Topic  2  

Limits  and  it  Theorems  

A  sequence  of  rational  numbers  

The  limit  of  a  variable  

Left-­‐hand  and  right-­‐hand  limits  

The  definition  of  the  limit  of  a  variable  

The  limit  of  a  function  

Theorems  on  limits  

   CENTRAL  TO  CALCULUS  is  the  value  of  the  slope  of  a  line,    ,  but  when    

   the  terms  become  almost    0/0.  To  evaluate  the  slope,  that  rate  of  change,  under  those  
vanishing  conditions,  requires  the  idea  of  a  limit.    And  central  to  the  idea  of  a  limit  is  the  
idea  of  a  sequence  of  rational  numbers  

A  sequence  of  rational  numbers  

We  encounter  such  a  sequence  in  geometry  when  we  determine  a  formula    

As   we   increase   the   number   of   sides   -­‐-­‐  

that   is,   if   we   consider   a   sequence   of  
polygons:     60   sides,   61   sides,   62,   63,   64,  
and  so  on  -­‐-­‐  then  the  sequence  of  those  
areas   becomes   closer   and   closer   to   the  
area   of   the   circle.     Now,   the   circle   is  
never   equal   to   a   polygon.   But   by  
  for  the  area  of  a  
considering   a   sufficiently   large   number  
circle.     To   do   that,   we   inscribe   in   the  
of   sides,   the   difference   between   the  
circle  a  regular  polygon  of  n  sides.    The  
circle  and  that  polygon  will  be  less  than  
area   of   the   polygon,   which   we   can  
any  small  number  we  specify.    Less,  say,  
actually   calculate,   will   be   an  
than
approximation  to  the  area  of  the  circle.  
0.00000000000000000000000000000001.  

That  is  the  idea  of  a  sequence  approaching  a  limit,  or  a  boundary,  which  in  this  example  
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is  the  area  of  the  circle.  

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Problem   1.         The   student   surely   can   recognize   the   number   that   is   the   limit   of   this  
sequence  of  rational  numbers.  

3,    3.1,    3.14,    3.141,    3.1415,    3.14159,    3.141592,  .  .  .  

They  are  all  almost  equal  to  π.  

We   speak   of   a   sequence   as   being   infinite,   which,   in   analogy   with   the   sequence   of  

natural  numbers,  is  a  brief  way  of  saying  that,  no  matter  how  many  terms  we  name,  or  
which  term  we  name,  there  is  a  rule  or  a  pattern  that  allows  us  to  name  one  more.    

The  limit  of  a  variable  

Consider  this  sequence  of  values  of  a  variable  x:  

1.9,    1.99,    1.999,    1.9999,    1.99999,  .  .  .  

Those  values  are  getting  closer  and  closer  to  2  -­‐-­‐  they  are  approaching  2  as  their  limit.    2  
is  the  smallest  number  such  that  no  matter  which  term  of  that  sequence  we  name,  it  
will  be  less  than  2.  

By   "closer   and   closer"   we   mean   the   following.     Choose   an   extremely   small   positive  
number.     For   example,   "1   over   the   national   debt"     Then   we   can   name   a   term   of   that  
sequence  such  that  the  absolute  value  of  the  difference  between  it  and  2    will  be  less  
than   that   small   number   -­‐-­‐   and   the   same   will   be   true   of   any   subsequent   term   that   we  
name.    

(We   say   the   absolute   value   because   the   terms   are   less   than   2,   and   so   the   difference  
itself  will  be  negative.)  

When  a  variable  x  approaches  a  number  l  as  a  limit,  we  symbolize  that  as    x  l.    Read:    
"The   values   of   x   approach   l   as   a   limit,"   or   simply,   "x   approaches   l."     In   the   example  
above,    x  2.    "x  approaches  2."  

We  also  say  that  a  sequence  converges  to  a  limit.    The  sequence  above  converges  to  2.  

By  a  sequence  in  what  follows,  we  mean  an  ordering  of  rational  numbers  according  to  a  
rule  or  an  indicated  pattern.    Here,  for  example,  is  a  sequence  that  approaches  0:  

0.1,    0.01,    0.001,    0.0001,    0.00001,    and  so  on.  

Left-­‐hand  and  right-­‐hand  limits  

Now  the  sequence  we  chose  were  values  less  than  2.    Hence  we  say  that  x  approaches  2  
from  the  left.    We  write  
2  

x                      2−  
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But  we  can  easily  construct  a  sequence  of  values  of  x  that  converges  to  2  from  the  right;  
that  is,  a  sequence  of  values  that  are  more  than  2.    

For  example,  

2.2,    2.1,    2.01,    2.001,    2.0001,    2.00001,  .    .    .  

The  limit  of  a  function  

We  have  defined  the  limit  of  a  variable,  but  what  we  typically  have  is  a  function  of  a  
variable  -­‐-­‐  which  is  also  a  variable.    For  example,  

y  =  f(x)  =  x²  
Now,  a  sequence  of  values  of  x  will  force  a  sequence  of  values  of  f(x).  The  question  is:    If  
the   values   of   x   approaches   a   limit,   will   the   corresponding   values   of   f(x)   also   approach   a  
limit?    If  that  is  the  case  -­‐-­‐  if  f(x)  approaches  a  limit  L  when  x  approaches  a  limit  l  -­‐-­‐  then  
we  write  

"The  limit  of  f(x)  as  x  approaches  l,  is  L."  

In  fact,  let  us  see  what  happens  to    f(x)  =  x²    as  x          2−.    Suppose  again  that  x  assumes  
this  sequence  of  values:  

1.9,    1.99,    1.999,    1.9999,    1.99999,  .  .  .  

Ix²  will  then  assume  this  sequence:  

(1.9)²,    (1.99)²),    (1.999)²,    (1.9999)²,    (1.99999)²,  .  .  .  

It  is  easy  to  see  that  x²  approaches  2²  =  4.  

Again,  this  means  that,  beginning  with  a  certain  term  of  the  x²  sequence,  the  absolute  
values  of  the  differences  between  the  terms  and  4    will  be  less  than  any  extremely  small  
positive  number  that  we  might  specify.  

Moreover,  if  we  consider  a  sequence    x              2+:  

2.2,    2.1,    2.01,    2.001,    2.0001,    2.00001,  .    .    .  

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then  x²  becomes  this  sequence:  

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(2.2)²,      (2.1)²,      (2.01)²  ,      (2.001)²,      (2.0001)²,    .    .    .  

  

And   that   sequence   also   approaches   4.     Therefore   4   is   the   limit   of   x²   whether   x  

approaches  2  from  the  right  or  from  the  left.    And  so  we  can  drop  the  +  or  −  signs  and  
simply  write:  

To  summarize:    

A  function  "has  a  limit."    We  say  that  a  function  f(x)  "has  a  limit"  L  as  x  approaches  
,  if    for  every  sequence  of  values  of  x  that  approach    as  a  limit  -­‐-­‐  whether  from  the  left  or  
from  the  right  -­‐-­‐  the  corresponding  values  of  f(x)  approach  L  as  a  limit.  

If  that  is  the  case,  then  we  write:  

"The  limit  of  f(x)  as  x  approaches  l    is    L."  

In  other  words,  for  the  limit  of  f(x)  to  exist  as  x  approaches  l  ,  the  left-­‐hand  and  right-­‐
hand  limits  must  be  equal.  

if  and  only  if  

 When   we   say,   then,   that   a   function   has   a   limit,   we   mean   that   has   been   satisfied.   In  
practice,  it  is  not  necessary  to  actually  produce  the  requirements  of  the  definition.  The  
theorems  on  limits  imply  them.  

The   most   important   limit   -­‐-­‐   the   limit   that   differential   calculus   is   about   -­‐-­‐   is   called   the  
derivative.  All  the  other  limits  studied  in  Calculus  I  are  logical  fun  and  games,  never  to  
be  heard  from  again.  

Now  here  is  an  example  of  a  function  that  does  not  approach  a  limit:  
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As  x  approaches  2  from  the  left,    f(x)  approaches  1.    As  x  approaches  2  from  the  right,    
f(x)  approaches  3.    The  left-­‐  and  right-­‐hand  limits  are  not  equal.    Therefore,    f(x)  does  
not  approach  any  limit  as  x  approaches  2.    

Theorems  on  limits  

Limits  of  polynomials  

We   will   now   prove   that   a   certain   limit   exists,   namely   the   limit   of   f   (x)   =   x,   as   x  
approaches  any  value  c.    (That  f(x)  also  approaches  c  should  be  obvious.)  

THEOREM.      If  f  (x)  =  x,  then  for  any  value  c  that  we  might  name:  

For,  if  a  sequence  of  values  of  the  variable  x  approaches  c  as  a  limit,  then  a  sequence  of  
values  of  the  function    f(x)  =  x  will  also  approach  c  as  a  limit.  

For  example,  

To  help  us  calculate  limits,  it  is  possible  to  prove  the  following.  

 
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Let  f  and  g  be  functions  of  a  variable  x.    Then,  if  the  following  limits  exist:    

1)          (f  +  g)    =    A  +  B.  

2)          (f  g)    =    AB.  

3)          f/g    =      A/  B  ,    if  B  is  not  0.  

In  other  words:  

1)    The  limit  of  a  sum  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  limits.  

2)    The  limit  of  a  product  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  limits.  

3)    The  limit  of  a  quotient  is  equal  to  the  quotient  of  the  limits,  

3)    provided  the  limit  of  the  denominator  is  not  0.  

Also,  if  c  does  not  depend  on  x  -­‐-­‐  if  c  is  a  constant  -­‐-­‐  then  

 4)          

 To  see  that,  let  x  approach  4:    e.g.    4  ½,    4  ¼,    4  1/8  ,  4    1/16,      4    1/32      .    .    .  ,  then      

the  value  of  5  -­‐-­‐  or  any  constant  -­‐-­‐  does  not  change.    It  is  constant.  When  c  is  a  constant  
factor,  but  f  depends  on  x,  then  

 5)          

A  constant  factor  may  pass  through  the  limit  sign.    (This  follows  from  Theorems  2  and  
4.)    For  example,  

Example  1.      Quote  Theorems  1)  through  5)  to  prove  the  following:  

 
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   Solution.       x²   =   x·∙   x.     And   we   have   proved   that         exists,   and   is   equal   to   4.    

Therefore,          according  to  Theorem  2.    

That  is,  

It  should  be  clear  from  this  example  that  to  evaluate  the  limit  of  any  power  of  x    as  x  
approaches  any  value,  simply  evaluate  the  power  at  that  value.    Repeated  application  
of  Theorem  2  affirms  that.  

     Example  2.                

Example  2.      Consider  the  function    g(x)  =  x  +  2,  whose  graph  is  a  simple  straight  line.    
And  just  to  be  perverse,  let  the  following  function  f(x)  not  be  defined  for  x  =  2.    That  is,  

let      

In  other  words,  the  point  (2,  4)  does  not  belong  to  the  function;  it  is  not  on  the  graph.  

Yet  the  limit  as  x  approaches  2  -­‐-­‐  whether  from  the  left  or  from  the  right  -­‐-­‐  is  4    

For,   every   sequence   of   values   of   x   that   approaches   2,   can   come   as   close   to   2   as   we  

please.    Hence  the  corresponding  values  of  f(x)  will  come  closer  and  closer  to  4.      

 
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