impact would have released enough energy to liquefy both the ejecta and the Earth's crust, forming a
magma ocean. The liquefied ejecta could have then re-accreted into the Earth–Moon system.[52]
[53]
 Similarly, the newly formed Moon would have had its own lunar magma ocean; its depth is estimated
from about 500 km (300 miles) to 1,737 km (1,079 miles).[52]
While the giant-impact theory explains many lines of evidence, some questions are still unresolved,
most of which involve the Moon's composition.[54][example needed]Above a high resolution threshold for
simulations, a study published in 2022 finds that giant impacts can immediately place a satellite with
similar mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth's Roche limit. Even satellites that
initially pass within the Roche limit can reliably and predictably survive, by being partially stripped and
then torqued onto wider, stable orbits.[55]

Natural development

Artist's depiction of the Moon as it might have appeared in Earth's sky after the Late Heavy Bombardment around 4
billion years ago, when its orbit was half as close to Earth and it appeared 2.8 times larger than today.[56]

After the Moon's formation it settled into a much closer Earth orbit than it has today. Each body
therefore appeared much larger in the sky of the other, eclipses were more frequent, and tidal
effects were stronger.[56] Due to tidal acceleration, the Moon's orbit around Earth has become
significantly larger, with a longer period.
Since cooling and striped of most of its atmosphere,[57] both originating from its initial formation, the lunar
surface has been shaped by large impact events and many small ones, forming a landscape
featuring craters of all ages. The prominent lunar maria were produced by volcanic activity. Volcanically
active until 1.2 billion years ago, most of the Moon's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period,
3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some are as young as 1.2 billion years[58] and some as old as 4.2 billion
years.[59] There are differing explanations for the causes behind the eruption of mare basalts, particularly
their uneven occurrence, mainly on the near-side. Causes of the distribution of the lunar highlands on
the far side are also not well understood. One explanation suggests that large meteorites were hitting
the Moon in its early history, leaving large craters which then were filled with lava. Other explanations
suggest processes of lunar volcanism.[60]

Physical characteristics
The Moon is a very slightly scalene ellipsoid due to tidal stretching, with its long axis displaced 30° from
facing the Earth, due to gravitational anomalies from impact basins. Its shape is more elongated than
current tidal forces can account for. This 'fossil bulge' indicates that the Moon solidified when it orbited
at half its current distance to the Earth, and that it is now too cold for its shape to adjust to its orbit.[61]

Size and mass