I.

FOUNDATION OF POLITICS

A. GEOGRAPHY & ETHNICITY - The Archipelagic State

Indonesia is an archipelagic nation that spans over 5000 kilometers with about 17,000 islands located in

Southeast Asia, bordered by Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and East Timor, and situated at the meeting point of

the world’s two population groups: Asians in the west and Melanesians in the east. Indonesia also lies in the

worst part of the Pacific Ring of Fire and is the most active volcanic country in the world, experiencing 4

earthquakes a day - its proximity to the three major converging plates (Eurasian, Pacific, and Australian) causes

this natural phenomenon in the country. It has a total population of 270 million people and consists of a large

variety of ethnic communities estimated to be around 1,300 - the Indonesians eventually adopted a motto called

“Bhinneka tunggal ika” which translates to “Unity in diversity”, citing the diverse interaction between its people

with different ethnicity, culture, and language. The discussion on the geography of Indonesia will be divided

into two parts: Western Islands and Eastern Islands.

Western Islands

The diverse ethnic populations of western Indonesia may be generally grouped into three broad

categories: [1] inland wet-rice societies; [2] the coastal trading, farming, and fishing people; and [3] the inland

societies of shifting cultivators.

[1] The wet-rice growers of inland Java, Madura, and Bali make up nearly three-fifths of the population.

The Javanese is Indonesia’s largest ethnic group, accounting for roughly one-third of the total population or

about 95.2 million people. They are mostly identified as Muslim, with a small figure of Christian, Buddhist, and

Hindu. The cities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta are the strongholds of Javanese culture and traditional rulers. In

the Western region of Java, there exists the second largest ethnic group which is the Sundanese. They are

Muslims and closely related to the Javanese but still distinct in terms of language and tradition. Northeast Java

on the island of Madura, is the homeland of the Madurese, Indonesia’s third-largest ethnic group.
 [2] The more strongly Islamized coastal communities, or the second group, are ethnically heterogeneous

and include the Malays from Sumatra and the Makassarese and Bugis from Celebes. The Sumatran Malays

inhabit Aceh, a strongly Muslim region at the northern tip of Sumatra, and are known for their resistance to

European influence. The Makassarese and Bugis live primarily in the coastal regions of southern Celebes. They

are a combination of rice cultivators and maritime communities.

[3] The third group or the inland shifting cultivators are communities that live in areas where the climate

cannot support wet-rice farming. These communities tend to be small and relatively isolated, and they represent

a wide array of cultures. The most prominent of these ethnic groups are the Toraja of southern Celebes, the

Batak of the highlands of northern Sumatra, and the various communities of the interior of Kalimantan, such as

Kenyah, Kayan, Ngaju, and Embaloh, who are collectively called Dayak.

Eastern Islands

Eastern Indonesia is characterized by the traditional Melanesian cultural division between coastal, or

“beach” people and interior “bush” people. Due to their proximity to the west, they have developed their own

complex ethnographic and linguistic area. The distinction between coastal and interior peoples is especially

salient in western New Guinea, where maritime trading communities live along the coast, while agrarian,

noncommercial societies with strongly developed and highly localized customs inhabit the interior. Typical of

the coastal communities are the Ambonese, who live along the coasts of Ambon and engage in maritime

activities. Unlike the Ambonese, ethnic groups from Asmat and Dani, on the other hand, reside in the

hinterlands and are isolated from urban environments.

B. HISTORICAL LEGACY

Dutch Colonization (1605 - 1962)

The two driving forces of Indonesia are trade and history. Indonesia, much like other SEA countries,

also experienced the ramifications of colonization - this time, by the Dutch. With the rise of the interest in

spices during the 1600s, the Dutch went on a voyage to look for spices in Southeast Asia after the 1579 Union

of Utrecht which was the beginning of the Republic of the United Netherlands, and discovered the Moluccas
Islands. The fatal error of the Indonesians during the era of the Dutch occupation was that they saw little to no

significant threat and did not deem it necessary to band with neighboring countries to expel them which allowed

the Dutch colonization to proliferate. Hence, during the first 10 years of occupation of the Dutch in Indonesia,

they created the VOC (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie) or the United East India Company, a joint-stock

company with six regional chambers of commerce patented after the English East India Company and was

responsible for the conception of the “stock market” - the company was conceived for the purpose of trading

commodities in the Intra-Asian Trade Network and Inter-Continental Trade, that allowed for the VOC to adopt a

circular trading system wherein commodities from other countries were imported to another country in

exchange for another commodity. The Dutch only initially planned to become a trading power, however, due to

the demand for commodities offered by the VOC, they erected multiple trading outposts all over Indonesia

which later, they became, a colonial power aimed to extract wealth and the creation of commerce - they

managed to cement control in the regions through their strong military force and political manipulation that

were deemed beneficial by the majority of the Sultanates. Wherein, their strong military force also allowed

them to make negotiations with Sultans in Indonesia in exchange for commodities and land - the benefits of

siding with the Dutch enticed the Sultans, which made the Dutch a powerful political machinery of empires

during the Javanese Wars of Succession. However, due to the declining demand for the commodity of spices,

for which the VOC was known for, the Dutch began to delve into a free market system - an unfair feat for the

Indonesian farmers. The Dutch began to form private plantations and developed a system called the

Cultuurstelsel or the “Cultivation System” that promoted forced labor and land rent. Although there was the

development of this system, the Dutch back in the Netherlands had a period of liberalism due to the book Max

Havelaar which caused the rise of the liberal movement in the Netherlands and paved the way for ethical

practices in Indonesia because the Javanese (ethnic Indonesians) felt that they are treated unfairly, hence, the

Dutch introduced a new policy called the “Ethical Policy”. This promoted reforms in education and agriculture

by allowing more autonomy for Indonesian officials and the decentralization of the Indies administration which

allowed Indonesia to adopt a Dutch education system

 The last war of the Javanese Wars of Succession allowed for the Treaty of Giyanti to be conceived,

signed by Pakunabawa II and Cakraningkat IV; allowing for the separation of Yogyakarta and Solo as well as

the cessation of the sovereignty of the northern Mataram and the island of Madura to the VOC. However, the

Fourth Anglo-Dutch War that came later caused the VOC to go bankrupt, as well as the corruption going on

inside the company which paved the way for the Dutch government to take control of the trading posts situated

in all locations of Indonesia. However, in 1942, the Japanese displaced the Dutch during their short-term

occupation of Indonesia due to the need for raw materials, most especially oil in the islands of Sumatra and

Kalimantan during World War II, and the colonization of the Japanese gave rise to the movement for Indonesian

independence.

C. POLITICAL IDEOLOGY

There has been a political divide among the masses in Indonesia since 2014, with three major elections

in 2014, 2017, and 2019 respectively. The political ideology of the people boils down to the Islamists and

pluralists in the country - with only two significant party classifications systems in Indonesia: in the

contemporary party system, there exists the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle or the “Partai Demokrasi

Indonesia-Perjuangan” (PDI Perjuan) which is the most pluralist party, while at the opposite end of the

ideological spectrum, there exists the Prosperous Justice Pary, the United Development Party (PPP), and the

National Mandate Party known for their conservative Islamic practices and they adhere to a more puritan,

modernist version of Islam. Since their independence in 1945, “political movements mobilized on opposite

sides of this divide” wherein the proponents of political Islam advocated for a much more formal role for Islam,

whereas pluralists advocated for a secular state that prioritized laws and institutions to protect the country’s

religious minorities (Warburton, 2021). With the win of the pluralists back in 1945, Indonesia’s constitution,

thus, outlined a general “belief in one God” - allowing for the show of the nation’s five founding principles.

Moreover, shortly after, in 1957, President Sukarno also introduced the concept of “guided democracy”, as a

gateway for authority and control amongst the Indonesians.

Pancasila
 The state ideology of Indonesia, known as Pancasila, is bounded by its five founding principles, namely:

belief in one God; justice and civility among people; unity of Indonesia; democracy through deliberation and

consensus among representatives; and, social justice for all the people of Indonesia. This ideology, then, has

become the ultimate source of law in the sovereign and independent Indonesian nation-state - it serves as the

repository for all legal authority, and the idea is that the Indonesian law cannot contradict the Pancasila’s

principles as it is used for the basis of the formulation of policies and practices of the country. The history of

Pancasila dates back to 1945 when the country gained its independence from the Netherlands, the first President

of Indonesia, Sukarno in the Old Order, proposed the idea of Pancasila to satisfy the two opposition political

and religious views that developed at the First Session of the Investigative Body for Preparatory Efforts for

Independence (BPUPK) which discussed the basics of the country as a newly-sovereign state. The two views

refer to the nationalistic view which advocated for nationality as the basic principle of the state and the other

being the Islamist view which advocated for Islam, the religion, as a basis of the state. Each principle as

proposed by Sukarno has its respective justifications, as discussed by Herlambang (2017).

(a) Belief in one God - This principle is left in a general state, given that Indonesia is not

secular in the Western sense. Hence, the freedom of religion is exercised based on the

three pillars: freedom, rule of law, and tolerance.

(b) Justice and civility among people - The principle of universal humanity, it recognizes and

treats people according to their status and dignity as God’s creatures which also

recognizes equality, equal rights, and obligations of human rights without distinction of

the tribe, ancestry, religion, race, color, social status, and more.

(c) Unity of Indonesia - Unity in diversity as a principle of nationality; every citizen has the

same position, rights, and obligations, and the Indonesian people are free to

self-determination and sovereignty, so it does not allow any intervention of other nations

in terms of domestic affairs.

 (d) Democracy through deliberation and consensus among representatives - People have the

sovereignty to express their grievances should they be repressed and should go through

the process of proper authorities, and;

(e) Social justice for all the people of Indonesia - The principle embodied, among others, in

the provision of social security and state institutions engaged in social organizing social

problems in the country.

Guided Democracy

Shortly after the conception of the foundations of government and independence of the state, President

Sukarno’s brainchild the “Guided Democracy” was conceptualized - brought forth for the purpose of bringing

about political stability in the year 1959, as it functioned as a de facto autocracy; guided democracy used

propaganda techniques which prevent the electorate from having a significant impact on public policy. The

concept of the Demokrasi Terpimpin, Sukarno said, called for “strong leadership” - it was modernist, centralist,

and corporatist. Since 1957, the instability of the Indonesian government encompassing provincial separatism,

political instability, and economic stagnation, resulted in an “extra-parliamentary cabinet of experts” led by

former President Sukarno. Former Vice-President Hatta shared his sentiments amid provincial rebellions in the

country, citing that the Western concept of parliamentary democracy was not in line with the cultural values and

experiences of the Indonesian people as it had resulted in recurring crises due to the weakness of the authority

of the government and the “vehemence of political opposition” (Van der Kroef, 1957). Former President

Sukarno echoed similar thoughts regarding parliamentary democracy, citing that Indonesian democracy adheres

to the principle of musyawarah, an exchange of ideas among the political forces that represent the community

resulting in consensus, hence, he replaced the old system with a presidential system under the guise of “Guided

Democracy” - it emphasized “how the role of a leader in every political process takes place in society” (Agenti

& Dias, 2018). However, this backfired as President Sukarno issued a decree to support the army which started

the reign of authoritarianism as the executive power became very strong - it became a Sukarno-centric power

dominated by his personality, ideas, and jargon imbued with the former President’s utopian ideas and empty

promises (Prasetyo & Yoesoef, 2018).

II. POLITICAL ACTORS

A. SUKARNO (1901 - 1970)

Kusno Sosrodihardjo, more commonly known as Sukarno, was the first-ever President of Indonesia and

the revolutionary leader and architect of the merdeka or independence of Indonesia. Born to a poor family of

Javanese descent during the latter years of the Dutch colonialism, Sukarno excelled in his studies, most

especially in languages as he was said to have a photographic memory. However, Sukarno did not start as a

child enlightened by the ramifications of the political landscape at his time, he only had an interest in civil

engineering which he was a graduate of in 1927, but later on, he soon found his true passion in oratory and

politics. With his oratory skills, it was without a doubt acknowledged that he was a charismatic leader - using

the term “revolution” more often than not in his speeches. After much humiliation from the Dutch, as he was

sent to the Netherlands from 1929 to 1931 to serve his time in a Dutch jail, Sukarno waited for the right time to

ignite the spark of Indonesian independence with the help of his party, the Indonesian Nationalist Party. When

the Japanese invaded the country, he welcomed them as “personal and national liberators” as the Japanese

utilized Sukarno in the recruitment of prostitutes, laborers, and soldiers. It wasn’t until later in the early 1950s

that the Dutch recognized Indonesia’s independence in a round table conference.

Sukarno, for “burying” feudal political parties in Indonesia, destroyed the populist parliamentary

democracy and free enterprise heavily inspired by the Western countries - from thereon, he paved the way for

the Guided Democracy and the Guided Economy; he planned to unite the three groups of Marxists, Nationalists,

and religious groups. With his notions of revolutionary grandeur, the economy took a turn for the worst as it

simply became a backseat passenger to Sukarno’s anti-western tone of the ruling. He even pulled Indonesia out

of the United Nations when the UN wanted to allow Malaysia a seat on the Security Council. His presidency of

22 years had come to an end as he was caught off guard by a coup back in 1965, which led him to transfer his

powers to Suharto.

B. SUHARTO (1921 - 2008)

It was an abrupt shift of power from Sukarno to Suharto back in 1968, however, it was a much-awaited

transition as authoritarianism prospered during the latter years of the regime of Sukarno. As a General and
commander of the Jakarta garrison during Sukarno’s reign, Suharto has reached his dream of becoming a

military man. Born to a middle-class family, Suharto studied in decent educational institutions in Indonesia and

after graduating from high school, started working as a bank clerk for a short period - he, then, served under the

flag of the Netherlands and after the conquest of the Japanese, made the switch to a Japanese-sponsored home

defense corps and became an officer. He fought valiantly in the battle for Indonesia’s independence and rose

through the ranks of the military.

Reflective of the stance of the army, Suharto was anti-communist, regardless of President Sukarno

cultivating close ties with the Indonesian Communist Party and with China. The coup in 1965, killed 6 of the

army’s seven senior generals which have been called the September 30th Movement wherein they also declared

a new revolutionary government, Suharto was one of the senior generals to escape the assassination and even

spearheaded the operation to crush the military spies. As a result of distrust between the communist party

backed by the President, Sukarno, and Suharto engaged in an indirect power struggle which led to the deaths of

thousands of communists and suspected communists - the massacre incited fear and dissent among the

Indonesians which forced Sukarno to hand over broad authority to Suharto in 19688; the birth of a military

Indonesia came forth. While Sukarno prioritized “revolution”, Suharto, on the other hand, prioritized

“development” - after banning the PKI party, Suharto increased the influence of the army, repaired ties with the

West, implemented budgetary policies, and depoliticized the country. The SeKber Golkar came to fruition and

was employed as a potent parliamentary tool composed of army men, serving as the middleman of political

parties rallying against the Indonesian populace. The second President, then, installed the New Order policy

which called for the aid of American-educated economists to reinvigorate the Indonesian economy - during his

term, the standard of living increased expeditiously. However, his fall also was a result of resisting demands for

structural reforms as a sweep of currency crisis swept across Southeast Asia - riots ensued, and having lost the

support of the military, Suharto was forced to rescind his seat of Presidency after 32 years wherein he was then

succeeded by Vice-President BJ Habibie.

C. DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENT GROUP

 The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle or the Partai Demokrasi Indonesia-Perjuangan (PDI-P)

came into existence as a result of the people’s struggle against the efforts of the new order regime to hold onto

power. The party is a fusion of two Christian parties: the Indonesian Christian Party and the Catholic Party; and

three secular parties: the Indonesian Nationalist Party, the League of the Supporters of Indonesian

Independence, and the Party of the Masses. Of the parties combined, Suharto’s Nationalist Party is the largest of

them all - with the party following the principles of Pancasila; it is articulated by Sukarno reflecting Indonesia’s

nationalism, humanity and internationalism, democracy, social justice, and belief in one God. Although the

party is more heterogeneous, faction-ridden, and riven with personality disputes, it is still dedicated to

committing to the principles of Pancasila. The existence of the party is very important to the government and it

even intervenes in its internal affairs. The governments insisted on keeping it viable and avoided the risk of

polarization to counter other parties, especially the Golkar which is the most influential of all parties. In the

1980s and early ’90s, the Indonesian Democratic Party rapidly expanded its vote share by appealing to voters

frustrated by apparent inequalities in Indonesia’s social and economic structure. It went into the 1987 elections

and aggressively courted young voters and other people who were looking for political protest. In 1999, the

party won the largest number of seats in the legislature, and in 2001 the daughter of Sukarno, Megawati was

elected president of Indonesia. However, the party was supplanted by the Golkar in the 2004 parliamentary

elections and fared poorly on and on until Joko Widodo was elected president of the country in 2014.

In the present time, the party plays its role to fulfill people and state sovereignty by strengthening

democratic institutions, mechanisms, and political practices. It also aims for a self-sufficient economy in the

globalized era to bring prosperity and social welfare and maintains a political stance of pluralism, humanity, and

democracy.

D. UNITY DEVELOPMENT GROUP

The PPP was formed out of pressure from President Suharto to simplify the country’s party system. It

consisted of four Islamic groups – the Council of Scholars (Nahdlatul Ulama), the Indonesian Islamic Party, the

United Islamic Party of Indonesia, and the Muslim Teacher’s Party. The newly created party was deeply

divided. The PPP's constituent parties neither submerged their identities nor merged their programs. As a result,
no single PPP leader with a platform acceptable to all the sectarian and regional interests grouped under the PPP

umbrella emerged. However, the parties of the PPP had the common bond of Islam and it was this that gained

them the government’s attention. After Suharto was forced out of office in 1998, the PPP successfully

campaigned to reduce the number of seats reserved for the military in the People’s Consultative Assembly.

Within the PPP, the parties Nahdatul Ulama and the PMI were proven to be the dominant parties. PMI is

a returnee party previously banned in the Sukarno era and seemingly favored by the government to

counterbalance the party Nahdatul Ulama. The rivalry between the two parties was very strong, although it was

suppressed in the 1977 electoral campaign the government would however intervene during the 1982 election to

the side of the more docile PMI leadership. The split between Nahdatul Ulama and the PMI over the political

destiny of the PPP became a schism in the wake of the August 1984 PPP National Congress. The party's general

chairman, the PMI's Jailani (Johnny) Naro, stacked the new thirty-eight-member executive board with twenty

PMI supporters, leaving Nahdatul Ulama party, the largest of the component parties, with only thirteen seats.

Nahdatul Ulama party’s influence would ultimately decline, confirming the traditionalist’s perception that it

only focuses on religious, social, and educational activities.

E. SEKBER GOLKAR

During the leadership of Suharno, Golkar was created as a joint vehicle for military and bureaucratic

political domination. It was the late 1990s, when opposition to Suharto’s regime forced Golkar from power but

even then, Golkar was already the predominant pro-government

political organization in Indonesia. Even after the end of Suharto’s leadership, Golkar remains to do well

during elections. Improving the economic growth of the nation is the main goal of the Golkar party. In the year

1970 Golkar promoted heavy state intervention in the economy but endorsed economic liberalization and

export-led growth policies at the beginning of the year 1980. Golkar has yet to nominate a winning candidate

for president, but it was the largest party in the House of Representatives in 2004 and the second-largest party in

2009, and even claimed strong results again in 2014.

The power within Golkar has been completed within a national council and an advisory board, under which

there have been several functional coordinating bodies in areas such as economics, culture, defense, and labor.

The party has been particularly strong in rural areas and in areas outside Java. It generally has been weakest in

locales where the submissiveness to Islam was the strictest.