APPLIED GEOMATIC

ENGINEERING
WE 341 LECTURE MODULES

Abstract
Geomatics Engineering is a rapidly developing engineering discipline that focuses on spatial
information (i.e. information that has a location). The location is the primary factor used to
integrate a very wide range of data for spatial analysis and visualization.

Ignatius Ziwa M.
NATURAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT COLLEGE
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 Version 1

March 2023
Prepared by Ignatius Ziwa M.,
imziwa@gmail.com

Natural Resources and Development College

Plot No. 7132 off Great East Road,
Private Bag CH99, Chelstone
Lusaka, Zambia.

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Table of Contents
Version 1 ......................................................................................................................................................................... i
1. SPATIAL MAPPING ................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 TYPES OF MAPS ............................................................................................................................................. 1
Topographic Maps ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Map Projections .................................................................................................................................................... 4
Map Production .................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 APPLICATION OF CAD SOFTWARES ............................................................................................................... 6
Geographic Information System Software Features ............................................................................................. 7
2. ENGINEERING SURVEYING..................................................................................................................................13
RECAP ON LEVELLING ..............................................................................................................................................13
DIRECT DIFFERENTIAL OR SPIRIT LEVELLING ...........................................................................................................14
Booking and Reducing the Levels ....................................................................................................................15
COMPARISON OF METHODS AND THEIR USES .......................................................................................................18
LOOP CLOSURE AND ITS APPORTIONING ................................................................................................................19
2.1 SECTIONAL LEVELLING .................................................................................................................................25
LONGITUDINAL SECTION .....................................................................................................................................25
CROSS SECTION ...................................................................................................................................................26
2.2 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING .......................................................................................................................27
2.3 DAM SURVEYS .............................................................................................................................................27
2.4 EXCAVATION CONTROL ...............................................................................................................................28
Use of sight rails ..................................................................................................................................................28
EARTH QUANTITIES .....................................................................................................................................................30
3.1 STRAIGHT SIDED FIGURES .................................................................................................................................30
3.2 Mathematical methods of calculating irregular area ........................................................................................33
3.2.1 Area by Trapezoidal Rule ...........................................................................................................................33
3.2.2 Area by Simpson’s Rule .............................................................................................................................34
3.3 Divide an area into two equal parts ..................................................................................................................35
3.4 AREAS OF IRREGULARLY SPACED OFFSETS ........................................................................................................37
3.5 AREA FROM CROSS SECTIONS ...........................................................................................................................37
3.5.1 Sections with cross-fall ...............................................................................................................................41
3.7 COMPUTATIONS OF VOLUMES ...................................................................................................................42
3.7.1 End Areas Method ......................................................................................................................................43
3.7.2 End Areas by Coordinates...........................................................................................................................45
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 3.7.3 Prismoidal formula .....................................................................................................................................46
3.7.4 Volume from Spot Heights ........................................................................................................................48
3.8 CUT AND FILL ...............................................................................................................................................50
3.9 VOLUME USING CONTOUR AREA METHOD ................................................................................................51
Direct contouring.................................................................................................................................................53
Indirect contouring ..............................................................................................................................................53
Interpolated Contours .........................................................................................................................................53
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS .......................................................................................................................54
OTHER ENGINEERING SURVEY APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................59
4.1 DEFORMATION MONITORING SURVEYS .....................................................................................................59
Monitoring ...........................................................................................................................................................59
4.2 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS ...........................................................................................................................60
Applications of Hydrographic Surveying .............................................................................................................61
Uses of Hydrographic Surveying ..........................................................................................................................61
Preliminary Steps in Hydrographic Surveying .....................................................................................................62
Sounding in Hydrographic Survey .......................................................................................................................63
4.3 INTRODUCTION TO CAD SOFTWARES .........................................................................................................65
Works Cited .................................................................................................................................................................72

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 1. SPATIAL MAPPING
Spatial mapping (also called 3D reconstruction) is the ability to create a 3D map of the environment. It allows a
device to understand and interact with the real world. Spatial mapping is useful for collision avoidance, motion
planning, and realistic blending of the real and virtual world. (Stereolabs Inc., 2021)

1.1 TYPES OF MAPS

In general, a map is any concrete or abstract image showing the
geographical distributions, provisions and dimensions of features
that occur on or near the surface of the earth or other celestial
bodies. A map can either be real or virtual. A real map is any
tangible map product that has a permanent form and can be
directly viewed; which can be conventionally drawn of printed
using conventional methods. Whereas virtual maps are maps
which are either non-permanent, non-physical or non-visible.

Humans having been the longest habitat of the earth, there has
been a need to understand: The earth’s physical and environmental patterns at a regional, local as well as global
level and the need to understand the social and economic patterns and trends; and, hence, solving spatial problems.

Therefore, in order to reduce the complex patterns to such proportions that they can be comprehended in a single
view, and also be able to solve various spatial problems, mankind inverted a map. Whose field is a dynamic one; i.e.
map purpose, map content, size of geographic area to be mapped, use of projections, symbolizations and
technology.

For ease of describing functionally quite different maps; and to explain what can be confusing differences; we have
opted to use a greater number of map types:

General Reference (sometimes called planimetric maps)

These are simple maps showing important physical (natural and man-made) features in an area. They usually have
a primary purpose of summarising the landscape to aid discovery of locations. They are usually easy to read and
understand. Most of the early mapping of the Earth falls into this group. As a general rule, General Reference Maps
would only show relief in a stylised manner. Street and tourist maps are good examples of general reference maps.

Topographic Maps

Like the General Reference Map, Topographic Maps are a summary of the landscape and show important physical
(natural and man-made) features in an area. The primary difference is that they show elevation in detail.

Thematic

A thematic map is a map that emphasizes a particular theme or special topic such as the average distribution of
rainfall in an area. They are different from general reference maps because they do not just show natural features
like rivers, cities, political subdivisions and highways. Instead, if these items are on a thematic map, they are simply
used as reference points to enhance one's understanding of the map's theme and purpose.

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Cadastral Maps and Plans

The cadastre of a country is its register of property titles and is usually managed by government agencies. The
information recorded includes an accurate description of the location of a parcel of land and who owns it. It may
also record what the land can be used for (eg residential or not, national park etc) and may also show the location
and shape of buildings. In some countries it also records the value of a property, in these cases the cadastre may
also be used for land taxation purposes.

The foundation block of a cadastre is the cadastral plan (or survey plan). This is produced by a registered/licensed
surveyor who accurately measures and records the boundaries of each property. This occurs whenever a new land
parcel is created and each new survey produces a new survey plan. Because of this each plan is static in time, ie it
represents the shape and status of the cadastre at the time of survey. [1]

Topographic Maps
The distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is the use of elevation contour lines to show the shape of the
Earth's surface. Elevation contours are imaginary lines connecting points having the same elevation on the surface
of the land above or below a reference surface, which is usually mean sea level. Contours make it possible to show
the height and shape of mountains, the depths of the ocean bottom, and the steepness of slopes.
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Characteristics of topographic maps include:
 they show elevation using contour lines – in simplistic terms a contour line is a line which joins points of
equal elevation above sea level
 they have an emphasis on showing human settlement (roads, cities, buildings etc), but may include some
thematic information such as vegetation or the boundaries of national parks
 they are typically produced by government agencies – these are often specialist mapping agencies and may
have either a civilian or defence purpose
 they have well defined standards (called Specifications) which are strictly adhered to – these vary between
mapping agencies and the scale of the map
 they have very good location reference systems – including latitude and longitude, but may also have grid
lines
 often have additional information such as an arrow pointing to Magnetic North as well as True North

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Map Projections

Map Production
Before embarking on the complex task of producing a map, cartographers must first consider two fundamental
points: the purpose of the map, and its target audience. Only after these have been defined should design and
production commence. These points are critical to determining what is shown or omitted from the map, how key
features will be highlighted while other less important elements are not etc.

Maps have two basic components: the map itself (commonly called the ‘face of the map’); and information about
the map (commonly called ‘marginalia’).

Marginalia Information
The term marginalia come from a convention that all additional information about the map was printed/ drawn
outside the edge of the map – i.e. in the margins. This convention has disappeared with time, but the term lives on.
There are no hard-and-fast rules as to what marginalia should accompany a map, but there are some well recognized
principles which are outlined below. Also, there are no hard-and-fast rules as to how the marginalia should be shown
on the map – it is completely up to the map maker’s discretion.

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The marginalia items which are discussed here are: Graticules and Grids, Legend, Location, North Arrow, Production
Information, including authorship, Projection, Scale, Title. These are by no means the only marginalia items – this
also is completely up to the map maker’s discretion.

1. Title It is essential that a map has a title. This is to ensure that the reader knows what is being
mapped. This may be very simple or made more complex by including a note outlining the
content/purpose and/or limitations of the map. The title is always the largest font size on the sheet,
is often in capital letters, and placed in a prominent place. If a note is included it is usually in a
smaller sized font to the main title.
2. Legend- A legend is essentially a decoder for all the symbols used on a map. Remember it is not
always intuitive as to what a symbol represents, so give sufficient information to ensure that your
map is not misread. For example, a tree (draw a tree symbol) symbol could represent a single tree,
a forest, a plant nursery, a city park, a lawn cemetery or even something totally unrelated to plants.
3. Scale-This is the mathematical relationship between the size of the map and the size of the piece of
earth it is describing. All maps have a scale (maps without scales are essentially diagrams), which
may be simple (for single scale maps) or complex (for multi-scale maps). Modern maps have the
advantage of using advanced earth measuring techniques and map projections, which results in
more accurate mapping, with a reliably consistent scale applied across the face of the map.
4. Projection-The amount of information supplied regarding the projection used for the map is
dependent on the purpose of the map and/or the complexity of the projection. projection
information is often sought by map users, sometimes many years after a map has been
published. For this reason, a good rule of thumb is to include projection details where possible.
5. North Arrow- Early maps almost always had an arrow indicating the direction to the Geographic
North Pole – called a North Arrow. This convention developed because maps were drawn with no
particular reference to the physical reality of the shape of the Earth – rather they were aligned to
best suit the subject of the map, for example the route of a trade expedition. However modern
convention dictates that north should be at the top of the map and therefore North Arrows are
generally not shown on maps
6. Production Information- Where possible, maps should include production notes (sometimes called
'map credits' but more usually these days: metadata). Important items are:

 a brief statement as to who produced/published the map

 date of publication and/or date of the information shown on the map
 known limitations of the information
 names of organisations and individuals who contributed (information, sponsorship etc) to
the map, and/or names of those who compiled, drew, edited or printed the map
 the methodology that was used to produce the map
 edition (this is not usually added to a first edition map)
 a Copyright statement (including the Copyright symbol ©)

Steps in Production a Map

These are the key steps in producing a map:

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Figure 1: Map Production Process

1.2 APPLICATION OF CAD SOFTWARES

A Geographic Information System (GIS Software) is designed to store, retrieve, manage, display, and analyze all
types of geographic and spatial data. GIS software lets you produce maps and other graphic displays of geographic
information for analysis and presentation. GIS software lets you produce maps and other graphic displays of
geographic information for analysis and presentation. With these capabilities a GIS is a valuable tool to visualize
spatial data or to build decision support systems for use in your organization.

A GIS stores data on geographical features and their characteristics. The features are typically classified as points,
lines, or areas, or as raster images. On a map city data could be stored as points, road data could be stored as lines,
and boundaries could be stored as areas, while aerial photos or scanned maps could be stored as raster images.

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Geographic Information Systems store information using spatial indices that make it possible to identify the features
located in any arbitrary region of a map. For example, a GIS can quickly identify and map all of the locations within
a specified radius of a point, or all of the streets that run through a territory.

In addition to the above capabilities, Maptitude implements a professional-strength relational database, a feature
critical for GIS software. Attribute data may be freely joined to and detached from geographic layers and tables.
Relational data manipulation is integrated with robust and powerful geoprocessing for spatial queries, polygon
overlay, and other location-based analyzes. This is supported seamlessly so that data are moved easily to and from
relational tables and geographic databases. In addition, the Maptitude fixed-format binary table supports 32,767
fields and 1 billion records, and has unlimited character field widths.

Geographic Information System Software Features

Many GIS packages offer the following key components and capabilities: A database anagement system (DBMS);
Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information; Tools that support geographic query, analysis,
and visualization; and A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools and scripts.

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Maps and Layers
 The Create-a-Map Wizard allows users to easily create presentation-ready maps using their own data or the
default maps
 The Display Manager allows a map to be customized on-the-fly
 User-defined preferences for map units, left/right side-of-road routing, file permissions, geocoding
parameters, and many other settings
 Toolbox and mouse-based map navigation is supported and includes panning, zooming, and magnifying
 Map bookmark management allows the retrieval of custom map views
 Multi-layer map feature query tools allow direct interrogation of spatial locations
 A map librarian/manager allows the organization of various saved maps and comes with a library of pre-
styled demographic maps
 Geographic database layering controls allow customization of layer visibility and drawing order
 Multiple maps can be open simultaneously, and can be duplicated, combined, synchronized, tiled, cascaded,
and minimized/maximized
 There is explicit map scale control including undo
 Layer autoscaling allows customization of the scale at which layers are visible
 An interactive map overview window provides perspective as you work and the ability to zoom anywhere
in the study region

Visualization
 Extensive layer style control includes font/style/opacity settings for points/lines/areas/labels/legends/
drawings; point and area styles can use most image formats and their resolution can be controlled via scaling
 Thematic visualizations include color, pattern/icon, dot-density, chart, scaled-symbol, and 3D prism themes
 A drawing toolbox is provided, the drawing items are customizable, and there is a selection of north-
oriented arrows
 Each map has an editable legend that automatically lists displayed features and has a live scale bar
 Stand-alone charting capabilities include pie, bar, line, area, scatter, and function charts
 Advanced text label placement and management tools include live label manipulation en-masse or
individually, automated positioning, callouts/rotation, font control, multi-line, framing, hiding, styling,
prioritizing, stretching, spacing, autoscaling, and additional text manipulation settings
 Maps and graphics can be copy/pasted or saved as pictures/bitmaps (with optional quality/resolution
settings) for insertion into MS Office and other external applications
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  Printing to any printer/paper size is supported, with a wide variety of spatial print options including using
fixed scale, with actual point sizes, and as pre-rendered images
 Report/layout creation can utilize settings for snap grids, rulers, paper size/orientation, dimensions,
margins, alignment, print options, automated district printing, and a variety of other graphics software-
oriented options
 Map interaction can be recorded to video
 Layer style/label/autoscale override is provided through the Feature Display tool
 Cartographic coloring uses Brelaz's Dsatur algorithm to assign colors that ensure that no two adjacent
regions have the same color

Geocoding
 The tabular and geographic find tool can identify locations anywhere on earth
 Robust and flexible pin-mapping tools support geocoding by address, postal code, city/town, join,
coordinate, longitude/latitude, by any populated place in the world (village, town, city), and also manually
 Custom geocodable indexes can be created to pin-map based on external datasets
 Geotagged images from smart phones, tablets, or GPS-enabled devices can be mapped

GIS Mapping Tools and Geographic Analysis

Geographic analysis tools are the most valuable component of GIS software because they let you analyze the
geographic components of your data. Below are some of the geographic analysis tools that are standard
in Maptitude:

i. Territory Building Tools- Districts/Territories can be created using map-based filters or via tabular
groupings
ii. Buffers- Circular buffers/bands for analyzing proximity
iii. Facility Location- A facility location tool identifies the best location for one or more facilities from a
set of candidate sites
iv. Geographic Overlay- Geographic overlay/aggregation is supported and allows attribute assignment
between layers based on percentage overlap for estimating demographics of territories, buffers, areas
of influence, and more
v. Hot Spots- Kernel-based density grids can be created using the quartic, triangular, uniform, or count
methods, and allow "hot-spot" mapping
vi. Weighted Centre- Weighted centre calculations allow the identification of centres of "gravity" among
points
vii. Shortest Path- The shortest path calculations allow for minimizing the cost of the path as an
ordered/unordered route with options to produce directions and to return to the origin
viii. Drive-time Bands- Drive time/distance bands allow you to visualize the extent to which locations can
be accessed within a certain drive time or distance
ix. Drive-time Territories- Drive time partitions allow regions across a line layer to be defined based on
network cost
x. Clustering- A clustering tool groups points or areas into compact clusters, while placing optional
constraints on the clusters such as maximum size or a balanced total field, such as Sales or Population
xi. Balancing- A balancing tool automatically creates territories that are balanced by a specific
demographic
xii. Routing Deliveries & Pickups- Routing tools optimize routes for several vehicles needing to reach
many destinations for deliveries and pickups in fixed time windows
xiii. Measuring Tools- Length/area measurement tools allow map-based calculations
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 xiv. Desire Lines- Desire lines (also known as spider diagrams) allow the visualization of flows
xv. Surface Analysis- Surface analysis tools include spot height data querying, surface profiling,
viewsheds, contouring, 3D terrain visualization, DEM/TIN creation, and the calculation of terrain
shortest paths
xvi. Data Classification- Data classification methods include: quantiles, equal weight, equal interval,
standard deviation, nested means, arithmetic or geometric progression, Fisher-Jenks/optimal breaks,
categories, and manual classification (by range, counts, or percentages)
xvii. Areas of Influence- Areas-of-Influence (also known as Thiessen Polygons or Voronoi Diagrams) are a
powerful GIS tool that divide the study area using a triangulated irregular network (TIN)
xviii. GPS Support- GPS support includes the ability to read/animate/import GPS data, overlay tracks with
aerial photos and topographic or vector maps, track real time GPS locations, create vector line/point
layers from GPS playback files, and import/export formats such as GPX (the GPS Exchange Format)
xix. Spatial Queries- Filter features based on geographic location, proximity to other features, by radius,
by pointing, by polygon, or based on a value or condition.
xx. Statistical Analysis- Compute summary statistics (sum, min, max, mean, standard deviation), compute
spatial autocorrelation, and create box plots.
xxi. Internet Mapping- Map server products such as Maptitude for the Web and Cloud and SaaS location-
based applications allow you to share your geographic data as device independent and mobile-friendly
interactive maps. You can also add mapping functions to your web site or web-based solutions, such
as providing the public with access to assessor parcel maps and valuation data.

Imagery
 Image layer and aerial photo tools include registration, a manager/librarian, contrast control, smoothing
(from 2x2 to 10x10) and interpolation (nearest neighbor, bilinear, high quality bilinear, bicubic, high quality
bicubic)
 The image servers supported are Google Earth and OGC Web Map Services (WMS)

Database
 GIS programs have a powerful proprietary relational database
 Support is provided for over 50 file types and more than 100 GIS and CAD formats, some natively including
Excel, MS Access, ODBC, dBase, CSV, ASCII, ArcGIS platform formats (Esri Shapefile and Personal
Geodatabase), MapInfo TAB, Oracle Spatial, and SQL Server Spatial
 Support is provided for exporting to many formats including Excel, dBase, CSV, ASCII, Lotus, Google KML,
ArcGIS platform formats (Esri Shapefile and ArcMap Document), MapInfo MIF, Oracle Spatial, SQL Server
Spatial and AutoCAD DXF
 Table tools include the ability to transpose, group/aggregate, identify duplicates, calculate statistics, convert
longitude/latitude to XY coordinates, print mailing labels, copy/paste values, and perform undo/redo of
edits
 Regression and binary logit models can be estimated on any map layer or table
 Table field tools include the ability to hide, show, filter, lock, format, multi-field sort, create live
expression/formula fields, and perform multi-cell fills
 Database modify tools include the ability to add/delete records/fields, delete filtered records, set
aggregation rules, apply look-up table coding, and define field header balloon pop-up text
 Database joins can be aggregate/non-aggregate and as one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-one joins
 Multiple filters per layer or database can be created using SQL type queries, spatial queries (coincident,
adjacent, within, and many more), and data classification methods

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  Topological/non-topological spatial databases can be created for points, lines, areas, or grids
 Topological/non-topological layer (line/point/area) editing tools include the ability to use digitizers, create
one-way streets, copy and paste lines, merge/split features/attributes, add/delete/move features, line/area
conversion, point-to-line conversion, merging layers, clipping/masking geography by region/area, and
undo/redo of edits
 There is comprehensive projection, datum, and coordinate system support both natively and via
import/export, and this operates in conjunction with tools such as vector rubbersheeting and on-the-fly
raster layer reprojection
 Any record can be linked to multiple files including photos, documents, web pages, and slide-shows

Benefits
 Better see the information and trends hidden in your geographic data, tables, spreadsheets, and databases
 Perform geospatial analysis: Create 3-D maps, heat maps, territories, drive-time rings, hot-spots, charts, and
reports
 Import, analyze, segment, and report on data in almost any format
 Use location intelligence to filter and categorize data
 Print, export, manage, share, and use location-based results to develop improved efficiencies and cost
savings

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 2. ENGINEERING SURVEYING
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) defines engineering surveying as those activities involved in the
planning and execution of surveys for the development, design, construction, operation and maintenance of civil
and other engineered projects. (American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 2018)

Engineering surveying may be regarded as a specialty within the broader professional practice of engineering and
includes all surveying activities required to support the conception, planning, design, construction, maintenance,
and operation of engineered projects. Engineering surveying excludes the surveying of real property, for the
establishment of land boundaries, rights of way, easements, and the dependent or independent surveys or
resurveys of the public land survey system.

RECAP ON LEVELLING
Levelling is an operation in surveying performed to determine the difference in levels of two points. By this
operation the height of a point from a datum, known as elevation, is determined.

A level surface is the equipotential surface of the earth’s gravity field. It is a curved surface and every element of
which is normal to the plumb line.

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A datum is a reference surface of constant potential, called as a level surface of the earth’s gravity field, for
measuring the elevations of the points. One of such surfaces is the mean sea level surface and is considered as a
standard datum. Also, an arbitrary surface may be adopted as a datum.

A line lying in a level surface is a level line. It is thus a curved line.

Staff held vertical

Horizontal line

Line of sight

Mean sea-level

Fig. 2.1

A level in proper adjustment, and correctly set up, produces a horizontal line of sight which is at right angles
to the direction of gravity and tangential to the level line at the instrument height. It follows a constant height
above mean sea level and hence is a curved line, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
Over short distances, such as those met in civil engineering works, the two lines can be taken to coincide.
Over long distances a correction is required to reduce the staff readings given by the horizontal line of sight to the
level line equivalent. Refraction of the line of sight is also to be considered.

DIRECT DIFFERENTIAL OR SPIRIT LEVELLING

Differential levelling or spirit levelling is the most accurate simple direct method of determining the difference of
level between two points using an instrument known as level with a levelling staff. A level establishes a horizontal
line of sight and the difference in the level of the line of sight and the point over which the levelling staff is held, is
measured through the levelling staff.
Fig. 2.2 shows the principle of determining the difference in level ∆h between two points A and B, and thus the
elevation of one of them can be determined if the elevation of the other one is known. SA and SB are the staff
readings at A and B, respectively, and hA and hB are their respective elevations.

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 Fig. 2.2

From the figure, we find that

(i) if SB < SA, the point B is higher than point A.
(ii) if SB > SA, the point B is lower than point A.
(iii) to determine the difference of level, the elevation of ground point at which the level is set up, is
not required.
Booking and Reducing the Levels
Before discussing the booking and methods of reducing levels, the following terms associated with differential
levelling must be understood.
i. Station: A station is the point where the levelling staff is held. (Points A, a, b, B, c, and C in Fig. 3.4).
ii. Height of instrument (H.I.) or height of collimation: For any set up of the level, the elevation of the line of
sight is the height of instrument. (H.I. = hA + SA in Fig. 3.3).
iii. Back sight (B.S.): It is the first reading taken on the staff after setting up the level usually to determine the
height of instrument. It is usually made to some form of a bench mark (B.M.) or to the points whose
elevations have already been determined. When the instrument position has to be changed, the first sight
taken in the next section is also a back sight. (Staff readings S1 and S5 in Fig. 3.4).

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 B.M.

Staff position/Station
a
Instrument position

I.S 2
S 2
B.S.
B F.S.
1 F.S.
C
B.S. S 5 S 7
A S C.P.
4
I.S. S
S 1 6

B.M.
S 3
I.S..

Section-1 Section-2

iv. Fore sight (F.S.): It is the last reading from an instrument position on to a staff held at a point. It is thus the
last reading taken within a section of levels before shifting the instrument to the next section, and also the
last reading taken over the whole series of levels. (Staff readings S4 and S7 in Fig. 3.4).
v. Change point (C.P.) or turning point: A change point or turning point is the point where both the fore sight
and back sight are made on a staff held at that point. A change point is required before moving the level
from one section to another section. By taking the fore sight the elevation of the change point is determined
and by taking the back sight the height of instrument is determined. The change points relate the various
sections by making fore sight and back sight at the same point. (Point B in Fig. 3.4).
vi. Intermediate sight (I.S.): The term ‘intermediate sight’ covers all sightings and consequent staff readings
made between back sight and fore sight within each section. Thus, intermediate sight station is neither the
change point nor the last point. (Points a, b, and c in Fig. 3.4).
vii. Balancing of sights: When the distances of the stations where back sight and fore sight are taken from the
instrument station, are kept approximately equal, it is known as balancing of sights. Balancing of sights
minimizes the effect of instrumental and other errors.
viii. Reduced level (R.L.): Reduced level of a point is its height or depth above or below the assumed datum. It
is the elevation of the point.
ix. Rise and fall: The difference of level between two consecutive points indicates a rise or a fall between the
two points. In Fig. 3.3, if (SA – SB) is positive, it is a rise and if negative, it is a fall. Rise and fall are determined
for the points lying within a section.
x. Section: A section comprises of one back sight, one fore sight and all the intermediate sights taken from
one instrument set up within that section. Thus, the number of sections is equal to the number of set ups
of the instrument. (From A to B for instrument position 1 is section-1 and from B to C for instrument position
2 is section-2 in Fig. 3.4).

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For booking and reducing the levels of points, there are two systems, namely the height of instrument or height of
collimation method and rise and fall method. The columns for booking the readings in a level book are same for
both the methods but for reducing the levels, the number of additional columns depends upon the method of
reducing the levels. Note that except for the change point, each staff reading is written on a separate line so that
each staff position has its unique reduced level. This remains true at the change point since the staff does not
move and the back sight from a forward instrument station is taken at the same staff position where the fore sight
has been taken from the backward instrument station. To explain the booking and reducing levels, the levelling
operation from stations A to C shown in Fig. 3.4, has been presented in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 for both the methods.
These tables may have additional columns for showing chainage, embankment, cutting, etc., if required.
Table 3.1 Height of instrument method
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks

A S1 H.I.A = hA hA B.M. = ha
+S1

a ha = H.I.A – S2
S2
b
S3 hb = H.I.A – S3
B S5 S4 H.I.B = hB + hB = H.I.A – S4 C.P.
S5

c
S6 hc = H.I.B – S6
C –
S7 HC = H.I.B – S7

Σ B.S. Σ F.S.

Check : Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

In reducing the levels for various points by the height of instrument method, the height of instrument (H.I.) for
each section highlighted by different shades, is determined by adding the elevation of the point to the back-sight
reading taken at that point. The H.I. remains unchanged for all the staff readings taken within that section and
therefore, the levels of all the points lying in that section are reduced by subtracting the corresponding staff
readings, i.e., I.S. or F.S., from the H.I. of that section.

In the rise and fall method, the rises and the falls are found out for the points lying within each section. Adding or
subtracting the rise or fall to or from the reduced level of the backward

station obtains the level for a forward station. In Table 3.2, r and f indicate the rise and the fall, respectively,
assumed between the consecutive points.
Table 3.2 Rise and fall method

Page | 17
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks

A S1 hA h
B.M. = a

a S2 r1 = h a = h A + r1
S1 – S2
b S3 f1 = S2 – S3 hb = ha – f1

B S5 S4 f2 = S3 – S4 hB = hb – f2 C.P.

c S6 f3 = S5 – S6 hc = hB – f3

C S7 r2 = HC = hc + r2
S6 – S7
Σ B.S. Σ F.S. Σ Rise Σ Fall

Check: Σ B.S. − Σ F.S. = Σ Rise − Σ Fall = Last R.L. − First R.L.

The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as check on the computations. The following rules are
used in the two methods of reduction of levels.
(a) For the height of instrument method
(i) Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
(ii) Σ [H.I. × (No. of I.S.’s + 1)] – Σ I.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ R.L. – First R.L.
(b) For the rise and fall method
Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ Rise – Σ Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

COMPARISON OF METHODS AND THEIR USES

Less arithmetic is involved in the reduction of levels with the height of instrument method than with the rise and
fall method, in particular when large numbers of intermediate sights is involved. Moreover, the rise and fall method
gives an arithmetic check on all the levels reduced, i.e., including the points where the intermediate sights have
been taken, whereas in the height of instrument method, the check is on the levels reduced at the change points
only. In the height of instrument method the check on all the sights is available only using the second formula that
is not as simple as the first one.
The height of instrument method involves less computation in reducing the levels when there are large numbers of
intermediate sights and thus it is faster than the rise and fall method. The rise and fall method, therefore, should
be employed only when a very few or no intermediate sights are taken in the whole levelling operation. In such
case, frequent change of instrument position requires determination of the height of instrument for the each setting
of the instrument and, therefore, computations involved in the height of instrument method may be more or less
equal to that required in the rise and fall method. On the other hand, it has a disadvantage of not having check on
the intermediate sights, if any, unless the second check is applied.

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LOOP CLOSURE AND ITS APPORTIONING
A loop closure or misclosure is the amount by which a level circuit fails to close. It is the difference of elevation of
the measured or computed elevation and known or established elevation of the same point. Thus, loop closure is
given by
e = computed value of R.L. – known value of R.L.
If the length of the loop or circuit is L and the distance of a station to which the correction c is computed, is l,
then

Alternatively, the correction is applied to the elevations of each change point and the closing point of known
elevation. If there are n1 change points then the total number points at which the corrections are to be applied is
n = n1 + 1
and the correction at each point is

The corrections at the intermediate points are taken as same as that for the change points to which they are
related.

Page | 19
Example 1.
The following readings were taken with a level and 4 m staff. Draw up a level book page and reduce the levels by
the height of instrument method.
0.578 B.M.(= 58.250 m), 0.933, 1.768, 2.450, (2.005 and 0.567) C.P., 1.888, 1.181, (3.679 and 0.612) C.P.,
0.705, 1.810.

Solution:
The first reading being on a B.M., is a back sight. As the fifth station is a change point, 2.005 is fore sight reading
and 0.567 is back sight reading. All the readings between the first and fifth readings are intermediate sight-
readings. Similarly, the eighth station being a change point, 3.679 is fore sight reading, 0.612 is back sight reading,
and 1.888, 1.181 are intermediate sight readings. The last reading 1.810 is fore sight and 0.705 is intermediate
sight-readings. All the readings have been entered in their respective columns in the following table and the levels
have been reduced by height of instrument method. In the following computations, the values of B.S., I.S., H.I.,
etc., for a particular station have been indicated by its number or name.

Section-1:
H.I.1 = h1 + B.S.1 = 58.250 + 0.578 = 58.828 m h2 = H.I.1 – I.S.2 = 58.828 – 0.933 = 57.895 m h3

= H.I.1 – I.S.3 = 58.828 – 1.768 = 57.060 m h4 = H.I.1 – I.S.4 = 58.828 – 2.450 = 56.378 m h5 =

H.I.1 – F.S.5 = 58.828 – 2.005 = 56.823 m

Section-2:
H.I.5 = h5 + B.S.5 = 56.823 + 0.567 = 57.390 m h6 = H.I.2 – I.S.6 = 57.390 – 1.888 = 55.502 m h7
= H.I.2 – I.S.7 = 57.390 – 1.181 = 56.209 m h8 = H.I.2 – F.S.8 = 57.390 – 3.679 = 53.711 m

Section-3:
H.I.8 = h8 + B.S.8 = 53.711 + 0.612 = 54.323 m h9 = H.I.8 – I.S.9 = 54.323 – 0.705 = 53.618 m

h10 = H.I.8 – F.S.10 = 54.323 – 1.810 = 52.513 m

Additional check for H.I. method:

Σ [H.I. × (No. of I.S.s + 1)] – Σ I.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ R.L. – First R.L.
[58.828 × 4 + 57.390 3 + 54.323 × 2] – 8.925 – 7.494 = 557.959 – 58.250 = 499.709 (O.K.)

Page | 20
 Table 3.3

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks

1 0.578 58.828 58.250 B.M.=58.250 m
2 0.933 57.895
3 1.768 57.060
4 2.450 56.378
5 0.567 2.005 57.390 56.823 C.P.
6 1.888 55.502
7 1.181 56.209
8 0.612 3.679 54.323 53.711 C.P.
9 0.705 53.618
10 1.810 52.513

Σ 1.757 8.925 7.494 557.956

Check : 1.757 – 7.494 = 52.513 – 58.250 = – 5.737 (O.K.)

Example 2.
Reduce the levels of the stations from the readings given in the Example 3.1 by the rise and fall method.

Solution:
Booking of the readings for reducing the levels by rise and fall method is same as explained in Example 3.1. The
computations of the reduced levels by rise and fall method is given below and the results are tabulated in the
table. In the following computations, the values of B.S., I.S., Rise (r), Fall (f ), etc., for a particular station have been
indicated by its number or name.

(i) Calculation of rise and fall

Section-1: f2 = B.S.1 – I.S.2 = 0.578 – 0.933 = 0.355 f3 =
I.S.2 – I.S.3 = 0.933 – 1.768 = 0.835 f4 = I.S.3 –
I.S.4 = 1.768 – 2.450 = 0.682 r5 = I.S.4 – F.S.5 =
2.450 – 2.005 = 0.445

Section-2: f6 = B.S.5 – I.S.6 = 0.567 – 1.888 = 1.321 f7 =

I.S.6 – I.S.7 = 1.888 – 1.181 = 0.707 f8 = I.S.7 –
F.S.8 = 1.181 –- 3.679 = 2.498
Section-3: f9 = B.S.8 – I.S.9 = 0.612 – 0.705 = 0.093 f10 =
I.S.9 – F.S.10 = 0.705 – 1.810 = 1.105

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(ii) Calculation of reduced levels
h2 = h1 – f2 = 58.250 – 0.355 = 57.895 m h3 = h2 – f3 = 57.895 –

0.835 = 57.060 m h4 = h3 – f4 = 57.060 – 0.682 = 56.378 m h5 = h4

+ r5 = 56.378 + 0.445 = 56.823 m h6 = h5 – f6 = 56.823 – 1.321 =

55.502 m h7 = h6 + r7 = 55.502 + 0.707 = 56.209 m h8 = h7 – f8 =

56.209 – 2.498 = 53.711 m h9 = h8 – f9 = 53.711 – 0.093 = 53.618

m h10 = h9 – f10 = 53.618 – 1.105 = 52.513 m

Table 3.4
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks

1 0.578 58.250 B.M.=58.250 m

2 0.933 0.355 57.895

3 1.768 0.835 57.060

4 2.450 0.682 56.378

5 0.567 2.005 0.445 56.823 C.P.

6 1.888 1.321 55.502

7 1.181 0.707 56.209

8 0.612 3.679 2.498 53.711 C.P.

9 0.705 0.093 53.618

10 1.810 1.105 52.513

Σ 1.757 7.494 1.152 6.889

Check : 1.757 – 7.494 = 1.152 – 6.889 = 52.513 – 58.250 = – 5.737 (O.K.)

Page | 22
Example 3.
The following consecutive readings were taken with a level on continuously sloping ground at a common interval
of 20 m. The last station has an elevation of 155.272 m. Rule out a page of level book and enter the readings.
Calculate
(i) the reduced levels of the points by rise and fall method, and

(ii) the gradient of the line joining the first and last points.
0.420, 1.115, 2.265, 2.900, 3.615, 0.535, 1.470, 2.815, 3.505, 4.445, 0.605, 1.925, 2.885.

Solution:

Since the readings have been taken along a line on a continuously sloping ground, any sudden large change in the
reading such as in the sixth reading compared to the fifth reading and in the eleventh reading compared to the
tenth reading, indicates the change in the instrument position. Therefore, the sixth and eleventh readings are the
back sights and fifth and tenth readings are the fore sights. The first and the last readings are the back sight and
fore sight, respectively, and all remaining readings are intermediate sights.
The last point being of known elevation, the computation of the levels is to be done from last point to the first
point. The falls are added to and the rises are subtracted from the known elevations. The computation of levels is
explained below and the results have been presented in the following table.
(i) Calculation of rise and fall
Section-1: f2 = B.S.1 – I.S.2 = 0.420 – 1.115= 0.695 f3 =
I.S.2 – I.S.3 = 1.115 – 2.265= 1.150 f4 = I.S.3 –
I.S.4 = 2.265 – 2.900= 0.635 f5 = I.S.4 – F.S.5 =
2.900 – 3.615= 0.715

Section-2: f6 = B.S.5 – I.S.6 = 0.535 – 1.470 = 0.935 f7 =

I.S.6 – I.S.7 = 1.470 – 2.815 = 1.345 f8 = I.S.7 –
I.S.8 = 2.815 – 3.505 = 0.690 f9 = I.S.8 – F.S.9 =
3.505 – 4.445 = 0.940

Section-3: f10 = B.S.9 – I.S.10 = 0.605 – 1.925 = 1.320 f11 =

I.S.10 – F.S.11 = 1.925 – 2.885 = 0.960
(ii) Calculation of reduced levels

h10 = h11 + f11 = 155.272 + 0.960 = 156.232 m h9 = h10 + f10 = 156.232

+ 1.320 = 157.552 m h8 = h9 + f9 = 157.552 + 0.940 = 158.492 m h7 =

h8 + f8 = 158.492 + 0.690 = 159.182 m h6 = h7 + f7 = 159.182 + 1.345

= 160.527 m h5 = h6 + f6 = 160.527 + 0.935 = 161.462 m h4 = h5 + f5 =

161.462 + 0.715 = 162.177 m h3 = h4 + f4 = 162.177 + 0.635 =

162.812 m h2 = h3 + f3 = 162.812 + 1.150 = 163.962 m h1 = h2 + f2 =

163.962 + 0.695 = 164.657 m

Page | 23
 Table 3.5
Station Chainage
B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
(m)
1 0 0.420 164.657
2 20 1.115 0.695 163.962
3 40 2.265 1.150 162.812
4 60 2.900 0.635 162.177
5 80 0.535 3.615 0.715 161.462 C.P.
6 100 1.470 0.935 160.527
7 120 2.815 1.345 159.182
8 140 3.505 0.690 158.492
9 160 0.605 4.445 0.940 157.552 C.P.
10 180 1.925 1.320 156.232
11 200 2.885 0.960 155.272 Elevation
= 155.272 m
Σ 1.560 10.945 0.00 0 9.385
Check: 1.560 – 10.945 = 0.000 – 9.385 = 155.272 – 164.657 = – 9.385 (O.K.)

(iii) Calculation of gradient- The gradient of the line 1-11 is

Difference of level between points 1-11
=

distance between points 1-11

= =
= 1 in 21.3 (falling)

Page | 24
 2.1 SECTIONAL LEVELLING
This type of levelling is used to produce ground profiles for use in the design of roads, railways and pipelines [3]. For
many construction and civic engineering sites; mean sea level is not often used as a datum for levelling, instead, a
permanent feature of some sort is chosen on which to base all work and this is given an arbitrary height to suit site
constructions. Whatever the chosen datum, the height of a point relative to datum is said to be its reduced level.
Bench marks are permanent reference marks or points, the reduced levels of which have been accurately
determined by levelling.

LONGITUDINAL SECTION
In Engineering Surveying a longitudinal section or (profile) is taken along the complete length of the proposed Centre
line of the construction showing the existing ground level. Levelling can be used to measure heights at points on
the Centre line so that the profile can be plotted. Generally, this type of section provides data for determining the
most economic formation level; this being the level to which existing ground is formed by construction methods.
The optimum position for the formation level is usually found by using computer-aided design (CAD) package but
the longitudinal section is sometimes drawn by hand mass haul diagram prepared. [1]

Page | 25
CROSS SECTION
A Longitudinal Section provides information only along the centre line of the proposed project. For works such as
sewers or pipelines, which usually are only of narrow extent in the form a trench cut along the surveyed centre line,
a longitudinal section provides sufficient data for the construction of other projects such as roads and railways,
existing ground level information at ground level angles to the centre line is required. This is provided by taking
cross sections. These are sections taken at right angles to the centre line such that information is obtained over the
full width of the proposed construction. [1]

Figure 13: Example of a Cross Section

Page | 26
 2.2 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING
Hydrographic survey is the science of measurement and description of features which affect maritime navigation,
marine construction, dredging, offshore oil exploration/offshore oil drilling and related activities. The primary
purpose of hydrographic surveying is in water depth estimation, which is achieved by bathymetric surveys. Some of
the other most common uses of hydrographic surveying include waterway planning, dredging analysis, and wreck
location.

2.3 DAM SURVEYS

Dam deformation surveys are a requirement for varying types of structures and objects, mainly focused on high-risk
projects such as large dams, tunnels and buildings located in unstable ground. Dam deformation surveys are used
to document the movement of a structure very accurately, often to a sub-millimetre standard. These dam
deformation surveys in the past have been undertaken by traditional surveying methods, such as angular
triangulation and precise level runs. Previously these surveys had been conducted over strategically placed survey
marks, located sparsely across the structure. However, if the use of TLS was implemented in these dam deformation
surveys, vast point clouds over the entire structure could be captured and examined. As a result, this could enable
authorities to examine not only those few surveyed marks located on the structure, but the entire structure itself,
developing a complete image of the movement of the surveyed structure.

Page | 27
 2.4 EXCAVATION CONTROL
This type of setting out generally occurs in drainage schemes where the trench, bedding material and pipes have to
be laid to a specified design gradient. Manholes (MH) will need to be set out at every change of direction or at least
every 100 m on straight runs. The MH (or inspection chambers) are generally set out first and the drainage courses
set out to connect into them.

The centre peg of the MH is established in the usual way and referenced to four pegs; Alternatively, profile boards
may be set around the MH and its dimensions marked on them. If the boards are set out at a known height above
formation level the depth of excavation can be controlled,

Use of sight rails

Sight rails (SRs) are basically horizontal rails set a specific distance apart and to a specific level such that a line of
sight between them is at the required gradient. Thus, they are used to control trench excavation and pipe gradient
without the need for constant professional supervision.

Page | 28
Figure 12.17 illustrates SRs being used in conjunction with a boning rod (or traveler) to control trench excavation to
a design gradient of 0.5% (rising). Pegs A and B are offset a known distance from the centerline of the trench and
levelled from a nearby TBM.

Assume that peg A has a level of 40 m and the formation level of the trench at this point is to be 38m. It is decided
that a reasonable height for the SR above ground would be 1.5 m, i.e. at a level of 41.5;

Page | 29
EARTH QUANTITIES
Estimation of areas and volumes is basic to most engineering schemes such as route alignment, reservoirs,
tunnels, etc. The excavation and hauling of material on such schemes is the most significant and costly
aspect of the work, on which profit or loss may depend. Areas may be required in connection with the
purchase or sale of land, with the subdivision of land or with the grading of land. Earthwork volumes must
be estimated to enable route alignment to be located at such lines and levels that cut and fill are balanced
as far as practicable; and to enable contract estimates of time and cost to be made for proposed work;
and to form the basis of payment for work carried out.

The measurement of areas of sites and areas of cross- sections plays an important part in engineering
surveying [6]. The computation of areas may be based on data scaled from plans or drawings, or data
gained directly from survey field data. The area of the tract of the land is computed from its plan which
may be enclosed by straight, irregular or combination of straight and irregular boundaries. When the
boundaries are straight the area is determined by subdividing the plan into simple geometrical figures
such as triangles, rectangles, trapezoids, etc. For irregular boundaries, they are replaced by short straight
boundaries, and the area is computed using approximate methods or Planimeter when the boundaries
are very irregular [7].
Standard expressions as given below are available for the areas of straight figures.

Area of triangle = 1/2ab sin C

in which C is the included angle between the sides a and b.

Area of a trapezium= (a+b)h/2

in which a and b are the parallel sides separated by perpendicular distance h.

3.1 STRAIGHT SIDED FIGURES

It may be possible to sub-divide the plotted area into a series of triangles, measures the sides a, b, c,
and compute the areas using:

The accuracy achieved will be dependent upon the scale error of the plan and the accuracy to which the
sides are measured. In traverse, triangulation, and trilateration calculations, the coordinates of the
junctions of the sides of a straight-sided figure are calculated and the same coordinates can be used to
calculate the enclosed areas.

Page | 30
This can be done as shown in figure 6 below.

Figure 14: Area Using Coordinates

From figure above and numbering corner points in a clockwise manner,

Area ABCD = area of ABQP + area of BCRQ + area of CDSR - area of ADSP.
From the figures above it can be seen that they are all trapezia for which the area can be obtained from
Area of trapezium = (mean height x width) = ((h1 + h2)/ 2)*
width

Therefore, since

Area of ABQP = ((AP + BQ)/ 2) (PQ) = ((N1+N2) (E2 -E1))/ 2

Then, the area of ABCD is

= 0.5* (N1+N2) (E2 -E1) + 0.5* (N2+N3) (E3 -E2) + 0.5* (N3+N4) (E4 -E3) – 0.5* (N4+N1) (E4 -

E1)

=0.5*[(N1+N2) (E2 -E1) + (N2+N3) (E3 -E2) + (N3+N4) (E4 -E3) - (N4+N1) (E4 -E1)]

This after expanding the terms in brackets becomes

Area ABCD = 0.5*(N1E2 -N2E1 + N2E3 -N3E2 + N3E4 -N4E3 + N4E1-N1E4)

Rearranging the above eqn. gives

Area ABCD = 0.5*(N1E2 - N1E4 + N2E3 -N2E1 + N3E4 -N3E2 + N4E1-N4E3)

Page | 31
 Area ABCD = 0.5*{N1 (E2 - E4) + N2 (E3 -E1) + N3 (E4 -E2) + N4 (E1-E3)}

And in general Area = 0.5* [∑Ni - 1 (EI + 1 - EI - 1)]

where

i = number of the station1.

Example:
Determine the area the area in hectares enclosed by the line of a closed traverse survey ABCDE from
the following data.
Point Id E (m) N (m)
A 613.26 418.11
B 806.71 523.16
C 942.17 366.84
D 901.89 203.18
E 652.08 259.26

Solution:
Using appropriate field data, it is possible define the area of a straight sided figure using rectangular
coordinates. Consider closed traverse ABCDEA, whose stations have co-ordinates EA, NA; EB, NB; EC,
NC; etc., relative to two axes whose origin is 0.

Figure 15: Area Using Coordinates Example

Area ABCDEA = areas (ABPT + BCQP + CDRQ – DESR – EATS

1
Note that the polygon should be labeled in a clockwise order

Page | 32
It is always convenient to tabulate the data in line with the general cross coordinate method of
calculating area as follows:
Table 4: Area Using Coordinates Example
Point Id Ni Ei+1 E i-1 N i(Ei+1-Ei-1)
A 418.11 806.71 652.08 64652.3493
B 523.16 942.17 613.26 172072.556
C 366.84 901.89 806.71 34915.8312
D 203.18 652.08 942.17 -58940.4862
E 259.26 613.26 901.89 -74830.2138
SUM 137870.0365

Therefore,
Area= 0.5*137870.0365
= 68 935 m2
= 6.8935 hectares

3.2 Mathematical methods of calculating irregular area

There two fundamental rules that are used in the determination of areas of irregular figures. The figure
below shows an area bounded by a survey line and an irregular boundary.

3.2.1 Area by Trapezoidal Rule

The survey line divided into a number of small equal intercepts of length d and offsets O1, O2, …, On,
measured either directly on the ground or by scaling from the plan. The rule assumes that if d is short
enough for the length of the boundary between the offsets to be assumed straight, then the area is
divided into a series of trapezoids

Area is given by A= d {[(O1+On)/2] + O2 + O3 …... + On-1}

Page | 33
3.2.2 Area by Simpson’s Rule
The other method is the Simpson’s Rule, which gives greater accuracy than the other method, and
assumes that the irregular boundary is composed of a series of parabolic arcs. It is essential that the
figure under consideration be divided into an even number of equal strips.

Simpson’s Rule states, therefore, that the area enclosed by a curvilinear figure divided into an even
number of strips of equal width is equal to one –third the width of a strip, multiplied by sum of the
two extreme offsets, twice the sum of the remaining odd offsets, and four times the sum of the even
offsets.

To derive the equation of Simpsons rule:

Page | 34
In this method, the boundary line between two segments is assumed parabolic. The first two segments
of the figure above in which boundary between the ordinates is assumed parabolic. Therefore;

Area of the first two segments = Area of trapezium ACFD + Area of parabola DEFH

3.3 Divide an area into two equal parts

Suppose you are asked to divide the polygon ABCDEA into two equal parts by a line that passes
through point C and which, meets line EA at Y as shown in the figure below. Calculate the
coordinates of point Y

Page | 35
Soln:
2
Since the total area ABCDEA has been calculated above, we proceed as follows: ABCDEA = 68935 m

Then area

2
ABCYA = area YCDEY = (68935/2) = 34467.5 m

Let point Y have coordinates (EY, NY); applying the clockwise version of the cross-coordinate method

by area ABCYA gives

2Area =
=

68935 = 213432.58 -52.27EY -328.91NY

EY = 2818.365 – 6.415 NY Eqn i

A similar application to area YCDEY gives

EY = 2.696NY - 286.765 Eqn ii

Solving equations (i) and (ii) gives

EY = 632.16 m NY = 340.78 m

As a check, since Y lies on line EA

Should equal

Substituting the coordinates of A, E and Y gives

-0.2444 = -
0.2444 this checks the coordinates of Y as calculated above.

Page | 36
3.4 AREAS OF IRREGULARLY SPACED OFFSETS
For irregularly curved boundaries where the spacing of offsets along the reference line varies. Spacing
should be selected so that the curved boundary is accurately defined when adjacent offset points on it
are connected by straight lines. A formula for calculating are for this case is:

Example:

Solution:

3.5 AREA FROM CROSS SECTIONS

In long constructions such as roads, railways, sewer line etc. which, have constant formation width and
side slopes it is possible to simplify the computation of cross-sectional areas by use of formulae. Finding
the areas of cross-sections is the first step in obtaining the volume of earthwork to be handled in route
alignment projects (road or railway), or reservoir construction, for example.

In order to illustrate more clearly what the above statement means, let us consider a road construction
project. In the first instance an accurate plan is produced on which to design the proposed route. The

Page | 37
centreline of the route, defined in terms of rectangular coordinates at 10- to 30-m intervals, is then set
out in the field. Ground levels are obtained along the centre-line and also at right angles to the line.

Figure 16: Cross Sections

The levels at right angles to the centre-line depict the ground profile, and if the design template,
depicting the formation level, road width, camber, side slopes, etc., is added, then a cross-section is
produced whose area can be obtained by planimeter or computation.

Figure 17: Cross-sectional area of a cutting

The shape of the cross-section is defined in terms of vertical heights (levels) at horizontal distances each
side of the centreline; thus no matter how complex the shape, these parameters can be treated as
rectangular coordinates and the area computed using the rules given. The areas may now be used in
various rules to produce an estimate of the volumes. Levels along, and normal to, the centre-line may
be obtained by standard levelling procedures, with a total station, or by aerial photogrammetry. The
whole computational procedure, including the road design and optimization, would then be carried out
on the computer to produce volumes of cut and fill, accumulated volumes, areas and volumes of top-
soil strip, side widths, etc. Where plotting facilities are available the program would no doubt include
routines to plot the crosssections for visual inspection. Cross-sections may be approximated to the
ground profile to afford easy computation. The particular cross-section adopted would be dependent
upon the general shape of the ground.

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 Figure 18: Cross Sections Variations

Section level across

Depth at centerline = h units
Formation width = 2b units
Side width = w
Plan width = 2w
Side slopes 1 in n

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 Figure 19: Level Section

Example:
At a certain station an embankment formed on level ground has a height of 3.10 m at its centre line. If
the breadth of formation is 12.50 m, find (a) the side widths, (b) the area of the cross section, given that
the side slope is 1 in 2.5
Depth at centerline = h units
Formation width = 2b units
Side width = w
Plan width = 2w
Side slopes I in n
2b = 12.50 m n = 2.5
Therefore
Area = h (2b + nh)

= 3.10(12.50 + 2.5 3.10)

= 62.78 m2

Side width = 2W = 2(b + nh)

W = (b + nh) = (6.25 + 2.5 3.10)

= 14.0 m

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3.5.1 Sections with cross-fall
A cutting with a constant transverse slope is shown in the figure below, where W1 = greater side width,
W2 = lesser side width, h = depth of cut on centre line, 1 in n = side slope, 1 in k is ground slope or
transverse slope. The side widths are not equal since the section is not symmetrical about the centre line.

Figure 20: Two - Level Section

The area of the cutting or the embankment is the area ACFDA = area BCG + area ABG – area DFG

Area = 0.5n {(b+nh) (W1+W2)-b2}

Exercise:

Calculate the side widths and cross-sectional area of an embankment to road with formation width of
12.50 m, and side slopes of 1 in 2, when the centre height is 3.10 m and the existing ground has a cross
fall of 1 in 12 at right angles to the centre line of the embankment.

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 3.7 COMPUTATIONS OF VOLUMES
Direct measurement of volumes is rarely made in surveying, since it is difficult to actually apply a unit of
measure to the materials involved. Instead, indirect measurements are obtained by measuring lines and
areas that have a relationship to the volume desired. In many civil engineering projects, earthwork
involves excavation and removal and dumping of earth, therefore it is required to make good estimates
of volumes of earthwork. Volume computations are also needed to determine the capacity of bins, tanks,
and reservoirs, and to check the stockpiles of coal, gravel, and other material. [7]

Three principal systems are used: the cross section method, the unit area method and the contour area
method

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3.7.1 End Areas Method
This method is comparable to the trapezoidal rule for areas.

If two cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 are horizontal distance d1 apart, the volume contained between
them V1 is given by

i.e. the mean of the two end areas multiplied by the length between them.

The equation is correct only when the mid-area of the prismoid is the mean of the two end areas.

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It is correct for wedges but in the case of a pyramid it gives a result which is 50% too great. This leads
to the general formula for a series of n cross-sections

Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 + ...... + Vn-1

V=L {[(A1 + An)/2] +A2+A3+A4+…...+An-1}

This formula is called the trapezoidal rule for volumes.

The end areas method will give accurate results if the cross-sectional areas are of the same order of
magnitude. Although this method generally overestimates, it is widely used in practice. The main
reasons for this are its simplicity and the fact that the assumptions required for a good result using the
prismoidal method are rarely fulfilled in practice. Strictly, however, it should be applied to prismoids
comprising prisms and wedges only; such is the case where the height or width of the consecutive
sections is approximately equal.

It is interesting to note that with consecutive sections, where the height increases as the width
decreases, or vice versa, the end-area method gives too small a value. The difference between the
prismoidal and end-area equations is called prismoidal excess and may be applied as a correction to the
end-area value. It is rarely used in practice.

Example:
An embankment is formed on ground which is level transverse to the embankment but falling at 1 in
20 longitudinally so that three sections 20 m apart have centre line heights of 6.00, 7.60 and 9.20
metres respectively above original ground level. If side slopes of 1 in 1 are used, determine the volume
of fill between the outer sections when the formation width is 6.00 m, using the trapezoidal rule. Using
the equation
A = h(b+mh)

A1 = 6.00(6.00 + 6.00) = 72.00

m2 A2 = 7.6(6.00 + 7.6) =

103.36 m2

A3 = 9.20(6.00 + 9.20) = 139.84 m2

Note that the mid-area A2 is not the mean of A1 and A2

20.00

V= 72.00 139.84 2 *103.36

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 2

= 4185.6 m3

3.7.2 End Areas by Coordinates

The coordinate method for computing end areas can be used for any type of section and has many
engineering applications. The procedure was described to determine the area contained within closed
polygon traverse.

For Example

In section view

Solution

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3.7.3 Prismoidal formula
This is comparable to Simpson’s rule for areas and is more accurate than the end area method. However,
from a pratical standpoint, the differences in volumes computed by the average end area method and
the prismoidal formula are usually so small as to be negligible. Where extreme accurancy is needed, such
as in expensive rock cuts, the prismoidal method can be used. The prismoid differs from the prism in that
its parallel ends are not necessarily equal in area; the sides are generated by straight lines from the edges
of the end areas. The prismoidal equation is correct when the figure is a true prismoid. In practice it is
applied by taking three successive cross-sections. If the mid-section is different from that of a true
prismoid, then errors will arise.
The volume contained between a series of cross-section with a constant distance apart can be
approximated to the volume of a prismoid which is a solid figure with plane parallel ends and plane sides.
This is shown in figure

One arrangement of the prismoidal formula is:

Where Vp is the prismoidal volume in cubic meter, A1 and A2 are areas of successive cross sections taken
in the field, Am is the area of a “computed” section midway between A1 and A2, and L is the horizontal
distance between A1 and A2.

Page | 46
Therefore, the Volume is given by:

The prismoidal formula generally gives a volume smaller than that found by the average end area formula.

The general formula for n cross-sections, where n must be odd is:

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This is often referred to as Simpson’s rule for volumes. Thus, any solid which is a combination of the above
three forms and having a common value for L, may be solved using equation above. Such a volume is
called a prismoid and the formula is called the prismoidal equation. It is easily deduced by simply
substituting areas for ordinates in Simpson’s rule.

Thus, in practice, sections should be chosen in order to avoid this fault. Generally, the engineer elects to
observe cross-sections at regular intervals assuming compensating errors over a long route distance.

3.7.4 Volume from Spot Heights

This method is generally used for calculating volumes of huge open excavations such as basements,
underground tanks, borrow pits, and spoil heaps etc. where formation level can be sloping, terraced or
horizontal. Typically, a square or triangular grid is established on the ground and spot levels are taken
at each grid intersection just as described in contouring by spot levels.

The formation level at each grid point must be known.

Considering Square Aaed only, as shown in the figure above:

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By subtracting the formation level from the observed level, a series of heights can be found from which
the volume within each square can be taken as the (plan area) x (average depth of excavation or fill at
the grid intersections.

h1 h2 h3 h4

4.76 5.14 6.72

8.10
h5 h6 h7 h8
Plan area of each
3.21 4.77 5.82 6.07
Grid square = 100 m3
h9 h10 h11 h12
1.98 2.31 3.55

Grid heights for volume calculation

The volume of grid square h1h2h6h5 is given by:
Volume = mean height x plan area

= ¼ (4.76 + 5.14 + 4.77 + 3.21)* 100 = 447 m3

A similar method can be applied to each individual grid square and this leads to the following general
formula for square or rectangular grids

Volume = {A/4(∑single depths) + 2∑double depths + 3∑triple depths + 4∑quadruple depths}

+ ∂V

Where;
 A = Plan area of grid square;
 single depths = depth such as h1 and h4 which are used once;
 double depths = depths such as h2 and h3 which are used twice;
 triple depths = depths such as h7 which are used three times;
 quadruple = depths such as h6 which are used four times;
 ∂V = the total volume outside the grid which is calculated separately.

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 3.8 CUT AND FILL
When planning the design and construction of a building, architects and engineers must first consider the
existing conditions of the site. Most often, the given site is not level and must be modified before any
construction can begin. So, the cut and fill process is typically one of the first construction processes to
take place on a site.

Without computer software to determine the amount of land to be added or removed, we can do simple
calculations to estimate the cut and fill volume of any site. First, the site is divided into sections.
Essentially, the site is "sliced" into segments of land, at a specified fixed distance apart, so we can look at
each segment individually. Section cuts are drawn based on the topography of the land in order to
accurately represent the land that is being evaluated.

The topography map describes the existing slopes of the land, and allows us to draw site elevations in our
section cuts.

Each line on the topography map represents a change in elevation of 10 feet. So the section at
0ft (the red dashed line above) looks like this in elevation:

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Now that we have two-dimensional section cuts, we can estimate the area to be cut and filled in the site.
On each section cut the desired land topography is represented as a "cut line" overlaid on the line of the
existing land topography. This gives us two lines on every section, and shows us how much of the existing
area must be removed or added. Then, the area between these lines is calculated to find the cut and fill
areas for each section.

The diagrams below represent the area between the existing elevation line and the cut line. First, we mark
the land that must be added to the site to achieve our desired land topography. This area is marked "fill."
Next, we mark the land that must be removed from the site to achieve our desired land topography. This
area is marked "cut." By combining the two diagrams, we can see begin to estimate how much land area
must be cut from the site, and how much land area must be filled in the site to level the site for
construction.

Now, once the section areas have been found, we must account for the additional length of the site (the
land between the section cuts) to be able to estimate the volume of the land cut or filled. Finally, after
computing the necessary values we are able to determine not only how much land must be removed
from or brought to the site, but also where that land must be specifically taken from or brought to.
Removing or adding land to any site is a costly process, so it is important that our estimations be made
as close to the existing conditions as possible. Once we know how much land to cut or fill, and where to
cut and fill it, work can begin to properly level the site and construct our building.

3.9 VOLUME USING CONTOUR AREA METHOD

Contour lines connect a series of points of equal elevation and are used to illustrate topography, or relief,
on a map. They show the height of ground above Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.) in either feet or metres and can
be drawn at any desired interval. For example, numerous contour lines that are close together indicate
hilly or mountainous terrain; when far apart, they represent a gentler slope. [3]

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A contour is defined as a line joining points of the same height above and below a datum. These are shown
so the relief or topography of an area can be interpreted, a factor generally used in engineering. The
difference in height between successive contours is known as the contour or vertical interval all this
interval dictates the accuracy to which the ground is represented. The value chosen for the application
depends on: The intended use, the scale, the cost involved and the nature of terrain

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If drawn manually, contours can be obtained either directly or indirectly using mathematical or graphical
interpolation technique once plotted. In addition to indicating the relief of an area, contours can be used
to provide sectional information. [1]

Direct contouring
In this method the position of contours is located on the ground by levelling. A level is set up [1]. This
method, although quite accurate, is tedious and uneconomical and could never be used over a large area.
It is ideal, however, in certain construction projects that require excavation to a specific single contour
line.

In this method the actual contour is pegged out on the ground and its planimetric position located. A back
sight is taken to an appropriate BM and the HPC of the instrument is obtained, say 34.800 m AOD. A staff
reading of 0.800 m would then place the foot of the staff at the 34 m contour level. The staff is then
moved throughout the terrain area, with its position pegged at every 0.800 m reading. In this way the 34
m contour is located. Similarly, a staff reading of 1.800 m gives the 33 m contour and so on. The
planimetric position of the contour needs to be located using an appropriate survey technique. [3]

Indirect contouring
This involves the height of points that do not, in general, coincide with the contour positions instead the
points levelled are used as framework on which contours are later interpolated on a drawing. Two of the
more common methods of indirect contouring involve taking levels either on a regular grid pattern or at
carefully selected points.

Figure 0-22: Grid Layout for Contouring

Interpolated Contours
In the direct method of contouring, spot heights are located at exact contour values, plotted on a plan
and individual contours are drawn by joining spot heights of equal value with a smooth curve. In the
indirect methods, the plotted spots heights will not be at exact contour values and it is necessary to locate
points between them on the plan which do have exact contour values. This is known as interpolation and
it can be carried out either mathematically or graphically.

The assumption is made when undertaking interpolation that the surface of the ground slopes uniformly
between the slop heights. Hence, careful positioning of spot heights in the field is essential if accurate

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contours are to be produced. Mathematical interpolation can be a laborious process when there are a
large number of spot heights. The height difference between each spot height is calculated and used with
the horizontal distance between them to calculate the position on the line joining the spot heights at
which the required contour is located.

Figure 0-23: Contour Calculation

When all the exact contour positions have been plotted, they are joined by smooth curves as in the direct
method. It is possible to use contours to obtain sectional information for use in the initial planning of such
projects as roads, pipelines, earthworks and reservoirs.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
Although each contour line in nature has a unique shape, all contours adhere to a set of general
characteristics. Important ones, fundamental to their proper field location and correct plotting, are listed.

i. Contour lines must close on themselves, either on or off a map. They cannot dead end.
ii. Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.

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 iii. The slope between adjacent contour lines is assumed to be uniform. (Thus, it is
necessary that breaks (changes) in grade be located in topographic surveys.)
iv. The distance between contours indicates the steepness of a slope. Wide separation
denotes gentle slopes; close spacing, steep slopes; even and parallel spacing, uniform
slope.
v. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged country. Smooth lines imply more uniformly
rolling terrain.
vi. Concentric closed contours that increase in elevation represent hills. A contour forming
a closed loop around lower ground is called a depression contour (Spot elevations and
hachures inside the lowest contour and pointing to the bottom of a hole or sink with no
outlet make map reading easier.)
vii. Contours of different elevations never meet except on a vertical surface such as a wall,
cliff, or natural bridge. They cross only in the rare case of a cave or overhanging shelf.
Knife-edge conditions are never found in natural formations.
viii. A contour cannot branch into two contours of the same elevation.
ix. Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form V’s; they point down the ridge
and form U’s when crossing a ridge crest.
x. Contour lines go in pairs up valleys and along the sides of ridge tops.
xi. A single contour of a given elevation cannot exist between two equal height contours
of higher or lower elevation. For example, an 820-ft contour cannot exist alone between
two 810- or two 830-ft contours.
xii. Cuts and fills for earth dams, levees, highways, railroads, canals, etc., produce straight
or geometrically curved contour lines with uniform, or uniformly graduated spacing.
Contours cross sloping or crowned streets in typical V- or U-shaped lines.

Plotting Standards
Scale 1:50 1:100 1:200 1:500 1.1000
Contour interval 0.05m 0.1m 0.25m 0.5m 1m

Grid size 2m 2m 10m 20m 40m

Keeping these characteristics in mind will

(1) make it easier to visualize contours when looking at an area,

(2) assist in selecting the best array of points to locate in the field when conducting a topographic
survey, and
(3) Prevent serious mistakes in drawing contours.

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SITE AREA

The following activity uses the mathematical concepts of estimating area and volume to solve a realistic
cut and fill problem. Each two-dimensional section cut is overlaid with a grid to allow us to estimate the
area between the existing elevation line and the cut line.

To estimate area, we can divide the area under the curve into rectangles and then find the area of each
rectangle. Refer to the diagram below for the process of drawing rectangles. Consistency in drawing the
rectangles is very important to ensure proper balance between over and under estimation of area. Since
all of the intervals are the same width of 10ft, the only estimating that you will need to do is with the
height of each rectangle. For this exercise estimate the height to the nearest 2 1/2 feet (or 1/4 of the 10'
X 10' square).

By removing the grid lines, it is easy to see the areas of the rectangles that we will be estimating. Since
these rectangles will represent and overestimation in some parts, and an underestimation in others, we
will consistently draw our rectangles and not worry about the area between the lines that are missed.

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The diagrams below represent two different ways rectangles can be drawn between the existing
elevation line and the cut line. The process of left and right estimation indicate the direction in which
the rectangles that meet the curve and are drawn.

SITE VOLUME

To estimate the volume, we use the area that has been determined (as width and height) and then
multiply by the distance between each section (depth). Note that the first and last section is on the site
boundary. Notice also that these boundary sections only have a volume on one of their sides. The
remaining sections between the boundaries have land volume on each side. See the diagram below. The
solid lines refer to our section cuts, and the dashed lines refer to the midpoint between the section cuts.
The volume for section cut 0ft is shaded below.

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ESTIMATE THE AREA

1. Use the smaller grid lines at 10 feet to estimate the amount of land area that must be cut or filled
for each site section. Identify and label the areas of the section that are to be cut or filled. Be sure to
include the proper units in each of your answers.

a)

2. How would the area estimates change if we chose to divide the site sections into 1 foot
increments, as opposed to the 10 foot increments used above? Which grid size would produce an area
estimate closer to the actual area of our site?

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OTHER ENGINEERING SURVEY APPLICATIONS
4.1 DEFORMATION MONITORING SURVEYS
Deformation monitoring (also referred to as deformation survey) is the systematic measurement and
tracking of the alteration in the shape or dimensions of an object as a result of stresses induced by applied
loads. Deformation monitoring is a major component of logging measured values that may be used to for
further computation, deformation analysis, predictive maintenance and alarming. (Moore, 1992)

Deformation surveys can be critical if you are trying to establish what has happened to a structure after it
has been built. A deformation survey involves the measuring and tracking of objects to verify alterations
in their shapes or dimensions. This is often caused by external stresses created by applied loads and can
be relevant to a variety of applications.

Monitoring
This is the determination of movements of a structure obtained by referring those movements to a
network of control points outside the structure. However, this method is not the only means of
monitoring. Other techniques can measure relative movement with greater accuracy as well.

The size of the structure will determine the size of the network points around it. A guideline is that a
network must form a square shape around the structure with its sides approximately the length of the
structure monitored.

Sketch A:

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Shown on Sketch A is how a network of control points can be placed such that a dam wall being monitored
is entirely within the network. Placed on the dam wall are monitoring points, from which observations will
be taken to determine any deformation of the structure.

Since the movement of the structure is referenced to permanent fixed control points away from the
structure, it is therefore important that such fixed points are built on stable geological formation.

The topography plays an important role in the choice of network beacons, since intervisibility between
control points as well as visibility of monitoring points have to be taken to account.

Three types of monitoring:

• Permanent monitoring refers to a longer period of continuous observation. Permanent

observation of a structure requires permanently installed instruments with continuous recording
facilities. Permanent instruments require frequent and regular calibration for eliminating external
systematic factors such as ageing and drift.

• Semi-permanent monitoring is in all respects identical to permanent monitoring with the

exception that intervals between recordings are no longer practically zero but of notable quantity.
The decision between the two methods must be based on the type of deformation expected and
on economic considerations. Instruments like digital scanners and cameras, target tracking and
distance measuring devices can all be permanently installed for use in permanent and semi-
permanent monitoring.

• Epoch monitoring differs in principle from the two above mentioned methods in that geodetic or
photogrammetric methods are used to determine the relative and/or absolute positions of object
points at a specific moment in time. The survey is then repeated after some constant time and a
statistical analysis is carried out to detect and quantify position changes of points from comparing
measured data by using conventional survey instruments, epoch monitoring is not as accurate as
the above two mentioned methods which normally uses electrical and electronic equipment.
Also, with epoch monitoring, movements can only be detected at the time of survey, and unlike
permanent monitoring where dangerous and sudden movements can be determined in real time.
Instruments such as total stations and GPS can be used to carry out this type of monitoring.

In conclusion, we must note that the Instruments and equipment choice, building of control points and
the position of monitoring points, as well as the method of monitoring to be adopted will all influence the
accuracy which depends on the requirements of the design.

4.2 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS

Hydrographic surveying or bathymetric surveying is the survey of physical features present underwater.
It is the science of measuring all factors beneath water that affect all the marine activities like dredging,
marine constructions, offshore drilling etc. Hydrographic surveying is mainly conducted under authority

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concerns. It is mainly carried out by means of sensors, sounding or electronic sensor system for shallow
water.

Hydrographic surveys are a very effective way to map the bottom of a river, lake, or other water body. By
using some of the latest technologies a 3-dimensional model can be developed to show contours,
obstacles, scour areas, and large debris. Even in the most turbid conditions, a hydrographic survey done
correctly can be very effective.

The information obtained from hydrographic surveying is required to bring up nautical charts which
involves; Available depths, Improved Channels, Breakwaters, Piers and The aids to navigation harbor
facility

These surveys also take part in necessary data collection relating to construction and developments of
port facilities, such as pier construction. This help in finding the loss in capacity due to silt and many
uncertainties.

Applications of Hydrographic Surveying

Following are the applications of hydrographic surveying: Dock and Harbor Engineering, Irrigation, River
Works, Land reclamation, Water Power, Flood Control, Sewage Disposal

Uses of Hydrographic Surveying

Uses of hydrographic surveying are given below:

1. Depth of the bed can be determined

2. Shore lines can be determined

3. Navigation Chart Preparation

4. Locate sewer fall by measuring direct currents

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 5. Locating mean sea level

6. Scouring, silting and irregularities of the bed can be identified

7. Tide measurement

8. River and stream discharge measurement

9. Massive structures like bridges, dams’ harbors are planned

Preliminary Steps in Hydrographic Surveying

The method starts by locating special control points along the shore line. The sounding method is
employed to determine the depth at various points by means of stationary boats. Sounding locations can
be either made from boat to the control points or by fixing a point in the boat and taking sounding from
the control point. Before this procedure certain preliminary steps have to be made:

1. Reconnaissance

2. Locate Horizontal Control

3. Locate vertical Control

Reconnaissance
As every project require a start-up plan to complete it effectively and economically, reconnaissance has
to be undergone. A complete reconnaissance of whole survey area to choose the best way of performing
the survey.

This would facilitate satisfactory completion of the survey in accordance with the requirements and
specifications governing such work. Aerial photographs would help this study.

Locating Horizontal Control

The horizontal control is necessary to locate all features of the land and marine in true relative positions.
Hence a series of lines whose lengths and azimuths are determined by means of either triangulation or
any other methods.

Tachometric and plane table survey can be conducted in order to undergo rough works. No rules are kept
for establishing horizontal control as topography, vegetation, type, size of topography affect the rules.

But in general, a rule can be kept for type of control say:

 It is advisable to run traverses along each shore, connecting each other by frequent tie lines –If
water body > 1km wide

 It is advisable to run transverse line only along one of the banks -If water body is narrow

 Triangulation system -If shorelines filled by vegetation

 Large network of triangulation system for large lakes and ocean shore lines

A combined triangulation and traversing are shown in figure 1.

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Locating Vertical Control
Before sounding establishment of vertical control is essential to determined. Numerous benchmarks are
placed in order to serve as vertical control. Setting and checking the levels of the gauges are uses of
benchmarks

Fig. 1: Combined Triangulation and Traversing in Hydrographic Survey

Sounding in Hydrographic Survey

The process of determining depth below water surface is called as sounding. The step before undergoing
sounding is determining the mean sea level. If the reduced level of any point of a water body is determined
by subtracting the sounding from mean sea level, hence it is analogous to levelling.

The specific need for sounding is;

1. Preparation of navigation charts that is an all-time information for future purpose also

2. Material that to be dredged has to be determined early to facilitate easy movement in project without
any confusion

3. Material dredging should also accompany where filling has to be done. Material dumping is also
measured

4. Design of backwaters, sea wells require detailed information that is obtained from sounding

Equipment for Sounding

The essential equipment used for undergoing sounding are

1. Shore signals and buoys

2. Sounding Equipment

3. Instruments for measuring angles

The explanations are given below

1. Shore signal and buoys

These are required to mark the range lines. A line perpendicular to shore line obtained by line joining 2 or
3 signals in a straight line constitute the range line along which sounding has to be performed. Angular

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observations can also be made from sounding boats by this method. To make it visible from considerable
distance in the sea it is made highly conspicuous.

A float made of light wood or air tight vessel which is weighted at bottom kept vertical by anchoring with
guywires are called buoys. In order to accommodate a flag a hole is drilled. Under water deep, the range
lines are marked by shore signals & the buoys.

2. Sounding Equipment

The individual units involved are explained one by one:

a. Sounding boat

A flat bottom of low draft is used to carry out sounding operation. Large size boats with motor are used
for sounding in sea. The soundings are taken through wells provided in the boat. A figure depicting
sounding boat is shown in fig.2.

Fig.2: Sounding Boat

b. Sounding pole or rod

Rod made of seasoned timber 5 to 10cm diameter and 5 to 8m length. A lead shoe of sufficient weight is
connected at bottom to keep it vertical. Graduations are marked from bottom upwards. Hence readings
on the rod corresponding to water surface is water depth.

c. Lead line

A graduated rope made of chain connected to the lead or sinker of 5 to 10kg, depending on current
strength and water depth. Due to deep and swift flowing water variation will be there from true depth
hence a correction is required.

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Fig.3.Sounding Pole and Lead line

Other sounding equipment used are Weddell’s sounding machine. These are employed when large
sounding work has to be undergone. A standard machine to measure maximum of 30 to 40m is designed
that are bolted over the well of the sounding boat.

Another equipment used is fathometer which is an echo-sounding instrument used to determine ocean
depth directly. Recording time of travel by sound waves is the principle employed. Here the time of
travel from a point on the surface of the water to the bottom of the ocean and back is recorded.

Knowing the velocity of sound waves the depth can be calculated as shown in fig.4.

Fig.4: Echo Sounding in Hydrographic Survey

From the above figure the depth D can be calculated if AB can be found. This method gives truly vertical
and accurate methods. It is found more sensitive than a lead line.

4.3 INTRODUCTION TO CAD SOFTWARES

CAD (Computer Aided Design) is the use of computer software to design and document a product’s design
process.

Engineering drawing entails the use of graphical symbols such as points, lines, curves, planes and
shapes. Essentially, it gives detailed description about any component in a graphical form.

Background

Engineering drawings have been in use for more than 2000 years. However, the use of orthographic
projections was formally introduced by the French mathematician Gaspard Monge in the eighteenth
century.

Since visual objects transcend languages, engineering drawings have evolved and become popular over
the years. While earlier engineering drawings were handmade, studies have shown that engineering
designs are quite complicated. A solution to many engineering problems requires a combination of
organization, analysis, problem solving principles and a graphical representation of the problem. Objects
in engineering are represented by a technical drawing (also called as drafting) that represents designs and
specifications of the physical object and data relationships. Since a technical drawing is precise and

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communicates all information of the object clearly, it has to be precise. This is where CAD comes to the
fore.

CAD stands for Computer Aided Design. CAD is used to design, develop and optimize products. While it is
very versatile, CAD is extensively used in the design of tools and equipment required in the manufacturing
process as well as in the construction domain. CAD enables design engineers to layout and to develop
their work on a computer screen, print and save it for future editing.

When it was introduced first, CAD was not exactly an economic proposition because the machines at those
times were very costly. The increasing computer power in the later part of the twentieth century, with
the arrival of minicomputer and subsequently the microprocessor, has allowed engineers to use CAD files
that are an accurate representation of the dimensions / properties of the object.

Use of CAD

CAD is used to accomplish preliminary design and layouts, design details and calculations, creating 3-D
models, creating and releasing drawings, as well as interfacing with analysis, marketing, manufacturing,
and end-user personnel.

CAD facilitates the manufacturing process by transferring detailed information about a product in an
automated form that can be universally interpreted by trained personnel. It can be used to produce either
two-dimensional or three-dimensional diagrams. The use of CAD software tools allow the object to be
viewed from any angle, even from the inside looking out. One of the main advantages of a CAD drawing
is that the editing is a fast process as compared to manual method. Apart from detailed engineering of 2D
or 3D models, CAD is widely used from conceptual design and layout of products to definition of
manufacturing of components. CAD reduces design time by allowing precise simulation rather than build
and test physical prototypes. Integrating CAD with CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) streamlines the
product development even more.

CAD is currently widely used for industrial products, animated movies and other applications. A special
printer or plotter is usually required for printing professional design renderings. CAD programs use either
vector-based graphics or raster graphics that show how an object will look.

CAD software enables

 Efficiency in the quality of design

 Increase in the Engineer’s productivity

 Improve record keeping through better documentation and communication

Today, the use of CAD has permeated almost all industries. From aerospace, electronics to manufacturing,
CAD is used in all industry verticals. Since CAD encourages creativity and speeds up productivity, it is
becoming more and more useful as an important tool for visualization before actually implementing a
manufacturing process. That is also one of the reasons CAD training is gaining more and more
importance.

Types of CAD Software

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Since its introduction in late 1960’s, CAD software has improved by leaps and bounds. A broad
classification of CAD is:

 2D CAD

 3D CAD

 3D Wireframe and Surface Modelling

 Solid Modelling

With more and more companies (if not all) turning to CAD / CAE / CAM to achieve efficiency, accuracy and
reduced time-to-market of products, there is a growing demand for CAD software. The industry leaders
in this space include AutoCAD, Dassault Systems and Altair.

CAD or Computer Aided Design software was introduced in the late 1960's to expedite engineering
drawing process. While CAD is used mainly in engineering drawing and construction architecture, it can
also used for other purposes.

There are various flavours of CAD available today and there are different methods of classifying them.

Types of CAD Software

2 Dimensional CAD (2D CAD)

2D CAD is the pioneer of CAD software, and was developed in the early 70s. At that time, major
automobile, aerospace and other engineering companies developed in-house tools to automate
repetitive drafting requirements. 2D CAD relies on basic geometric shapes like lines, rectangles, circles,
etc. to produce flat drawings. These types of softwares have been first developed way back in 1970’s.

AutoDesk is one of the pioneering companies that has played a significant role in developing CAD
software.

3 Dimensional CAD (3D CAD)

3D CAD is a step up from the 2D CAD software of yesteryears. As the processing power of computers
increased and the graphic display capabilities improved, 3D CAD has become an increasingly popular
design tool. 3D CAD allows creation of 3D images that are realistic. These images are called 3D models as
they can be viewed and rotated in any direction – X, Y or Z. You can also display views from a 3D model,
such as isometrics or perspectives, from any angle using 3D CAD. 3D CAD tools were introduced in 1980’s
by a partnership between IBM-Dassults. 3D CAD quickly became popular because of enhanced visual
capability.

The rapid advancement of 3D software today has helped quick turnaround in product design, giving birth
to the concept for product lifecycle management (PLM). A few of today’s leading 3D CAD software
includes SolidEdge and SolidWorks. Of course, with the vast array of tools, professional training is needed
to master these tools.

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There is yet another way of classifying CAD software - in terms of their operating parameters. Once you
understand these parameters, you can optimize the CAD software properly. A little training should help
you go a long way!

Single-file-mode systems - This type of CAD software allows only a single user to work on a single file at
a time.

Referenced-file-mode systems - In this type of CAD software, users can work on their own files with the
files of other users attached as a background. This enables users to levergae other users' work as
background data.

Collaborative-mode systems - These CAD systems take the referenced-mode system to the next level.
They allow a team of users to collaboratively work with each other's data and see the changes other users
make to the data as they go. And of course, the giants in this field (for example AutoCAD) can be used in
different modes of a operation.

3D CAD can be further classified as:

Wire-frame models – they create skeleton like models with lines and arcs. Since they appear to be made
of wires, and everything in the background is visible, they are called wire-frame models. They are not very
popular anymore.

Surface models – unlike wire frames, these models are created by joining 3D surfaces. Since nothing in
the background is visible, the surface models are quite realistic.

Solid models – they are considered to be the most useful CAD models. Although they appear to be the
same as surface models, they also have additional properties like weight, volume and density, just like
actual physical objects. These models are commonly used as prototypes to study engineering designs.

Designing is the process of converting an idea into an object, product or a system. This process is
iterative. CAD (Computer Aided Design) is a tool that can be used for design and drafting activities. Since
it uses the computing power of a processor, CAD drawings are faster, better and more accurate than their
manually drafted counterparts.

AutoCAD is sophisticated CAD software that is synonymous with engineering drafting. The concept of
AutoCAD evolved way back in the 1980’s, when engineers and architects were seeking to harness the
power of newly introduced personal computers to reduce the drafting time. People began experimenting
with internal graphic controllers which allowed them to draw engineering / architectural drawings at the
front end which were efficiently replicated at the back end of the computer. AutoCAD was formally
launched in December 1982 by Autodesk, a leader in 3D design, engineering and entertainment software.
Simply put, AutoCAD enables engineers, designers and architects to produce 2D and 3D models using
computers. AutoCAD started as a design tool for engineers and architects, but is now used by other
professionals as well. Autodesk, the company behind AutoCAD, has developed custom versions that can
be used by design engineers, civil engineers, electrical and electronics engineers and mechanical
engineers. AutoCAD thus covers a vast canvas - from engineering to industrial sector, there is an AutoCAD

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package for everyone. In that sense, AutoCAD is a horizontal product. It is used by product development
teams, manufacturing facilities, media and entertainment industries, engineers, architects; educators and
students; entrepreneurs, non-profits, medical professionals, and including beginners. AutoCAD is thus
useful for any domain that requires 2D and 3D designs.

Features of AutoCAD

When we say ‘features’, we do not mean the commands offered by AutoCAD in the context of this article.
Instead, we highlight the differences between AutoCAD and other CAD software that make AutoCAD a
popular drafting tool.

Powerful Drafting: Built primarily as a drafting tool, AutoCAD offers unparalleled drafting capabilities.

Analyze Object Details: The features included in AutoCAD allow in depth analysis and visualization of 2D
and 3D models.

Plug-ins: Since AutoCAD is extremely popular, there is a huge number of plug-ins that are available which
make the software more useful and friendly.

Integration: AutoCAD allows API integration with spreadsheets, document editors and other utilities. This
is extremely useful when sharing the output of the software.

Training Options: Since AutoCAD is very popular, there are training institutes that teach the software from
beginner level to the advanced level.

Place in Industry

While there are other CAD systems (like CATIA, Ansys, etc.) available today, AutoCAD occupies a special
place in the market. It was the first successful commercial CAD software to be introduced in the market
in 1982 that was PC based. Today, it has grown to be the industry leader in the suite of CAD software, with
millions of customers in more than 150 countries. It still has a lion's share in the CAD market, despite the
competition offered by CATIA, Ansys, etc. With its various versions - apart from the standard architectural
and engineering drafting fields - AutoCAD also finds use in a varied number of industries like fashion
designing, 3D printing and as an industrial designing tool.

Versions and Platforms

AutoCAD comes in many flavours and on various platforms. The first version (V 1.0) of AutoCAD was
released in December 1982; the latest Windows version (as of April 2018) is AutoCAD 2019, released on
March 2018.

AutoCAD for Mac was first launched in June 1992; the latest version (as of April 2018) is AutoCAD 2017
(called as Naboo).

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In addition, AutoCAD also has mobile versions for both Android and Apple phones. As far as price is
concerned, AutoCAD comes in two packages – AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT. AutoCAD LT is a slightly stripped
version of AutoCAD, the most prominent limitation being the ability to manipulate 3D objects. If you are
mostly into 2D designs, you can easily make do with AutoCAD LT rather than the full version.

AutoCAD can also be classified depending on the domain it serves. Currently, different versions of
AutoCAD support the following domains:

 Architecture

 Electrical design

 Map 3D

 Mechanical design

 MEP (mechanical, electrical and plumbing)

 Plant 3D, including P&ID functionality

 Raster design

AutoCAD Training

AutoCAD is a vast software that offers something for everyone. From 1982 onward, each subsequent
version of AutoCAD has added features that make it versatile software. The exponential increase in
processor power – both for personal computers and mobile devices – has allowed AutoDesk to offer
increasingly sophisticated features. For anyone who wants to learn CAD, AutoCAD is a good foundation
as many concepts and commands introduced by AutoCAD are utilized by other systems. A few of the
AutoCAD features have in fact become industry standard. As an example, the .DXF format introduced by
Autodesk has been universally accepted as the standard for CAD file conversion between systems.

Training in AutoCAD offers students and professionals a number of advantages. One, because AutoCAD is
the most widely used CAD software, using it gives one a great probability of being able to share CAD files
and related data and information with others. Two, AutoCAD provides you with broad capabilities in the
CAD domain that offers flexibility in experimenting and utilizing latest technological advancements. Three,
if you train in AutoCAD from a reputed institute, your prospects of securing a job in the CAD industry are
very high.

In India especially, the scope for students and professionals who have had training in AutoCAD is very
bright. CAD software is increasingly being used in more and more industrial domains apart from
mechanical and civil / architectural. Not only in first rung cities like Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Pune but even
in smaller places like Satara and other place, the demand for training in CAD is on the rise. With mechanical
and civil engineering jobs on the rise in India, the prospects for a bright career in CAD are good indeed. As
mentioned earlier, AutoCAD is the market leader in the CAD domain, and it will pay rich dividends if you
increase your skills by learning it in-depth. There are many reputed CAD training institutes in cities like
Hyderabad, Pune, Bengaluru and Satara that will teach you AutoCAD irrespective of whether you are a
novice or a professional, so that you get a competitive edge in the CAD field.

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Works Cited
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 2018. POLICY STATEMENT 333 , Reston: s.n.

Mapping, A. C. o. S. a., 2016. Fundamentals of Mapping. [Online]

Available at: http://www.icsm.gov.au/mapping/maps_cadastral.html
[Accessed 10 February 2016].

Moore, J., 1992. Monitoring Building Structures, Canada: Blankie and Son Ltd.

Stereolabs Inc., 2021. Spatial Mapping, s.l.: s.n.

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