce hazards to an acceptable level or to exploit
an opportunity that may arise (Climate Adapt, 2017). For the
purposes of this report, adaptation refers to adjustments in
natural or human systems in response to expected climatic
stimuli or their effects, which moderate harm or exploit bene-
ficial opportunities (IPCC 2014). Various types of adaptation
can be identified: anticipated adaptation, which occurs before
observing the impacts of climate change; autonomous or
spontaneous adaptation, which is not a conscious response
to climate stimuli, but caused by ecological changes in nat-
ural systems and changes in the market or well-being in
human systems; and, finally, planned adaptation, which is
the result of a policy decision, based on an awareness that
conditions have changed or are about to change and there-
fore action is required to return to maintain or achieve a
desired state. Natural systems have the potential for adapt-
ing through multiple autonomous processes (e.g., changes
in phenology, migration, changes in composition, phenotypic
acclimatization, or genetic changes), and humans can inter-
vene to promote particular adjustments, such as reducing
non-climate stressors or by means of managed migration.
Successful adaptation will depend on the ability to enable
natural systems to adjust to a changing climate; maintaining
the ecosystem services on which life depends (Noble et al.,
2014).
The scientific literature linked to vulnerability, impacts and
adaptation to climate change presents a new generation of
tools to support decisionmakers in being better prepared
for numerous relevant interventions in the context of the
dynamics and complexity of coastal ecosystems, and their
responses to the effects of climate change. These include
management and restoration of natural coastal ecosys-
tems (IPCC, 2018; Yerena et al., 2018), Ecosystem-based
Adaptation (Villamizar et al., 2016; Nagy et al., 2018), and
strengthening coastal infrastructure, including retrofitting
infrastructure, shoreline retreat, or protecting infrastructure
(Katsman et al, 2011; Butler et al., 2016; Reguero et al.,
2017). The latter is being implemented in coastal zones of
Latin America and the Caribbean, particularly those with high
population density and urban development. These actions
are expected to form part of the adaptation policies that
the countries are required to implement based on their com-
mitments to the post-Paris Agreement climate agenda from
2015 (Villamizar 2017). The ecosystem approach allows for
increasing resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate
change, integrating its results into political, legal and insti-
tutional frameworks at the national level. Ecosystem-based
Adaptation is a common practice in zones of coastal river
and mangrove areas, sea grasses and coral reefs, due to the
natural capacity of these ecosystems to regulate or mitigate
impacts resulting, for example, from the force of the water in
cases of storms and floods, or from the effect of sea level
rise (BIOMARCC-SINAC-GIZ, 2013; INVEMAR et al., 2014).
Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
Ecosystem-based Adaptation seeks to increase resilience
through specific measures that are primarily supported by the
ecosystem services themselves. However, most adaptation
actions are undertaken to cope with current extreme events,
such as heat waves and cyclones, rather than to protect ecosys-
tems. Nevertheless, it is observed that Ecosystem-based Adap-
tation is being integrated into larger sectoral initiatives, such as
water resource planning, biodiversity protection, local adaptive
capacity building, coastal defense and disaster management
(March et al., 2011; Bautista González, 2014). Today, Marine
Protected Areas (MPAs) created to protect marine resources
and in particular to recover fisheries, represent successful mea-
sures that can be improved if they comply with attributes such
as the application of rules, management plans, participation
of fishermen in the management of MPAs, representation of
fishing communities on the MPA board, and the promotion of
sustainable fisheries (Di Franco et al., 2016). MPAs represent
aquatic territories where the legal challenges of connectivity
are very different from those of landscapes where private prop-
erty and commercial interests prevail. In marine landscapes
and coastal zones subject to a certain special management
regime, public management of natural spaces and the natural
heritage of the State predominate. Such public management
must be equipped with considerable means and resources to
enable law enforcement using patrols and controls in marine
areas that are often remote and difficult to access.
4.4.1. Adaptation options
As a way to respond to hazards imposed by climate change
on their coastal marine ecosystems, RIOCC countries have
identified adaptation options related to biodiversity, fisher-
ies, infrastructure, and risk management. Some adaptation
options identified by countries such as Costa Rica, El Sal-
vador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, and Pana-
ma include protection of vulnerable ecosystems, mangrove
reforestation, integrated management of marine and coastal
ecosystems, maintenance of water and sediment flow in riv-
ers to avoid coastal erosion, enlargement of natural buffer
zones for areas exposed to hurricanes and flooding, relo-
cation of settlements located in vulnerable areas, sustain-
able management of soil and water use in deltas, providing
space for ecosystem change and strengthening pollution con-
trols, development of early warning systems for floods, risk
assessment for fisheries and aquaculture, management of
fisheries, protection of endangered species, improved man-
agement of protected areas, and promotion of traditional and
ancestral practices for the use and management of natural
coastal and marine resources (Keller et al., 2011). Table 4.7
illustrates a general classification of the main adaptation
options in the field of coastal marine ecosystems.
4.4.2. Planned adaptation activities
There are over a dozen regional institutions and initiatives for
adaptation and mitigation that in recent years have increased
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 135
 136
Table 4.7. Categories and examples of adaptation options in RIOCC countries, based on Noble et al. (2014), modified.
Category Examples
Built Coastal protection infrastructure; flood control dikes and culverts; water storage and pumping; drainage improvements; beach creation; flood and hurricane

RIOCCADAPT REPORT
environment shelters; building codes; rain and storm water management; transportation and road infrastructure adaptation; floating houses; electrical infrastructure
(engineering) adjustment (Reguero et al., 2017; Martínez et al., 2019).
New crop and animal varieties; genetic techniques; traditional methods and technologies; conservationist agricultural practices; food storage and preservation
Technology facilities; hazard maps and monitoring technology; warning systems; mechanical and passive cooling; renewable energies; use of second generation fuels (Keller
Structural/ et al., 2011; Wedding et al., 2016).
Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems

physical
Ecological restoration (floodable coastal wetlands and savannas); increased biological diversity; afforestation and reforestation; mangrove conservation and
Based on
planting; fire reduction; green infrastructure; overfishing controls; fisheries co-management; assisted migration or managed translocation; ecological corridors; ex
ecosystems
situ conservation and seed bank; community-based natural resource management (Vides et al., 2012; Lithgow et al. 2017; Sedoon et al., 2018).
Safety and social protection networks; food banks and distribution of food surpluses; municipal services (sanitation); international trade; sustainable tourism
Services
(Nava Escudero, 2008).
Raising awareness and integration into education; gender equity; dissemination services; sharing local and traditional knowledge; participatory action-research
Dissemination/
and social learning; community records; knowledge sharing and learning platforms; international conferences and research networks; communication through the
Disclosure
media (Mora-Jácome et al., 2018).
Hazard and vulnerability mapping; early warning and response systems; systematic monitoring and remote sensing; climate services (improved forecasting);
Social Information
downscaling of climate scenarios; longitudinal data sets; integration of climate observations of local and indigenous communities; community-based adaptation
Management
plans; development of participatory scenarios (Botello et al., 2017).
Adjustment or migration (with health and human security implications for which individuals or governments must take responsibility); diversification of livelihoods;
Behavioral
reliance on social networks (Sanchez Cohen et al., 2012).
Financial incentives (taxes and subsidies); insurance (weather-based insurance scheme); catastrophe bonds; returnable funds; payments for ecosystem services;
Economy
savings groups; microfinance; disaster contingency funds; cash transfers.
Land management laws; construction standards; support laws for disaster reduction; laws to support the purchase of insurance against disasters; definition of
Laws and
property rights and land tenure; protected areas; protected marine and coastal areas; fishing quotas; patents and technology transfer; jurisprudential protection
regulations
Institutional applicable to coastal marine ecosystems; regulatory instruments for the protection of coastal marine ecosystems (Díaz Cano, 2015).
National, regional and municipal adaptation plans (includes national cross-cutting climate change planning); disaster planning and management; plans at city
Government,
and coastal town levels; sectoral plans (integrated water and landscape management, integrated coastal and marine management; energy, fisheries, tourism,
policies and
aquaculture, etc.); adaptive management; ecosystem-based management; sustainable natural resource management (fisheries, mangroves, wetlands);
programs
community-based adaptation (Olivo et al., 2012; Wedding et al., 2016).

their awareness of the relevance of the ecosystem services
of coastal marine habitats in Ibero-America, and the risk that
climate change represents for their preservation (Table 4.3).
At present, the ECOMAR Network (the Valuation and Moni-
toring of Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Services Network)
in Ibero-America (CYTED), together with partners in Brazil,
Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Spain, Mexico, Peru, Portugal and
Venezuela, is conducting a systematic review of all projects,
initiatives and scientific studies on the contribution of marine
protected areas to the provision and maintenance of coastal
marine ecosystem services in RIOCC countries, and their role
in coping with climate change (https://www.redecomar.org).
The IUCN Regional Office for Mexico, Central America and the
Caribbean has undertaken several adaptation programs at
the regional level, and in particular, how Ecosystem-based
Adaptation is being reflected in the Nationally Determined
Contributions to the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change of the Mesoamerican countries (Luna-Ro-
dríguez and Pérez de Madrid-Utrilla, 2019).
Ecological restoration, conservation in protected areas, and
co-management in natural resource management in coastal
areas can function as important adaptation instruments (Yer-
ena et al., 2018). Protected areas have been considered an
essential component of national strategies to address the
impacts of climate change and the disasters that can result
from extreme weather events (McNeely, 2016). Protected
areas often contain ecosystems that are effective in storing
carbon and contribute significantly to climate change adap-
tation. Management approaches that should be supported
include the establishment of corridors between protected
areas that expand their influence to the landscape scale,
incorporating the multiple ecosystem services they provide
and integrating the communities for their co-management
(Yerena et al., 2018).
The region’s countries should continue developing and imple-
menting National Adaptation Plans. Few have submitted their
plans under the Paris Agreement: Brazil (2016), Chile (2017),
Colombia (2018), Guatemala (2019), and Uruguay (2019)
have already done so while other countries are expected to
comply in the near future (Nagy et al., 2019).
4.4.2.1. Supranational scale
There is a growing development of initiatives at the supra-
national level for coastal marine environments (Lausche et
al., 2013). A set of legal instruments and public policies for
marine space planning exists in the Americas, for example,
the Mesoamerican Reef System off the Yucatan Peninsu-
la protects the second largest barrier reef after Australia’s
Great Barrier Reef, and involves states and non-governmental
organizations from Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mex-
ico. Several Latin American countries continue to establish
marine protected areas and other biological corridors such
as the Eastern Tropical Pacific Marine Corridor between
Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Panama. National and
local land planning efforts have also focused on coastal and
Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
marine areas, through Marine Spatial Planning, which can
involve not only national authorities and international agen-
cies, but also fishing communities.
In the Caribbean, CARICOMP, Reef Check, International
Coral Reef Network (ICRAN), Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef
Assessment (AGRRA), and Coast and Beach Stability Proj-
ect (COSALC), among others, contribute with information in
order to analyze trends in ecosystems or coastal marine
habitats in the region. First, these networks facilitate the
integration of regional knowledge for addressing adapta-
tion to climate change, recognizing the establishment of
a framework for a comprehensive interpretation of phe-
nomena at a regional scale as a priority, which allows for
modeling and projecting trends to formulate adaptation
measures (Hernández-Zanuy, 2014; Cortés et al., 2019).
The CYTED CARIbero S.O.S. Network brings these exchang-
es of information together, seeking to provide a scientific
basis for improving the health and resilience of marine and
coastal ecosystems in the Ibero-American region, “through
the integrated development of methodologies for restoring
degraded ecosystems and those of great ecological vulner-
ability such as coral reefs, and performing assessments
of climate change scenarios and impacts on marine and
coastal biodiversity in the region”.
4.4.2.2. National scale
Colombia’s National Plan of Adaptation to Climate Change
includes an adaptation component in coastal areas and a
response to rising sea levels (Vides, 2008; Vides et al.,
2012). Its suggested policies include the “Proactive man-
agement and integrated risk management due to rising sea
levels” policy, which sets the goal of “Including adaptation
measures for rising sea levels and risk management actions
into plans and schemes for the territorial planning of depart-
mental and municipal authorities” (Vides, 2008). Colombia’s
National Development Plan 2014-2018 includes the Carib-
bean region “concerning climate risk mitigation, ecosystem
protection, and coastal marine management; whose strat-
egies involve the conservation and sustainable use of the
nation’s natural marine and continental capital through the
implementation of the Marine Protected Areas Subsystem”
(Díaz Cano, 2015).
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been viewed as a viable
alternative for protecting coastal marine biodiversity and eco-
systems and its ecosystem services (Roberts et al., 2017).
The United Nations has fixed a target for each country to
protect at least 10% of its seas by 2020; however, achiev-
ing this poses difficulties (Sala et al., 2018). Moreover, the
target does not include more than 60% of the oceans com-
prising international waters. Ibero-American countries have
created a significant number of MPAs (Table 4.2). Based
on available data, only seven countries in the region have
exceeded the 10% proposed for the creation of these pro-
tected areas: Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Mexico, Dominican
Republic, and Venezuela (Table 4.2). Other countries are a
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 137
 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
long way from reaching this goal: Costa Rica, Guatemala,
Nicaragua, Peru, Portugal, and Uruguay. One further aspect
is that the figures for some countries have been questioned,
such as the case of Brazil, where complaints have been made
affirming that some MPAs exist only on paper given that
no actual protective actions are being implemented in the
area (Magris and Pressey, 2018). Additionally, extraction is
allowed in many of the marine protected territories, in viola-
tion of explicit prohibitions established in various protection
categories (Sala et al., 2018; Pita et al., 2019). Moreover,
MPAs may not necessarily be able to protect the marine
resources they are safeguarding from the expected impacts
of the future climate according to the most recent climate
projections (Bruno et al., 2018; Pita et al., 2019). In these
scenarios, the expectation is that countries will direct their
efforts towards creating more MPAs, strictly complying with
the specifications of the law, and that international negoti-
ations will continue with the aim of protecting international
waters in all their extension and depth.
4.4.2.3. Local scale
There are numerous examples of community-based manage-
ment of coastal marine resources in the region; of these,
the efforts of certain regional projects in Central America
are notable. One such example is the PROARCA-Costas proj-
ect which defined the conservation priorities for the region’s
coastal marine ecosystems. Specifically, the PROARCA-Cos-
tas project promoted the protection of internationally import-
ant wetlands such as the Gulf of Fonseca, located between
El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. It also helped identify
the conservation status of wetlands and coastal communities
that managed them, such as San Pond Sak National Park,
and the reefs of Bastimentos National Park in the province
of Bocas del Toro in Panama (Rodríguez and Windevoxhel,
1998).
The Small Donations Program in Costa Rica has also sup-
ported the work of coastal communities in the management
of fishing resources, such as the Ostional Wildlife Refuge
where the community created, jointly with the Ministry of
Environment and Energy and Universidad de Costa Rica, a
Community-Based Sea Turtle Management Committee (CIMA-
CO). This has been a successful experience involving over 20
years of community work in the field of sustainable wildlife
management in an important nesting area for olive ridley
(Lepidochelys olivacea) and leatherback (Dermochelys coria-
cea) sea turtles. This experience demonstrates that sustain-
able management of a marine species such as the sea turtle
can be attained at the community level, with tangible benefits
for the community and the species (MINAE-SINAC, 2017).
4.4.3. Autonomous adaptation activities
One of the consequences of global change is the alteration
of the periodicity of extreme events—rises in sea surface
temperature and heavy rainfall are modifying coastal salinity.
138 RIOCCADAPT REPORT
Projections suggest that on Europe’s Atlantic coast, extreme
heat waves and rainfall will occur with greater frequency,
intensity and duration. This stress could lead to episodes
of mass mortality, depending on the species, life cycle or
spatial-temporal context (Parada et al., 2012). Shellfish
picking in Galicia is a very important economic activity and
involves the exploitation of more than 60 species (mollusks,
crustaceans, gastropods, echinoderms, annelids, anemones,
algae) worth more than 60 million euros per year. These
species are highly dependent on environmental conditions;
drivers such as salinity fluctuations in banks due to heavy
rainfall in 2000-2001 (Parada et al., 2012) and 2013-2014
caused extreme mortality in the Galician rias.
Female shellfish pickers are being affected by changes in
catch species, such as increased mortality (in some cases
massive), reduced abundance, size, and increased frequency
of parasites and red tides (Villasante et al., 2018). In order
to adapt to these changes, the female shellfish pickers—
with the support of the Galician regional administration—are
designing strategies to successfully transform the socio-eco-
logical system. These women were pioneers in promoting
their participation in the co-management system of shellfish
resources by co-designing annual exploitation plans since the
1990s, resulting in the recovery of species (Macho et al.,
2013; Villasante et al., 2018; Pita et al., 2019). They are
more involved in training tasks, in taking responsibility for
managing their groups and exerting greater vigilance in the
activity, which has enhanced internal cohesion between the
women. Their improved organization has optimized production
costs with a view to expand the cleaning and regeneration
tasks of the shellfish banks. The co-design of and compliance
with exploitation plans allowed for obtaining greater financial
and social income and acquiring benefits (unemployment
benefits and paid medical leave, among others) from the
Spanish Social Security system (Villasante et al., 2018).
4.5. Barriers, opportunities
and interactions
Oceans have absorbed half of all anthropogenic emissions
throughout the past two centuries (United Nations Ocean
Conference, 2017; Cifuentes-Jara et al., 2018). Ecosystems
containing “blue carbon” such as mangroves, seagrass beds,
estuaries, coastal lagoons, marshes and other marine eco-
systems are among the most important carbon sinks on the
planet (United Nations Ocean Conference, 2017). Coastal
ecosystems present in RIOCC countries, such as marshes,
mangroves, seagrass beds, macro-algae forests and coral
reefs, often combine carbon sink functions, with measurable
co-benefits in terms of biodiversity, coastal protection and
recruitment of commercially relevant marine species (Laffo-
ley and Grimsditch, 2009; Cifuentes-Jara et al., 2018).
Tropical, subtropical and temperate coastal marine environ-
ments in RIOCC countries represent strategic advantages of

an ecological and commercial nature in the definition of cli-
mate change adaptation actions due to their resilience, which
lies in their biological diversity, productivity, ecosystem value
and significance in the carbon cycle balance. (CPPS/UNES-
CO/CI/Hivos, 2015; Uribe-Botero, 2015). The IPBES report
(IPBES 2018) indicates that marine and terrestrial ecosys-
tems are globally responsible for sequestering a total of 5.6
gigatons of CO2—equivalent to 60% of global emissions from
fossil fuels. The diversity of coastal marine environments
evidences their superior plasticity in adapting to cyclical cli-
mate variability events (El Niño and La Niña) and extreme
weather events (e.g. sea heat waves, hurricanes, storm
surges) (Table 4.4). However, resilience of many of these
ecosystems to natural and anthropogenic climate changes
is limited or compromised by exposure to hazards (climatic
or otherwise) and vulnerability due to ecosystem fragility.
For example, exposure to water bodies different from those
to which the coastal marine environments are subjected, to
changes in currents, to changes in the physical and chemical
characteristics of water (warmer, more acidic), or to changes
in water quality, constitutes a risk. This condition affects
their resilience and can increase the hazard to both their bio-
logical and ecological attributes which sustain the ecosystem
services they provide, and to their natural adaptive capacity
in response to climate change.
Identifying interactions between adaptation and mitigation
measures requires developing new scientific and policy
approaches. In coastal marine environments, this identi-
fication and subsequent integration is challenged by the
natural dynamics of these environments and the pressure
of resource use. They constitute complex spatial-temporal
systems whose geographical and political-administrative
boundaries demand levels of biological and socio-cultural
knowledge and information that are not always readily avail-
able. They also require an institutional framework and polit-
ical will subject to other interests that may demand actions
that compete with climate-related actions. The IPCC (2014)
cautions on the need to promote without delay a paradigm
shift of the prevailing economic model, in terms of production
and natural resource use, which will enable a reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions while helping natural and human
systems adapt to climate change.
4.6. Indicators of adaptation
effectiveness
The literature on the need to attain a common understanding
of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and how its effectiveness
can be measured is expanding (Doswald et al., 2014; Ham-
mill et al., 2014; FEBA, 2017). However, practical experience
in adaptation, and particularly in coastal marine ecosystems,
is still incipient (Doswald et al., 2014). It is also uncommon
to find long-term data series or systematizations of experi-
ences specifically aimed at measuring the effectiveness of
Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
Ecosystem-based Adaptation. The evidence required should
ideally be scientific (clear hypotheses, rigorous data analysis
and validation applying statistical methods). However, there
are other types of evidence that can be based, for example,
on the local communities’ perception of changes in ecosys-
tems over time, on the clear and consistent collection of
results of experiences within specific case studies (limited
to a certain period of time and geographical area) or, among
others, on the documentary analysis of databases (Córdoba
and Marín, 2019).
A study by IISD and GIZ proposed the development of adapta-
tion indicators based on monitoring and evaluation systems
for adaptation projects in different countries (Hammill, 2014).
Doswald et al. (2014) developed criteria and indicators to
measure the effectiveness of different Ecosystem-based
Adaptation measures. Adaptation measures (or interventions)
in coastal areas include management and realignment of the
maritime land area in response to sea level rise, integrated
coastal zone management, mangrove restoration, and wet-
land regeneration and protection in estuarine and riparian
ecosystems (Doswald et al., 2014).
Despite effor ts to show the effectiveness of Ecosys-
tem-based Adaptation, it is still necessary to previously
define a series of criteria for building indicators that will be
used to that end. The design of any adaptation intervention
in coastal marine ecosystems should be participatory and,
moreover, include a monitoring and evaluation system to pro-
vide necessary information over time so as to show beneficial
changes in the integrity of the ecosystems and improvement
in services for human well-being. This is one of the main
challenges for measuring effectiveness, aside from the fact
that improvements in the health of ecosystems can only be
perceived in the long term (Córdoba and Marín, 2019).
4.7. Case studies
4.7.1. Vulnerability assessment,
alternative scenarios and
Ecosystem-based Adaptation:
Uruguay
4.7.1.1. Case summary
Coastal areas are among the most vulnerable to climate
change and extreme weather events. As a measure to adapt
to these changes, a successful Ecosystem-based Adaptation
process was carried out on the Uruguayan coast between
2014 and 2017. The process was participatory and con-
sensus-based by engaging the local community and was
developed with the support of a Global Environment Facility
(GEF) project and the local government. Vulnerability was
assessed, alternative scenarios were analyzed, and ecosys-
tem-based measures were chosen, such as, switching intro-
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 139
 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
duced eucalyptus trees with native dune vegetation. This is
an example that could be replicated in other coastal areas.
4.7.1.2. Introduction to the case problem
Coastal areas are vulnerable to climate change due to exter-
nal physical, social and exposure drivers that can be consid-
ered essentially uncontrollable in the short- to medium-term
(years and decades). These include climate stressors (ris-
ing sea levels, sea warming, storms, El Niño) and non-cli-
mate stressors (increasing population density, poverty and
inequality) (Villamizar et al., 2016; Leal Filho et al., 2018).
Natural ecosystems, ecosystem services, and populations
in coastal areas are exposed and sensitive to flooding (per-
manent and temporary), erosion and habitat loss, which will
continue in the absence of adaptation measures, particularly
in low-lying coastal areas (Neumann et al., 2015; Villamizar
et al., 2016; Leal Filho et al., 2018).
4.7.1.3. Case description
An experience developed in Uruguay between 2014 and
2017 to increase coastal resilience is presented. Resil-
ience here is understood as “the capacity of a communi-
ty, business or natural environment to prevent, withstand,
respond to, and recover from a disruption” (U.S. Climate
Resilience Toolkit, 2018). This experience is local—devel-
oped at the community level—but is progressively framed
within a developing national strategy on coastal and city
and infrastructure NAPs.
The Uruguayan coast is experiencing moderate sea level rise
and increasing hazards from groundswell which call for the
development of a set of measures to increase resilience to
extreme events (Nagy et al., 2014; Verocai et al., 2015). An
Ecosystem-based Adaptation experience was planned and
implemented beginning in 2013 at the community level in
Kiyú (San José sub-national government), on the coast of the
Río de la Plata estuary, to increase local resilience and serve
as a later replication (Carro et al., 2018; Nagy and Gutiérrez,
2018). Kiyú is a small tourist town with cultural heritage due
to its rural tradition and archaeological sites. This microtidal
coast is characterized by erosive ravines, sandy beaches and
dunes, as well as high eucalyptus trees that are vulnerable
to flooding due to storm surges, river flooding, and heavy
rainfall intensified by El Niño.
An increase of 15 mm per year in mean sea level is estimat-
ed for 2100, and changes in annual rainfall distribution and
wind frequency are expected by 2050 (from 1990) (IPCC,
2019). Under this scenario of rising water levels, groundswell
and more frequent heavy rainfall would increase the occur-
rence, extent and impact of coastal flooding and erosion,
resulting in the loss of ecosystems, ravines, falling trees and
damage to infrastructure. The results of this experience are
summarized as follows (Nagy et al., 2017):
140 RIOCCADAPT REPORT
• Changes in coastal vegetation. The tall eucalyptus trees,
which fall easily during storms and destroy the ravines,
were cut down and replaced by low native wind-resistant
vegetation that allows the entry of light for the develop-
ment of dune-fixing grass.
• Installation of biodegradable green structures for sand
retention and dune recovery. This allows for the recons-
truction of a proto-dune and greater resistance to the
wind and groundswell (since 2014).
• Resilient infrastructure: i) water drainage to reduce ero-
sion due to heavy rains, and ii) re-profiling of roads to
allow rainwater catchment and prevent erosive flows in
ravines and dunes.
• The creation at the sub-national level of the Departmen-
tal Office of Climate Change (ODCC), which allows for
mainstreaming climate action into coastal management
to improve the capacities and engagement of actors
(local government, local actors, academia, a GEF pro-
ject, and the national government). This is an innovation
in the framework of the current institutional and legal
order.
• Since the implementation of Ecosystem-based Adaptation
measures, ecosystem restoration, and increasing coastal
resilience and the creation of the ODCC in 2015, the
measures have proven to be efficient against extreme
events, allowing rapid restoration of the beach, dunes
and marshes.
4.7.1.4. Limitations and interactions
This case study represents a pilot experience on a reduced
local scale and involves specific problems, therefore its rep-
lication potential is limited.
The most relevant interactions refer to climate action inte-
gration within the context of integrated coastal management
to overcome environmental problems with multiple socio-en-
vironmental, not merely climatic, co-benefits (Nagy et al.,
2014).
4.7.1.5. Lessons learned
The integration of climate change adaptation, integrated
coastal management and hydro-meteorological risk manage-
ment was made possible through a participatory and consen-
sus-based process based on Ecosystem-based Adaptation.
Adaptation should focus on increasing resilience to existing
problems by selecting adaptation actions that are gradual,
acceptable to actors and can be implemented within the
existing institutional and legal framework. Potential future
impacts can be addressed within the framework of the ODCC
created by each country.

4.7.2. Mangrove restoration in El
Delgadito, Baja California, Mexico:
successful community-based
adaptation to climate change
4.7.2.1. Case summary
Mangroves are coastal ecosystems of major importance on
account of the multiple environmental services they provide,
including protecting the coast from oceanographic impacts.
With climate change, extreme wave and sea level rise events
are increasing. As a measure to protect mangroves and a
climate change adaptive action, in El Delgadito, Baja Cali-
fornia, Mexico, red mangroves were successfully reforested
between 2014 and 2017 with approximately 40,000 trans-
planted seedlings. The capture of propagules, their germina-
tion and transplantation was accomplished using artisanal
methods and was almost fully self-funded by the low-income
fishing community.
4.7.2.2. Introduction to the case problem
Sea level rise is one of the impacts of climate change that is
most likely to affect coastal areas, primordially causing flood-
ing of low-lying zones and increased coastal erosion (McFad-
den et al., 2007). Thus, the reforestation of mangroves in
USA
PACIFIC OCEAN
Figure 4.2. Location of El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve (light green) and El Delgadito fishing area. Source: Compiled by the authors; map taken
from Google Maps.
Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
tropical areas is a highly recommended adaptation action, as
they act as a barrier protecting the coast from marine erosion
(Spalding et al., 2014) and have a large CO2 sequestration
and storage capacity (Mcleod et al., 2011). El Delgadito fish-
ing camp is located inside El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve in
Mexico (Figure 4.2), a town of exemplary conservation of the
northernmost mangroves of the country’s Pacific Northwest.
According to a survey conducted among the region’s inhabi-
tants (Borbón, 2017), mangroves are thought to protect the
community from tidal wave and hurricane flooding and from
the resulting coastal erosion caused by the waves. They
also believe that mangroves play an important role in main-
taining water quality, serving as a “nursery” for larvae and
juveniles of species of commercial interest and for buffering
the impact of high temperatures (WILDCOAST, 2016a, b;
Borbón, 2017). A large number of dry mangroves have been
observed in recent years (Figure 4.3a), which, in the inhabi-
tants’ opinion, is due to climate change and the proliferation
of an algae that surrounds their roots (Borbón, 2017). There
is still no information on the algae and in response to the
inhabitants’ concern, a number of scientists are investigating
the phenomenon.
4.7.2.3. Case description
Due to the deterioration of mangroves observed in recent
years and the community’s concern in this regard, the Borbón
family (Figure 4.3b) has become involved in the mangrove
Guerrero Negro
Bahía Tortugas EL VIZCAÍNO
BIOSPHERE
RESERVE Santa Rosalía
San Ignacio
Bahía Asunción
Punta Abreojos
Delgadito fishing camp
Mexico GULF OF MEXICO
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 141
 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
reforestation activity by transplanting seedlings germinated
from propagules using traditional methods (Figure 4.3c). The
activity has been highly successful—during the last three
years some 40,000 new seedlings have been transplanted
(Figure 4.3d). Very importantly, a group of young people and
women from the community actively participate in cleaning
and transplanting seedlings, as well as in monitoring activi-
ties (Montaño-Gómez, 2017).
4.7.2.4. Limitations and interactions
The scarcity of funds is, on the whole, one of the greatest
limitations, since it restricts both the logistics and the material
required to reforest and care for the mangroves. The recom-
mendation is therefore, to provide further governmental and
civil society organization support to this type of successful nat-
ural resource protection projects. Lack of knowledge is another
limitation; therefore the importance of fostering links between
communities and research institutions should be emphasized.
Lack of education among the communities has been marked as
another limitation, which is why programs advocating communi-
ty-based environmental education are recommended.
Being a community activity, the most observed interactions
are those of a social nature, such as the involvement of wom-
en and youth in the proposal’s tasks; however, certain signif-
Figure 4.3. (a) Impact on mangroves; (b) Propagules and red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle)
seedlings; (c) the Borbón family in a recently reforested site; and (d) first-stage reforested
mangrove plants. Photo: Antonina Ivanova, 2017.
142 RIOCCADAPT REPORT
icant, albeit minimal, support was provided by the Reserve’s
authorities and a few non-governmental organizations.
4.7.2.5. Lessons learned
The mangrove reforestation activity was a success. New man-
groves are being formed over several kilometers of beaches,
representing a benefit to both the community and the envi-
ronment. By protecting these coasts from climate effects,
the “nursery” area for species of commercial and ecological
interest grows and contributes to the sequestration of atmo-
spheric carbon.
Moreover, the start-up and development of the project allowed
for greater community interaction between young people and
adults on environmental issues and caring for natural resources,
with the participation of numerous women being most notable.
Environmental education was also promoted at the community
level based on mangrove reforestation, inviting school children
to observe and participate in the activities.
4.8. Main knowledge gaps
and priority lines of action
Despite multiple benefits from syner-
gies between adaptation and mitigation
in coastal areas, no holistic valuation
scheme is in place to integrate climate
policy with appropriate development
strategies for these areas that are meant
to be aligned with the integrated coastal
zone management plans existing in all
RIOCC countries. Nor are there tools for
an integrated assessment of the impact
of adaptation measures on coastal
marine areas.
In most countries, there is insufficient
knowledge or lack of consideration of the
additional economic and environmental
benefits, inter alia, resulting from inte-
grated adaptation and mitigation actions
in the coastal marine zone, for example:
employment generation; maintenance
and improvement of road infrastructure;
reduction of natural resource use; pri-
vate sector investment, particularly in
agriculture and tourism; conservation
of natural resources and their ecosys-
temic functions; environmental health of
ecosystems; the creation of innovative
political and social institutions with the
flexibility to innovate; and generating
credibility and legitimizing governance
and food security actions.

In LAC RIOCC countries, particularly in tropical countries,
there is a significant lack of basic knowledge on biodiversity,
ecology and the evolution of coastal marine ecosystems.
Practically no studies on the synergy of natural disturbances
and anthropogenic impacts on coastal marine ecosystems
and their socio-economic impacts exist in RIOCC countries.
Examples of actions to increase the health and resilience to
climate change of coastal marine ecosystems do exist, but
they are exceptional. Several countries have experiences in
2. Can adaptation for coastal marine environments
working directly with communities to build local capacity, but
much more work needs to be undertaken and expanded to
all RIOCC countries.
Finally, there is a need for economic assessments derived
from inaction: the cost of doing nothing vs. taking measures.
The cost of adaptation measures needs to be determined;
therefore, funding projects for adaptation to climate change
and extreme events in the coastal and marine zone is essen-
tial.
4.9. Conclusions
Ibero-America is blessed with an extraordinary biological
diversity, and a significant proportion of this diversity is
found in the region’s coastal and marine ecosystems. The
well-being and development of a significant segment of
the Ibero-American population depends, directly or indirectly,
on the productivity and health of these ecosystems. Many
regional economies depend on fishing and tourism activities;
therefore their sustainable development must involve a sus-
tainable management of these resources.
Options are available in RIOCC countries to reduce the vulner-
ability and exposure of human populations to the direct and
indirect impacts of climate change in coastal areas. The case
studies presented illustrate some of the ongoing efforts in
Ecosystem-based Adaptation at the local level in their coast-
al areas. The need for collaborative efforts in terms of the
3. What is the current status of climate change
conservation and protection of coastal ecosystems, marine
spaces, and large marine ecosystems is observed. A number
of ideas are presented to guide climate change adaptation
efforts in coastal areas and marine ecosystems.
In addition, major coastal and marine ecosystems, such as
mangroves, phanerogamic seagrasses, and macro-algae
forests are key ecosystems in global carbon sequestration.
Frequently Asked Questions
1. Is the definition of adaptation used for coastal
marine ecosystems the same as the definition of
general adaptation used for climate change?
There are several definitions of adaptation, although
they all have in common the goal of mitigating harm
or taking advantage of beneficial opportunities deriving
Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
from climate change. For this report, we use the SREX
Report definition (IPCC, 2013): “In human systems, the
process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and
its effects, in order to moderate harm or exploit ben-
eficial opportunities. In natural systems, the process
of adjustment to actual climate and its effects; human
intervention may facilitate adjustment to expected cli-
mate”.
be differentiated from normal developmental
actions?
Adaptation and development are conceptually linked by
the fact that climate change is a development problem,
therefore, it is a matter of public policy adaptation, on the
other hand, is a public policy measure aimed at moderat-
ing or taking advantage of its effects. Development effects
in coastal marine areas have been traditionally addressed
by land use planning measures, integrated coastal zone
management, and the creation of protected areas. These
traditional measures have been mainstreamed into a more
extensive and specific group of climate change adaptation
measures (such as ecosystem-based management, build-
ing local adaptive capacities, building climate resilience,
integrating climate adaptation into strategic planning, and
system restoration), which contribute to improvements
in local livelihoods, greater access to marine and coast-
al resources, and a higher restoration capacity (reduced
vulnerability and increased resilience). These results are
equally expected to be provided by development given
the wide range of uncertainties facing households and
communities. However, pursuing development priorities
without focusing on a changing climate world could under-
mine development efforts either by failing to adapt to the
possibility of a climate change or by implementing actions
that rule out options for dealing with climate changes
(maladaptation).
adaptation planning and implementation in RIOCC
countries?
The literature refers more to plans and adaptation strat-
egies at the national level for some RIOCC countries,
while more cases of implementation based on Ecosys-
tem-based Adaptation are being documented at the local
level. Several sectors (e.g. Disaster Risk Reduction,
fishing resources planning, tourism planning) address
adaptation within their traditional planning context to
varying degrees. Mainstreaming adaptation, i.e. con-
tinuously integrating adaptation planning into different
sectoral approaches to climate change impacts, repre-
sents a challenge. A number of experiences concerning
climate change adaptation do exist. For example, while
local fishing communities adapt their practices to climate
change from one year to the next (e.g., selection of spe-
cies to be fished), fishing systems adapt to the changing
climate on a long-term basis (Nagy et al., 2019).
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 143
 Chapter 4 – Coastal Marine Ecosystems
Acknowledgements
JC would like to express his gratitude for the invitation to coor-
dinate this chapter and to Rocío Córdoba Muñoz for her revision
of the final version. SV would like to thank the ECOMAR Net-
work-Evaluation and Monitoring of Marine and Coastal Ecosystem
Services for its funding of the CYTED program in Ibero-America.
We thank also the colaboration of Gisela Heckel (CICESE, Méxi.),
Antonina Ivanova (Univ. Autónoma de Baja California Sur, Méx.)
and Christian Salvadeo (CONACYT - Univ. Autónoma de Baja Cal-
ifornia Sur, Méx.) in the case study: “Mangrove restoration in El
Delgadillo, Baja California, México: successful community-based
adaptation to climate change”, and Beatriz Naranjo-Elizondo for
the preparation of Figure 4.1, and to the official RIOCC review-
ers, and the academic reviewers from Latin America and the
Iberian Peninsula for their comments and corrections that helped
improve this document. We thank Mariana Cortés-Kandler for the
review of this English version of the chapter.
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