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Theory and Application of Reciprocating Compressors
Theory and Application of Reciprocating Compressors
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@ @ @ E F @ G G E
A A A K
Theory and Application
Of
Reciprocating Compressors
Presented By
George McKinney
Reciprocating/Positive Displacement Compressors
Gas compression has been one of the anchor points of the industrial revolution,
beginning with low pressure air supply for iron and steel refining, through higher
pressure air supply for drilling and plant operating equipment, to high pressures as
required for chemical synthesis, storage and pipeline deliveries of fuel gases. The
positive displacement compressors in use today can trace their ancestry back to
the original pumping machines invented by James Watts, or the bellows and
blowers of blacksmiths.
Piston type compressors have a solid position in this field: the technology is
mature (more than a century of development), the fabrication process is straight
forward, and the equipment is extremely scalable, ranging from miniature
emergency tire inflation pumps to compressors of 10,000 horsepower or more.
These latter are particularly used in the chemical process and gas transmission
industries. There the requirements for high reliability, extreme range in
throughput volume, and flexibility in operating pressures make an excellent fit for
reciprocating piston compressors. This module describes the operating
characteristics of various positive displacement compressors and develops the
theory, basic calculations and rudiments of control for the piston type
reciprocating compression process. While some references are to the gas
compression and transmission industry, the same equipment construction and
control methods are used in process compressors for industries such as
petrochemicals and chemical synthesis.
1. Positive Displacement Compressor Types
1.1 Piston (Reciprocating)
The reciprocating piston compressor is the most widely used equipment for gas
service. The basic design consists of a piston in a cylinder with pressure actuated
check valves to control suction and discharge flow through the cylinder. Standard
practice is to have the piston driven by a rod passing through a packing case to
seal against pressure leaks. With this double acting design, gas can be
compressed on both sides of the piston. The basic design is more than a hundred
years old, and is well developed. The throughput and loading can be adjusted by
speed variation, addition of clearance to the cylinders, deactivating cylinders to
reduce displacement or active control of valve closing, which effectively gives
variable control of displacement. Efficiencies of this type of compressor can be
more than 85 percent for conversion of horsepower input to pressure rise.
1.2 Vane
1.4 Screw(Rotary)
The operation of a screw compressor is similar to the blower, except that the
compression chambers are formed between two intermeshed elements similar to
worm gears or screw threads. This compressor also requires oil injection for
sealing and cooling. It is designed for high pressure ratios but is usually limited
to discharge pressures below 250 Psig.
2. Reciprocating Piston Compressor Components
The illustration below shows a double acting compressor cylinder. In this case,
the crankshaft drives a connecting rod which transmits force through a crosshead
pin to a crosshead (similar to a trunk piston), moving in a slide. This converts the
eccentric motion of the connecting rod to a pure linear force. A compressor rod
connected to the crosshead transmits force to the compressor piston. In this case,
the cylinder can be sealed on both ends, with the rod passing through a packing
case to seal gas from leaking. This cylinder then can compress gas on both faces.
By adding a vented space between the cylinder and crosshead, any leakage from
the cylinder can be vented to a safe location, allowing handling of hazardous
gases.
2.2 Piston/Rings
The compressor piston converts the energy/work supplied by the engine, applying
it to the gas to raise its pressure. The piston must be strong enough to withstand
the pressures and forces applied, but still be as light as possible, to minimize
reciprocating weights and the resulting shaking forces. The compressor rings seal
gas pressure to avoid leaking from one side of the piston to the other. The piston
may also be fitted with a rider band, which is a low friction material to keep the
metal piston from contacting the bore of the cylinder and causing scuffing and
wear. Material for the rings and rider bands is selected to give long life and
minimal wear with the typical pressures and gas composition of the compressor.
While this is generally a low friction thermoplastic type material, rings may be
made of bronze or other materials when temperatures are a problem.
2.3 Valves
Compressor valves are simply fast acting check valves with a low pressure drop.
They must be optimized to balance the opposing demands for long operating life
and minimal pressure drop/flow losses. They may also have special features such
as center ports to allow cylinder unloading.
The compressor valve is possibly the most critical component when determining
the requirements for a compressor service. The flow area is sensitive, as too small
an area will give low efficiency, but too large an area can result in valve flutter
and early failure. Similarly, valve components must be designed for the expected
pressure and temperature conditions.
Valves have been designed with many configurations, particularly in the sealing
elements. These have progressed through steel, Bakelite, glass filled Teflon or
Nylon, and high strength plastics. The most popular designs for sealing elements
are ring shaped strips, mushroom shaped poppets, and straight channel strips.
2B Typical Compressor Valve Configurations - Cross Sections
A modification of this design is to have a large opening in the center of the valve.
This allows adding a cylinder deactivator or clearance volume to the cylinder.
This added feature comes at the expense of reduced flow area and efficiency. To
compensate for this, two valves may be assembled together with a flow passage
through the center. This double deck valve design has improved flow area and
efficiency. This type of valve can only be used in a cylinder designed to accept
its increased height.
2.4 Packing
A distance piece section may be placed between the crosshead and cylinder to
prevent leakage of gas from the compressor packing entering the compressor
crankcase. At the crosshead end, an oil seal around the compressor rod prevents
oil from migrating to the cylinder, and gas from entering the crankcase. This
distance piece is normally vented to remove any gas which leaks from the
packing. In cases of explosive or toxic gases there may be two distance pieces in
series, to assure containment of the gases.
3. Definition of Terms
3.3 Crosshead
A crosshead is a sliding component at the outer end of the connecting rod,
which converts the eccentric motion of the connecting rod to pure linear,
eliminating side forces on the compressor piston.
Cycle Events
For a more complete picture, assume starting the cycle with the compressor at the
bottom of its stroke, with maximum cylinder volume. The cylinder is full of gas
at suction pressure, and both suction and discharge valves are closed by gas
pressure. As the piston moves forward, the cylinder volume decreases and
pressure rises. When the cylinder pressure rises slightly above discharge
pressure, the discharge valve opens and gas is pushed into the discharge piping for
the rest of the stroke. At top center, the discharge valve closes. As there must be
clearance between the piston face and cylinder head to prevent parts hitting each
other, some volume of gas is trapped in the cylinder at discharge pressure. As the
piston moves back down the cylinder, this gas re-expands until it reaches suction
pressure. At this point, the suction valve opens and a fresh charge of gas flows
into the cylinder for the remainder of the stroke.
4.1 Volumetric Efficiency
As noted above, the cylinder does not bring gas in through the entire piston travel.
The percentage of stroke the suction valve is open, compared to the entire stroke
is called “volumetric efficiency”. If there were no clearance (volume) left when
the piston completed its compression stroke, then cylinder pressure would
immediately drop to suction pressure as the piston returned, giving 100 percent
volumetric efficiency.
Thus, the cylinder displacement would be equal to the volume delivered with each
stroke. However, due to gas re-expansion, the suction valve opening is delayed.
This delay becomes greater when the cylinder pressure ratio increases or the
clearance volume increases. Thus, the cylinder delivers a reduced volume to the
discharge condition.
The pictures below illustrate this effect, with the picture on left showing effect of
increasing clearance, and on right the effect of increasing pressure ratio. At high
pressure ratios, or with large amounts of clearance, the valve opening may be
delayed to the point that the valve does not open, and no gas flows through the
cylinder. This condition is called zero volumetric efficiency, and can cause
serious cylinder heating problems.
In normal operation, friction of rings on the cylinder creates heat which is carried
away with the gas being compressed. Since at zero volumetric efficiency, no gas
is entering or leaving the cylinder, all friction heating effects are contained within
the cylinder, causing an uncontrolled temperature rise. As the hot gas is
contained within the cylinder, normal temperature detection in the discharge line
will not be effective.
A key point to note is that for a given pressure differential, changing the
volumetric efficiency changes both the volume delivered and the work of the
cycle. This is the basis for load control of compressors by changing the cylinder
clearance.
Pressure ratio is the discharge pressure of the compressor divided by the suction
pressure. These pressures must be in absolute (Psia) rather than gauge (Psig)
pressure. As most operating gauges read in Psig, atmospheric pressure must be
added. This is normally about 14 Psi.
This is true for all types of compressors. This temperature rise may limit the
amount of pressure rise allowable across a compressor, or require special
components to withstand the temperature. This temperature must be reduced
before gas is put into underground pipelines, to prevent melting their protective
coatings.
In most cases, the discharge temperature from a compressor station must be kept
below 1250F, requiring gas coolers at higher pressure ratios. This is particularly
the case at storage and production stations, where high pressure ratios give
extreme discharge temperatures.
5 Compressor Operating Characteristics
When installing or operating a compressor, it will help to understand the reasons for
selecting a particular compressor type and its optional equipment. The following
describes some of the characteristics of reciprocating compressors and the need for
various features.
Compressor Limitations
Compressors are designed for a maximum stress on the cylinder body and the
attachment of heads on both ends. This maximum working pressure must not be
exceeded.
5.2 Temperature
In a double acting compressor, the piston rod receives the force of gas pressures
acting against the piston. The head end produces a compressive force, equal to
the pressure in the cylinder multiplied by the area of the piston. The crank
produces a tension force, again equal to pressure times area of the crank end of
the piston. These forces vary as the piston moves from suction to discharge
events. As piston area is constant for the two faces, the rod loading can be
expressed as:
From the above equation, it can be seen that for some maximum value of
compression or tension loading, there will be a maximum differential of suction to
discharge pressure.
In normal operation, as the piston goes through discharge on the outboard side, it
will have its maximum compressive force on the rod, and when discharging on
the inboard event, will give the maximum tension force. The sum of the head and
crank forces must be kept within a limit established by the manufacturer.
This represents the limit of strength of some component, either attachment of the
rod to the piston or crosshead, or strength of the oil film at the crosshead pin
bushing. In addition, the rod loading should reverse from compression to tension
for some specified period, to allow the oil film to rebuild at the crosshead pin and
bushing, preventing loss of lubrication and early failure.
The accompanying graph shows actual test points of suction volumetric efficiency
for a single stage storage unit. The points form a definite line for each of the
clearance conditions, with all the lines intersecting at a pressure ratio of 1.0 and a
volumetric efficiency of 100 percent. This shows the effects of ratio and
clearance on volumetric efficiency. By extending the plotted line and ratio scale,
it can be seen that for any clearance condition the line would go to zero at a high
ratio.
Effect on Engine/Driver
Flow changes have a direct effect on the driver. If the compressor flow is reduced
by ten percent and the pressures do not change, the engine load will be reduced by
ten percent also. If we reduce the volume by reducing engine speed, engine
horsepower is reduced, but engine torque will be relatively unchanged.
As engines develop their best fuel efficiency at peak torque, reducing speed to
drop throughput provides the best economy. However, this approach is limited by
minimum equipment operating speeds. Adding clearance reduces volume (and
horsepower) while keeping the speed constant. Therefore, adding clearance
reduces both torque and horsepower. Speed variation is more often used for flow
control, while clearance is used primarily for engine load or torque control.
In the previous section, the work involved in increasing gas pressure was
evaluated from suction to discharge conditions, with no pressure drops assumed.
Actually, there are pressure drops involved in bringing gas into and out of the
cylinder through gas passages and compressor valves. These losses create
additional work in the cycle but do nothing for increasing the effective pressure
differential.
5.7 Range
With the above points, it can be seen that compressor efficiency is low at low
ratios, where flows are high and most of the work goes into moving the gas
through the cylinder. In fact, at a ratio of one (suction equal to discharge),
efficiency goes to zero, as no useful pressure is built. As the ratio increases, the
efficiency rises, typically to a maximum around 85-90 percent on low speed units.
This efficiency illustrates some of the design compromises of compressors. A
process compressor will be inefficient at low pressure ratios, being designed for
high ratios. A transmission compressor will be more efficient at lower ratios, but
its design is not acceptable for higher ratios.
As noted above in flow effects, losses are higher with increased flow due to
increased velocity and pressure drop through passages and valves. If the
operating speed of the compressor is reduced, there is more time allowed for a
given volume to flow through restrictive elements, so the flow losses will drop.
Cylinder Design
The basic design of compressor cylinders as outlined above is common for all
units. The chief difference between low and high speed cylinders is due to the
length of stroke. While low speed units have stroke lengths from 14 to 20 inches,
a high speed compressor’s stroke can range from 3 to 7 inches. Because of the
shorter stroke in high speed units, a large part of the valve(s) is covered by the
piston at the ends of the stroke, impeding gas flow and reducing the effective
valve area.
Valve Efficiency
Because of the cylinder design with valves being covered by the piston, a high
speed cylinder is normally five to ten percent lower efficiency than low speed
cylinders. This is compounded by the difficulty in building high valve element
lifts and large flow areas into valves running at high speeds.
Unloader Capability
In both low and high speed units, the simplest option for load control is to add
clearance on the outer (head) ends. For more flexibility, clearance may be added
on both ends. In some cases, this is done by means of clearance passages, which
are holes passing through the cylinder wall allowing clearance to be added
externally.
Another option is by adding valve cap clearance pockets. In this case, a valve
will have a hole through its center to allow free flow of gas from the cylinder into
the clearance pocket. As this reduces the flow area and efficiency of the valve, a
double deck valve is often used to restore the flow area. For this, a deep valve
cavity is needed to accept the increased valve height. Generally, high speed
cylinders are not designed with these deep pockets, as it makes a larger outer
diameter for the cylinder. This would be harder to fit on the small high speed
compressor frame.
In a compressor, the driving force of the engine is transmitted through the crank
throw to a connecting rod and crosshead assembly to a compressor rod which has
the piston attached. The driving force of the engine is being countered by the
pressure of the gas being compressed, acting against the faces of the piston. This
balancing of forces acts through a number of threaded connections and bearings
with oil film lubrication.
The compressor rod load represents a mechanical limit, beyond which some of
these components can fail. Because of the longer stroke and heavier components
of low speed units, it is easier to obtain high rod load capabilities. Higher speed
units cannot tolerate high reciprocating weights, and so their compressor rods and
bearing surfaces are proportionately smaller. This results in lower rod load
ratings.
6 Pulsation Characteristics
6.1 Generation
6.2 Filtering
If pulsations reach high levels during times when compressor valves are open,
valve plates may flutter or their closing may be delayed, resulting in valve plate
breakage. High pulsation levels may also cause early or delayed valve opening,
causing unpredictable flows and horsepower levels. There may also be excessive
unbalanced forces from end to end of pulsation bottles, resulting in high levels of
vibration and possible cracking of piping.
7 Multi-Staging
The limits of operation listed above show that a reciprocating compressor has a
number of mechanical limits, most of which are related to pressure differential.
Often differentials are required greater than can be accomplished with a single
stage of compression. In this case, it is necessary to have multiple stages of
compression.
When gas is compressed, the temperature rise effectively creates higher volume at
the discharge conditions. This requires more energy (work) for compression. In
multiple stage compression with cooling, the temperature rise is minimized,
which reduces the total work required to compress to the final discharge.
Multiple stage compression presents challenges for both design and operation. At
the design stage, cylinders must be sized so that all stages are operating within
their limits. In operation, the pressure balance between stages must be maintained
by following a specified unloading sequence when pressures change, or when
controlling engine load.
Mechanical failures such as leaking compressor valves or rings can cause pressure
unbalance, which may put excessive differentials or temperatures on other stages.
The compressor piping and pulsation bottles will also be more complex, which
will probably require an electric analog or digital evaluation to avoid pulsation or
vibration problems.
8 Compressor Control Systems
Over a wide suction range, load will increase, reach a peak and then decrease.
Compressor design attempts to provide adequate piston displacement to load the
engine at the minimum load points. The design must then incorporate adequate
load control provisions to keep the engine in an acceptable condition at the
maximum load point.
8.3 Deactivation
Also, when a cylinder is deactivated, gas continues to be pulled in, then pushed
back into the suction. This wastes some horsepower, and heats the gas, which is
then compressed by the other cylinder ends. This will result in higher discharge
temperatures. Deactivation will also introduce odd harmonic pulsations into the
discharge piping, which may cause piping shaking.
8.4 Active Control Systems
Some compressor units have been equipped with load control systems to partially
deactivate the compressor cylinders. In this, a device holds the suction valve
open for a part of the compression stroke, allowing gas to flow back, as with a
deactivated cylinder. At some point in the compression stroke, the valve is
allowed to close and compression and discharge occur in a normal pattern.
In this way, load and throughput can be controlled in very small increments. This
system requires a control unit to time the valve closing and to send signals to a
valve lifter device. The actuation is normally hydraulic, requiring a separate
pump, control valves to supply oil to each compressor valve, and tubing. This
type of system can provide great flexibility in throughput and loading. Its
disadvantages are mechanical complexity and some loss of efficiency due to gas
being pushed back through the valve while it is held open.
There are two basic approaches to calculating and controlling engine load and
throughput. One is to measure engine parameters and infer compressor operation,
while the second is to measure pressures and calculate compressor performance,
then assume engine output.
The disadvantage of this type of control is the assumption that the compressor and
engine are in good condition. If the engine is in poor condition, the compressor
calculation will provide accurate loading, but the engine may not be in shape to
maintain its rated output. Also, some compressor related problems may lead to
overloading. Some conditions that can cause overloading are buildup of fluids in
unloader pockets and accumulation of dirt or salt on valves and passages. This
can result in restrictions which reduce the efficiency of the compressor.
10 Basics of Compressor Calculations
All reciprocating compressor calculations are based on the compressor’s
characteristics and operating conditions. For this, we need to know:
At the root of all compressor calculations is the suction to discharge pressure ratio
across the machine. This is based on the pressures inside the compressor, so any
pressure drops from the compressor to gauge readings must be included. It is also
calculated from absolute pressures, so the atmospheric pressure is added to gauge
pressures. As an equation, it can be expressed:
Knowing the pressure ratio across a compressor, the discharge temperature can be
calculated with the following formula:
(10.2) T2=T1*(Rc(K-1)/K)
Where
T2 = Discharge temperature (Rankine)
T1 = Suction temperature (Rankine)
K = Gas ratio of specific heats (normally 1.2-1.3 for natural gas)
The compressor volumetric efficiency is the next level of calculation necessary
for any prediction. As noted above, it is a measure of the effective displacement
of the compressor, as opposed to the actual displacement due to the piston’s
movement.
When the piston reaches the end of its stroke at Top Dead Center, the gas
remaining in the cylinder re-expands as the piston moves back down the bore.
This delays the point where the cylinder pressure drops below suction, allowing a
new charge of gas into the cylinder.
This effect is a function of the volume of gas trapped at the end of the stroke and
the pressure ratio. Volumetric efficiency decreases as the cylinder pressure ratio
increases and as the clearance volume increases. This can be expressed as:
This formula will frequently have additional correction factors. In many cases, a
slippage factor will be subtracted to adjust for cylinder leakage effects. In
addition, the ratio factor may be multiplied by a ratio of supercompressibility
factors to correct for non-ideal compression and re-expansion of the gas.
Compressor delivered volume is based on displacement, volumetric efficiency,
and gas conditions. The equation for capacity can be developed as:
This would provide the actual volume of gas being moved. However, gas is
measured and sold at standard conditions. This is defined as an absolute pressure
of 14.73 Psi, and temperature of 60 degrees F.
To represent the volume being moved in standard units, we multiply by the ratio
of suction pressure (absolute) to standard pressure, and standard temperature to
suction flowing temperature. In this calculation, the temperatures must be
expressed in Rankine degrees (Fahrenheit + 460).
Also, as noted above, the gas volume must be corrected for supercompressibility.
This is an experimentally determined adjustment for the non-perfect relation of
pressure to volume as gas is compressed. The effect is that at higher pressures,
more molecules of gas can fit into a volume than would be the case for an ideal
gas.
While gas volumes are measured at elevated pressures, the gas is bought and sold
based on standard base conditions, typically 60 degrees F. temperature and 14.73
Psi (Absolute) pressure. The supercompressibility correction must be made to
relate to these standard conditions. So, the equation becomes:
This needs only to be corrected for units. The standard measurement of volume is
in millions of standard cubic feet per day. So, by multiplying by 1440 minutes
per day and dividing by one million, we have the final equation:
In this equation, capacity is the equation derived above without the correction
factors for temperature and supercompressibility.
Hp/MMCFD is the energy requirement to raise one million cubic feet of gas
from the suction to discharge condition. This is actually adiabatic Hp/MMCFD,
where the compression is assumed a perfect process, with no heat being
transferred. This means that during the compression process, no heat is absorbed
by the cylinder wall or compressor piston, and no heat is radiated into the gas.
The formula for this is:
The equations listed above have been shown in order of increasing complexity, with each
calculation building on the result of the previous. From this, we can see that each new
equation requires the result of the previous calculation to be accurate.
This also suggests an approach when troubleshooting any control system or calculation.
To begin, the pressure ratio requires accurate pressure inputs. If this is accurate,
volumetric efficiency can be calculated, if we know the right clearance and slippage
factors. With an accurate volumetric efficiency and piston displacement, capacity can be
calculated.
Maximum Pressure Differential Limited by Rod Loading: The compressor rod load is
calculated based on the cylinder suction and discharge pressures and the diameters of the
piston and rod. This limit must not be exceeded, or equipment damage can be expected.
Excessively High or Low Horsepower: In all cases, the compressor’s driver will have a
limit on its maximum horsepower. This is used as a control point to drive changes in
operating condition. These may be changes in clearance for torque control, or changes in
pressure or speed to restore an acceptable load. In the case of gas engine drivers,
conditions of extremely low load may be damaging also. This is due to limitations of the
engine, such as heat requirements to drive a turbocharger or carboning of valves and
ports due to low exhaust temperatures.
11 Compressor Sizing and Application
Whenever a new compressor is installed, or conditions change for existing equipment, the
compressor application and sizing should be reviewed. In selecting equipment for an
application, there are a number of requirements to be considered. Some of these are:
Compressors are installed to meet some specified volume requirement, usually at given
suction and discharge conditions. In actual operation, pressures will range both higher
and lower than the specified condition. If the compressor cylinders are designed only for
the specified condition, the unit may perform poorly at other pressures.
The best practice is to determine the required range of pressures, and flow extremes from
minimum to maximum. Then, cylinders can be selected to deliver the required maximum
volumes, and clearance or other means of unloading can be provided to meet the
minimum conditions and to control driver load.
The extremes of pressure range and the compressor frame selected will put limits on the
maximum cylinder diameter: All compressor frames will have some maximum rod
loading limit. The imposed rod load increases as differential pressure (suction to
discharge) increases, and also with increasing cylinder diameter.
Once cylinders are selected for a given throughput, they must be checked against the
maximum allowable rod loading for the frame or engine which is chosen. If the rod
loading is excessive, it may be necessary to use a greater number of cylinders, with
smaller diameters to provide the same displacement while staying within the rated
loading. This option would increase the cost of the unit.
Other possible compromises would be to reduce the allowable pressure range to avoid
rod load, reducing the design volume to allow smaller cylinders, or using a heavier
compressor frame with higher allowable rod loading.
Typically, some unloading will be necessary to control engine load, usually at higher
discharge pressures. Drivers are usually sized to provide enough horsepower to deliver
the design flow and pressures. Beyond this, unloading will be used to allow operation
across the entire operating range.
Also, unloading may be used to control throughput volumes. Finally, good engineering
practice is usually to select the largest cylinders possible within rod load limits, then add
unloading to control load and throughput. This allows better loading of the engine when
operating off the design point. This approach provides the best usage of installed
equipment, but requires more unloading provisions. The most common unloading
options are clearance volumes and deactivation.
Most compressors designed for gas service will have some provision for adding
clearance. The best approach is where clearance is added to both ends of a double acting
cylinder. When this is done, all cylinders usually have similar added clearance volumes.
This keeps loading balanced between all cylinders, minimizing pulsation and vibration.
This also keeps the highest possible volumetric efficiency on all cylinder ends.
11.5 Deactivation
Where clearance volumes are not adequate, it may be necessary to deactivate cylinders or
ends to reduce engine load or throughput. This is effective, but may result in shaking or
pulsation problems. This is usually a last resort solution.
Some compressors are equipped with active load controls, which allow gas to flow back
through the suction valves. Controlling the amount of this backflow effectively changes
the compressor displacement. This is particularly useful for storage stations, or those
with wide fluctuation of operating pressure and flow conditions. It allows use of large
compressor cylinders to load the engine at low pressure ratios, but also provides adequate
unloading at high ratios.
This type of system requires high speed actuators on the suction valves and a timing
device for control of the valve action. While it reduces the compressor’s efficiency, in
many cases it is the only effective means of controlling the engine load. These systems
have been sold by Ingersoll-Rand and Hoerbiger Valve Company.
Glossary of Terms