machines
Article
Current Harmonic Suppression of BLDC Motor Utilizing
Frequency Adaptive Repetitive Controller
Tianqing Yuan 1 and Yupeng Zhang 2, *
Citation: Yuan, T.; Zhang, Y. Current
Harmonic Suppression of BLDC
Motor Utilizing Frequency Adaptive
Repetitive Controller. Machines 2022,
10, 1071. https://doi.org/10.3390/
machines10111071
Academic Editors: Christoph
M. Hackl and Hady H. Fayek
Received: 27 August 2022
Accepted: 10 November 2022
Published: 12 November 2022
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with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Machines 2022, 10, 1071. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines10111071
1 Key Laboratory of Modern Power System Simulation and Control & Renewable Energy Technology, Ministry
of Education, Northeast Electric Power University, Jilin 132012, China
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Northeast Electric Power University, Jilin 132012, China
* Correspondence: 2202000317@neepu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-188-46164778
Abstract: Compared to the proportional-integral strategy, the repetitive control strategy possesses
high suppression ability for the alternating current (AC) harmonics of control signals. Thus, RC
controllers are widely used in closed-loop control systems to suppress the periodic harmonics. In
order to further improve the brushless DC (BLDC) motor operation performance, a frequency adaptive
repetitive controller (FARC) is proposed, and then a novel current loop scheme that concatenation of
proportional-integral controller (PIC) and FARC controller is established in this paper. Firstly, due to
the real sampling number of the delay element in the BLDC, the motor control system may not be an
integer, the designing process of the FARC parameters was studied, and an adaptive internal model
controller and a novel decomposition rule for FARC were designed based on Lagrange interpolation
theory. Secondly, the PIC parameters were analyzed through three-dimensional and two-dimensional
images of the frequency characteristics. Furthermore, a composite controller that added a forward
channel in the novel current loop was proposed, and the stability of the control system used the
composite controller was analyzed through Lyapunov theory. It should be noted that the analysis of
FARC mainly focused on the simplified structure and the parameter optimization, which is usually
ignored in the previous studies. Finally, the BLDC motor control system model was established
through Matlab/Simulink software, and the operation performances of the BLDC motor control
system utilizing different current loop controllers were studied. The simulation results show that the
proposed FARC can reduce current distortion and torque ripples, thus, the BLDC motor operation
performances can be improved effectively.
Keywords: brushless DC motor; current harmonics; frequency adaptive repetitive controller;
decomposition rule
1. Introduction
The brushless DC (BLDC) motor control system is usually driven in six-step driving
mode, and it features lots of merits, including simple control strategy and simple hardware
configuration. Therefore, the BLDC motor control system is widely used in industrial
equipment, robotics, and automotives [1,2]. However, the dead-zone time is inevitable
during the working process of the inverter, which will introduce high amount harmonics
to the stator current of the BLDC motor. Additionally, the non-ideal motor structure is also
an essential factor that may affect the stator current distortion rate [3]. Hence, the output
torque of the BLDC motor will be affected, leading to tracking errors in the coordination
control of the industrial equipment [4]. In order to suppress torque ripple caused by the non-
ideal current waveforms, the current loop controller needs the support of high-performance
control strategies.
The PI control strategy can achieve no-static error tracking of the direct current (DC)
signal. Thus, the PIC is commonly adopted in the current loop of the BLDC motor con-
trol system [5]. On the other hand, the PIC cannot achieve no-static error tracking of
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 2 of 17

the alternating current (AC) signal, which means that the AC harmonics in the current
loop cannot be suppressed [6,7]. Hence, the rotating synchronous-frame PIC is widely
employed instead of the traditional PIC, which can provide the non-static error. However,
the computational processes of the rotating synchronous frame are very tedious, which
will increase the computational cost of the current loop [8–11]. In order to suppress the
alternating-current harmonics and maintain the simplicity for the current loop, many re-
searchers have attempted to optimize the current loop controller through resonant control
theory and model predictive control theory [12–16]. Additionally, RC strategy and other
control strategies are also used to simplify the complexity of the control system [17–22].
A novel, nonsingular terminal sliding mode scheme was adopted to guarantee the con-
trol system trajectory, which owns the finite-time stability. Additionally, the nonlinearities
and the external disturbances of the control system were evaluated and suppressed by the
finite-time exact observer, thus, the complexity of the control system could be simplified
effectively. Finally, the stability of the closed-loop control system that composed of the
observer and the sliding mode feedback controller was analyzed [23]. In order to address
the control chattering caused by the sliding mode controller, a new pulse width modulation
(PWM) model predictive control (MPC)method is proposed in [24]. The new PWM MPC
method can avoid the commutation current hopping, and reduce the torque ripple through
the changing of the duty cycle.
Additionally, to improve the PIC robustness to uncertain disturbances, an adaptive
back electromotive force observer is proposed in [25]. The adaptive observer can obtain
accurate back electromotive force without the using of sliding mode scheme and the low
pass filter. Furthermore, the control chattering and the current harmonics can be suppressed
by the quasi-proportional-resonant controller effectively. In [26], a novel fractional-order
vector resonant (FOVR) robust internal mode controller (Robust-IMC) is proposed through
combining FOVR controller and Robust-IMC, which can improve the current harmonics
suppression ability. The resonant gain of the vector resonant controller can be maintained
through the using of the FOVR controller. Additionally, the harmonics suppression perfor-
mance can also be improved in the parameter mismatch condition.
In [27], the relationships between the quasi-resonant controller and the repetitive
controller (RC) are analyzed, and a novel PI multi-resonant repetitive control (PI-MR-RC)
method using modified RC the current loop is presented. The proposed PI-MR-RC scheme
can improve the control stability and the harmonics suppression performance effectively.
The RC can provide excellent tracking performance for any periodic signal within
a certain period, but the traditional RC cannot suppress the harmonics with a fractional
period while the control frequency changed [28]. To solve the slow dynamic performance
caused by the small RC gain of the traditional RC, a novel frequency adaptive proportional
repetitive controller (FA-PRC) was proposed in [29]. The proposed FA-PRC owns a larger
gain in comparison with traditional repetitive controller (TRC), thus the higher stability
range of the RC gain is increased significantly.
Compared to PIC and traditional RC, the above proposed controllers can improve
current harmonics suppression ability effectively. However, the complexity of the con-
trol system is inevitably increased. To further improve suppression performance of the
alternating-current harmonics and maintain the simplicity of the control system, a FARC is
proposed in in this paper, and a novel current loop scheme that concatenation of PIC and
FARC is presented. Since the real sampling number of the RC may not be an integer, an
adaptive internal model controller and a novel decomposition rule for FARC was studied.
Hence, the anti-disturbance ability of the control system can be improved, meanwhile, the
complexity of the control system can be simplified.
In order to suppress the harmonics in the BLDC motor control system, a novel com-
posite current loop controller that concatenation of PIC and FARC is proposed in this paper.
The major contributions of this paper are as follows:
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 3 of 17

• Due to the real sampling number of the delay element in the BLDC, the motor control
system is maybe not an integer, the parameters designing process of FARC are studied,
and an adaptive internal model controller and a novel decomposition rule for FARC is
designed based on Lagrange interpolation theory;
• In order to simplify the control system scheme and obtain the appropriate parameters
for the current loop controllers, the Bode diagrams and the Nyquist diagrams of
different systems and controllers were analyzed, which can provide the intuitive
analysis for the parameter designing process of the current loop;
• To improve the dynamic performance of the control system, a composite controller was
proposed through adding a froward channel in the novel current loop. Consequently,
the stability and robustness of the composite controller were verified by Lyapunov
theorem and minimum gain theory.

2. Analysis of Current Harmonics

2.1. Mathematical Model of BLDC Motor
The voltage equations of the BLDC motor are illustrated as
          
uA R 0 0 iA L−M 0 0 i eA
d A
 uB  =  0 R 0   iB  +  0 L−M 0   i B  +  eB  (1)
dt
uC 0 0 R iC 0 0 L−M iC eC

where R is the phase winding resistance. iA , iB and iC are the three phase windings currents.
L is the phase winding inductance. M is the mutual inductance between phase windings.
eA , eB and eC are the three phase back electromotive force (back-EMF).
To simplify the analysis process of the BLDC motor current harmonics, the BLDC
motor operation mode is set to 120◦ conduction mode, and defined the instantaneous upper
switch conducting phase as phase A, and the instantaneous lower switch conducting phase
as phase B. Therefore, the line-to-line voltage of the BLDC motor can be given as

di
uAB = Ud = 2Ri + 2( L − M) + 2 ( eA − eB ) (2)
dt
where Ud is the dc bus voltage, i is the upper switch conducting phase current, which is
defined as the effective phase current.
Furthermore, the BLDC motor output torque can be written as

Te = p[ψm f A (θ )iA + ψm f B (θ )iB + ψm f C (θ )iC ] (3)

where p is the number of pole pairs, ψm is the maximum value of permanent magnet
flux linkage for each phase winding. f A (θ), f B (θ) and f C (θ) are the three phases back-EMF
coefficient functions.
Based on 120◦ conduction mode, there are only two switch conducting phases, and
the switch conducting phase currents have the same value and opposite polarity. Hence,
the function f (θ) polarities of the two switch conducting phases are opposite, Formula (3)
can be rewritten as
Te = 2pψm iA = KT i (4)
where KT is the torque coefficient.

2.2. Analysis of Harmonic Sources

The AC harmonics in the BLDC motor control system are mainly composed of the
following parts:
• The air gap magnetic field harmonics caused by the motor structure.
• The control signal harmonics caused by the dead zone time.
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 4 of 17

Firstly, the BLDC motor air gap magnetic field is generally expressed as

B(θ, t) = F (θ, t)·Λ(θ, t) (5)

where B is the flux density, F is the magnetic motive force (MMF), Λ is the air-gap permeance.
The MMF and the permeance will both introduce harmonics to the back-EMF. The
MMF harmonics are composed of the phase belt harmonics and the MMF tooth harmon-
ics. The permeance harmonics are composed of the permeance tooth harmonics and the
magnetic saturation harmonics. In general, the harmonics generated by the cogging effect
and the core saturation are ignored, hence, the air gap magnetic field harmonics are mainly
composed of the 6 k ± 1th phase belt harmonics [2].
Secondly, as the instantaneous switch conducting phases are phase A and phase B, the
voltage errors caused by the dead zone time are calculated as:
  
∆uA (usA − usB ) Udead

2
 ∆uB  =  −(usA − usB ) Udead

(6)
2

∆uC 0

where ∆uA , ∆uB and ∆uC are the three phase windings voltage errors of the BLDC motor,
usA and usB are the phase voltage control signals, Udead is the average voltage error.
From Formula (6), it can be observed that the existing two voltage errors of the three
phase wingdings exhibits the same value and the opposite polarity. Therefore, the current
harmonics of control signal are approximately equal to odd function square-wave with the
period of the current fundamental wave, which can be expressed as
 
4Idead 1 1 1
∆i = sin ωt + sin 3ωt + sin 5ωt + sin 7ωt + . . . . . . (7)
π 3 5 7

where Idead is the square-wave amplitude of the current error, ω is the current fundamental
wave electrical angular speed.
In the BLDC motor with the Y-connected wound windings, the 3 kth current harmonics
cannot flow. Consequently, Formula (7) can be rewritten as

∞
" #
4Idead sin[(6k ± 1)ωt]
∗
∆i = sin ωt + ∑ (8)
π k =1
6k ± 1

Formula (8) shows that the current control harmonics of the three wingding phases
are mainly the 6 k ± 1th harmonics. Since the BLDC motor is operated at a 120◦ conduction
mode, there are two switch conducting phases among the three wingding phases at the
same time, and the current signal of the current loop in the BLDC motor control system is
determined by the real rotor position, rather than the addition of the three phase currents. In
this case, the 6 k ± 1th harmonics in current harmonics will be transformed into 6 kth current
control harmonics in the BLDC motor control system. The 6 k ± 1th current harmonics in
the BLDC motor can be suppressed through the suppression of the 6 kth current control
harmonics. On the other hand, the air-gap magnetic field can be optimized and the torque
ripples caused by the current harmonic can be suppressed.
In order to suppress the current control harmonics, a novel current loop controller
scheme consist of PIC and FARC is proposed in this paper. The schematic diagram of the
BLDC motor control system used the novel current loop controller is shown in Figure 1.
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 5 of 17
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 5 of 17

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the BLDC motor control system used n

3. Design of FARC
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the BLDC motor control system used novel current loop controller.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the BLDC motor control system used novel current loop controller.
3.1. Adaptive Internal Model Controller
3.3.Design
DesignofofFARCFARC
3.1. AdaptiveThe schematic
Internal
3.1. Adaptive Internal Model diagram of TRC is shown in Figure 2. It sho
ModelController
Controller
the The
Theinput
schematicofdiagram
schematic TRC,ofU(z)
diagram TRCisis
ofTRC the inoutput
isshown
shown inFigure ofItshould
Figure2.2.It TRC,
should Q(z)
bebenoted is
notedthat, the
that, E(z)isintern
E(z) is
the input of TRC, U(z) is the output of TRC, Q(z) is the internal−model
the input of TRC, U(z) is the output of TRC, Q(z) is the internal model controller
controller inthe
in the
traditional
traditional internal
internal
model
model
element (TIM),
element
z−zN−Nisisthe
(TIM), zdelay,N is thetheinternal mod
traditional internal model element (TIM), theinternal
internalmodel
model delay,krkis
r is theRC
RCgain,
gain,
zmzzmism isphase
isthe
the the phase
phasecompensator, compensator,
compensator, S(z)
S(z)isisthe S(z) isfilter.
thehigh-frequency
high-frequency the
filter.high-frequency filter.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the TRC.

To maintain the internal model element stability, a constant smaller than 1 is usually
adopted as the traditional internal model controller Q(z). The sampling number N in the
Figure
Figure 2. Schematic
Schematic
delay2.element z−Ndiagram
diagram
of the
is determined TRC. of the TRC.
by the sampling frequency f1 and the resonant frequency
f2, which can be expressed as N = f1/f2. The BLDC motor speed is time-varying, which will
To maintain the internal model element stability, a constant smaller than 1 is usually
make theTo sampling numberthe N own the time-varying characteristic. Additionally, the
a sam-
adopted as themaintain
traditional internal internal
model controllermodel Q(z). element
The sampling stability,
number N in constan
the
pling number
delay element z −NN is composed by the integer part N i and fractional part d. In this case, the
is determined by the sampling frequency f 1 and the resonant frequency
adopted
f 2TRC cannot
, which can be
as
exactly the
tracktraditional
expressed the
as N fractional internal
= f 1 /f 2 . signals.
The BLDC
model
To address controller
the drawbacks
motor speed of theQ(z).
is time-varying, TRC,
whichan
The s
adaptive internal model −controller Q A(z) based on Lagrange interpolation method is de-
will delay
make theelement z is Ndetermined
sampling number N own the time-varyingby the sampling
characteristic. frequency
Additionally, the f1 an
signed innumber
sampling this section, which canby
N is composed betheexpressed
integer as
part N and fractional part d. In this case,
f2, which can be expressed as N = f1i/f2. The BLDC motor speed is
the TRC cannot exactly track the fractional signals.M To address the drawbacks of the TRC,
an make
adaptivethe sampling
internal
z
number
model controller
−d
≈ Q
QA (z)N
A ( z ) =
based 
own
m =0
l ( m) z −m
the time-varying
on Lagrange is(9)
characteris
interpolation method
designed in this section, which can be expressed as
pling
where number
M is the order ofN
theis composed
interpolation by thel(m)integer
polynomial, part Ncoefficient,
is the polynomial i and fraction
m
are natural numbers less than M. M
TRC cannot exactly−dtrack ≈ QA (zthe
When the interpolation zpolynomial = fractional
)order ∑Mlis(mset )z−tom 1, 2signals. To address
and 3, the coefficients of(9)
the
the
adaptivedelay
interpolation internal
element model controller
can be obtained, as shownQ
m =0
(z) based
inATable 1 [18]. on Lagrange in
where M is the
signed inorder
thisof section,
the interpolation
whichpolynomial,
can be l(m)expressed
is the polynomial as coefficient, m
Table
are 1. The
natural coefficients
numbers lessfor theM.
than interpolation delay element.
When the interpolation polynomial order M is set to M M = 3 of the
M =1,2 2 and 3, the coefficients


M=1
−d
interpolationl(0)delay element can be obtained, as shown
1−d (d−1) ≈ Q1 [18].
zin(d−2)/2
Table ( z ) =−(d−1) (d−2)
A ) z −m
l (m(d−3)/6
l(1) d −d(d−2) d(d−2) (d−3)/2
m =0
l(2) 0 d(d−1)/2 −d(d−1) (d−3)/2
l(3) 0 0 −d(d−1) (d−2)/6
where M is the order of the interpolation polynomial, l(m) is the
are natural numbers less than M.
When the interpolation polynomial order M is set to 1, 2 an
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 6 of 17

Table 1. The coefficients for the interpolation delay element.

M=1 M=2 M=3

l(0) 1−d (d−1) (d−2)/2 −(d−1) (d−2) (d−3)/6
l(1) d −d(d−2) d(d−2) (d−3)/2
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 l(2) 0 d(d−1)/2 −d(d−1) (d−3)/2 6 of 17
l(3) 0 0 −d(d−1) (d−2)/6

ToTo simplify
simplify thethe FARC
FARC structure,
structure, thethe value
value of Mof should
M should be set
be set to 2.toThen,
2. Then, define
define AIMAIMis
is the adaptive internal mode element used the adaptive internal model controller
the adaptive internal mode element used the adaptive internal model controller QA (z), and Q A(z),
and define TIM is the traditional internal mode element used the constant 0.95.
define TIM is the traditional internal mode element used the constant 0.95. The open-loop The open-
loopdiagrams
bode bode diagrams
of AIMofand AIMTIMand TIM
are are shown
shown in Figurein Figure
3. 3.

Figure 3. Bode diagrams of different internal mode elements.

Figure 3. Bode diagrams of different internal mode elements.

The6th
The 6thharmonics
harmonicsfrequency
frequencyisis480480Hz
Hzwhile
whilethetheBLDC
BLDCmotor
motorisisoperated
operatedatat1200
1200rpm,
rpm,
thus,the
thus, thereal
realsampling
sampling number
number N N is
is 20.833,
20.833,the
theinteger
integerpart
partNNi is 20 and the fractional part
i is 20 and the fractional
d is 0.833. In this case, the first corresponding resonant frequency
part d is 0.833. In this case, the first corresponding resonant frequency of TIM
of is
TIMclose to 500
is close
Hz, as shown in Figure 3. It is also shown in Figure 3 that the frequency
to 500 Hz, as shown in Figure 3. It is also shown in Figure 3 that the frequency offset offset is 20 is
Hz
when compared to the target frequency. On the other hand, the first
20 Hz when compared to the target frequency. On the other hand, the first corresponding corresponding reso-
nant frequency
resonant frequencyof AIM
of AIMis 480 Hz. Hz.
is 480 Thus, AIMAIM
Thus, can supply betterbetter
can supply frequency tracking
frequency perfor-
tracking
mance for the
performance forRC
thecontroller in comparison
RC controller with TIM.
in comparison with Additionally,
TIM. Additionally, the open-loop gain of
the open-loop
AIM
gain ofisAIM
larger than the
is larger open-loop
than gain ofgain
the open-loop TIM,ofwhich
TIM, can supply
which better harmonic
can supply suppres-
better harmonic
sion ability.ability.
suppression

3.2.
3.2.Novel
NovelDecomposition
DecompositionRule
Rule
ToToobtain
obtainthe
theoptimal
optimalinterpolation
interpolationeffect,
effect,the thevaluevalueofofMMisisgenerally
generallydouble
doubleofofthe
the
delay
delayorder
orderd d[18].
[18].Therefore,
Therefore,a anovel
noveldecomposition
decompositionrule rulefor
forthe
thesampling
samplingnumber
numberNNisis
proposed
proposed based
basedononLagrange
Lagrangeinterpolation
interpolation theory
theory in this section,
in this andand
section, the the
sampling number
sampling num-
Nber
is recomposed as:
N is recomposed as:
( 0≤d⎯⎯⎯→ 0≤ d<0.5
N * = N − 1, d* = d+1
*  → N ∗ = iN − i1, d∗ = d+1
*
<0.5
∗N = N∗ i +−−−−−
d  0.5≤d<1 i i (10)
N = Ni + d * * (10)
−−−−−→ Ni = Ni , Ni ,d∗ =d d= d

 ⎯⎯⎯→ N =
0.5≤ d <1 ∗ i

The 6th harmonics frequency is 660 Hz and the real sampling number N is 15.151,
Thethe
while 6thBLDC
harmonics
motor frequency
is operatedisat660 1650Hzrpm. and According
the real sampling number Ndecomposi-
to the traditional is 15.151,
while the BLDC motor is operated at 1650 rpm. According to the traditional decomposition
tion rule, the sampling number N can be decomposed into integer parts Ni and fractional
rule, the sampling number N can be decomposed into integer parts Ni and fractional parts
parts d, and the values of Ni and d are 15 and 0.151, respectively. On the other hand, the
d, and the values of Ni and d are 15 and 0.151, respectively. On the other hand, the sampling
sampling number N can be decomposed into Ni* and d*, and the values of Ni* and d* are
number N can be decomposed into Ni * and d* , and the values of Ni * and d* are 14 and
14 and 1.151, respectively. Defining the sampling number N in AIMT is decomposed into
1.151, respectively. Defining the sampling number N in AIMT is decomposed into N i and *
Ni and d, and defining the sampling number N in AIMN is decomposed into Ni* and d.
The open-loop bode diagrams of AIMT and AIMN are shown in Figure 4.
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 7 of 17

Machines 2022, 10, 1071 d, and defining the sampling number N in AIMN is decomposed into Ni * and d* . 77The
of 17
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 of 17
open-loop bode diagrams of AIMT and AIMN are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Bode diagrams of adaptive internal mode elements with different decomposition rules.
Figure 4.4.Bode
Figure Bodediagrams
diagramsofofadaptive
adaptiveinternal mode
internal elements
mode with
elements different
with decomposition
different rules.
decomposition rules.
Itisisobvious
ItIt obvious that AIM AIMN can supply better frequency tracking ability than AIM T. Ad-
is obviousthat that AIMN can supply
N can supplybetter
betterfrequency
frequencytracking
tracking ability
ability thanthan
AIM AIM T.
T. Ad-
ditionally,
Additionally, the open-loop
the open-loop gain
gainof AIM
of AIMN at the resonant frequency is larger than the open-
at the resonant frequency is larger than the
ditionally, the open-loop gain of AIMN atN the resonant frequency is larger than the open-
loop gain of AIM
open-loop T. In short, AIMN can supply better harmonic suppression ability in com-
loop gaingain of AIM
of AIM . In short, AIMNsupply
T. InTshort, AIMN can
can supply
betterbetter harmonic
harmonic suppression
suppression ability
ability in
in com-
parison
comparison to AIM
to T.
AIM .
parison to AIMT. T
From the
From aforementioned analyses, the AIMNcan can beobtained
obtained throughadopting
adopting the
Fromthe theaforementioned
aforementionedanalyses, analyses,thetheAIM
AIM N N canbebe obtainedthrough
through adoptingthe the
adaptive
adaptive internal
internal model
model controller
controller Q Q
(z)A(z) and the novel decomposition rule of the sam-
and the novel decomposition rule of the sampling
A
adaptive internal model controller QA(z) and the novel decomposition rule of the sam-
pling number.
number. Additionally,
Additionally, the FARC the FARC used the adaptive internal model AIM element AIM
be NN
pling number. Additionally, theused
FARC theused
adaptive internal model
the adaptive internalelement
model element N canAIM
can be
obtained, obtained, which
which possesses possesses better
better frequency frequency tracking
trackingtracking performance
performance and betterand better har-
can be obtained, which possesses better frequency performance andharmonic
better har-
monic
suppression suppression
than AIM than AIM
T , asAIM
shownT, as shown in
in Figure 5. Figure 5.
monic suppression than T, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the control system.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the control system.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the control system.
It should be noted that, the reference value of the BLDC motor control system is de-
ItItshould
fined
should benoted
as R(z), be
noted that,
that, the
I(z) is the inverter
the reference
reference
transfer
value
value of
function, ofthe
P(z)the BLDC
BLDC
is the
motor
BLDC motor control
motorcontrolsystem
system
transfer
is de-
is
function,
fined
defined as R(z), I(z)
R(z), is the inverter
I(z) plant, transfer function, P(z) is the
P(z) BLDC motor transfer function,
EP(z) isasthe control is the Y(z)
inverter is thetransfer
output function,
value of the is theplant
control BLDC motor
EP(z), EPmtransfer
(z) is the
EP(z) is the
function, EP(z)control
is the plant, Y(z)plant,
control is theY(z) outputis thevalue of the
output control
value plant
of the EP(z),plant
control EPm(z) is the
EP(z),
equivalent control plant of FARC.
equivalent control plant of FARC.
EPm (z) is the equivalent control plant of FARC.
4. Analysis of the Novel Current Loop Controllers Parameters
4.4.Analysis
Analysisofofthe theNovel
NovelCurrent
CurrentLoop LoopControllers
ControllersParameters
Parameters
4.1. PIC
4.1. PIC
4.1. PIC
Figure 5 shows that the control plant EP(z) is composed of the inverter and the BLDC
Figure
Figure5 5shows
showsthat thatthe
thecontrol
controlplant plantEP(z)
EP(z)isiscomposed
composedofofthe theinverter
inverterand
andthe
theBLDC
BLDC
motor. The inverter transfer function and the BLDC motor transfer function in continuous
motor. The inverter transfer function and the BLDC motor
motor. The inverter transfer function and the BLDC motor transfer function in continuous transfer function in continuous
domain can be illustrated as
domain
domaincan canbebeillustrated
illustratedasas
(  kpwm 1 kpwm
I (sII)((ss= kpwm
) = kpwm · ⋅1 1≈ ≈kpwmkpwm
 ) =0.5T 0.5
s sT+s1 +T1s ⋅s+ ≈ 1.5
T1s + 11.5T s s+T1s + 1 (11)
P(s) = Ls0.5 1 Tss + 1 Tss + 1 1.5Tss + 1 (11)
 +r
1
s s s
(11)
  P(s) = 1
P(s) = Ls
where kpwm the inverter magnification,

Ts+isr the carrier period.
Ls
+r
where kpwm the inverter magnification, equivalent
The frequency characteristics of the control
Ts is the carrier plant EPm (z) with different kp
period.
whereare
values kpwm the inverter magnification, Ts is the carrier period.
The frequency characteristics of the equivalent control kplant
shown in Figure 6. It is worth mentioning that the i value
EPism(z)
setwith
to 0. different kp
The frequency characteristics of the equivalent control plant EPm(z) with different kp
values are shown in Figure 6. It is worth mentioning that the ki value is set to 0.
values are shown in Figure 6. It is worth mentioning that the ki value is set to 0.
 Machines 2022, 10, 1071 8 of 17
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 8 of 17

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Frequency characteristics of Gm(z): (a) Three-dimensional image; (b) Two-dimen
age.
(a) (b)
Figure 6. With thecharacteristics
Frequency increasing ofGGk
of p value,
m(z): it is difficultimage;
(a) Three-dimensional to guarantee the zeroim-
(b) Two-dimensional gain of am
Figure 6. Frequency characteristics of m (z): (a) Three-dimensional image; (b) Two-dimensional image.
age.
frequency characteristic for EPm(z), as shown in Figure 6. The gains of EPm(z) wil
Withthan
larger the increasing
zero inofof kp value, it is difficult
middle-frequency to guarantee
bands withthe athelarge
zero gainkp of of amplitude-
value, which will i
With the
frequency increasing
characteristic forkpEPvalue,
(z), it
asisshown
difficult
in to guarantee
Figure 6. The gainszero of gain
EP (z) amplitude-
will become
m m
high amount
frequency
larger than
harmonics
characteristic for EPm(z),
zero in middle-frequency
in this
as shownfrequency
bandsinwith Figureband.
6. The
a large
Additionally,
kp gains
value,ofwhich
EPm(z)willtheintroduce
will phase lag of E
become
be reduced
larger
high than zero
amount in middle-frequency
in high-frequency
harmonics in this frequency bands
bands with
band. with increasing
a large kp value,
Additionally, kwhich
the phasep value. of Therefore,
will
lag m (z) can to pro
introduce
EP
high amount
bedesired harmonics
reducedfrequency in this
response
in high-frequency frequency
bands forwith band.
EPm Additionally,
(z), the value
increasing the phase
of kTherefore,
kp value. p shouldto
lag of EP m(z) can
beprovide
set to the
0.01 ≤ kp ≤
bedesired
reduced in high-frequency
frequency response bands
for EP with
(z), theincreasing
value of kkppshould
value. beTherefore,
set to 0.01to≤ provide
k ≤ the
0.12.
It is worth mentioning that the amplitude gains and phase of EPm(z) are slig
m p
desired It frequency response for
is worth mentioning EPthe
that m(z), the valuegains
amplitude of kp and
should be set
phase of EP to m0.01 ≤ kpslightly
(z) are ≤ 0.12. less
than zero in low-frequency bands. In order to eliminate the offset in low-frequen
thanItzero
is worth mentioning that
in low-frequency the amplitude
bands. In order to gains and the
eliminate phase of EP
offset (z) are slightly
in mlow-frequency less
band,
thanthe
the bode
zero
bode in diagramsof EPmof
low-frequency
diagrams EP
bands.
(z) m(z)
with In with to
order
different different
ki eliminate
values are kthevalues
offset inare
ianalyzed, analyzed,
aslow-frequency
shown in Figureas 7.shown
band, It in
the It is
bodeworth
diagramsmentioning
of EP (z) that
with the
differentk
is worth mentioning that the kp value is set to 0.08.
m p value
k i is
values set
are to 0.08.
analyzed, as shown in Figure 7.
It is worth mentioning that the kp value is set to 0.08.

Figure 7. Bode diagrams of EPm(z) with different ki.

Figure
With
Figure 7.
theBode
7. Bode diagrams
increasing
diagrams EPkmi of
ofof EP
value,
(z) m(z)
withthe with
phasedifferent
different . of EPkmi.(z) can be reduced and the am-
kilag
plitude gain bias will be eliminated in low-frequency band, as shown in Figure 7. How-
ever, theWith
amplitude gains and the
the increasing of krate of phase change will be too large in 100 Hz.
i value, the phase lag of EPm(z) can be reduced and

plitude gain bias will be eliminated in low-frequency band, as shown in Figure

ever, the amplitude gains and the rate of phase change will be too large in
Machines 2022, 10, 1071
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 9 of 17

With the increasing

Therefore, the valueofofkki ivalue,
shouldthebe
phase
set to of EP
lag10. (z) can be reduced
Inmconclusion, and the
the appropriate val
amplitude gain bias will be eliminated in low-frequency band, as shown in Figure 7.
and ki for the PIC are 0.08 and 10, respectively.
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 However, the amplitude gains and the rate of phase change will be too large in 100 Hz.
9 of 17
Therefore, the value of ki should be set to 10. In conclusion, the appropriate values of kp
4.2.ki FARC
and for the PIC are 0.08 and 10, respectively.

4.2.
Figure 7 also shows that the harmonics of the equivalent control plant EPm(z
Therefore,
FARC the value of ki should be set to 10. In conclusion, the appropriate values of kp
and ki for the band
frequency PIC arecannot
0.08 andbe 10, suppressed
respectively. effectively. In this case, the Butterworth
Figure 7 also shows that the harmonics of the equivalent control plant EPm (z) in
usually usedband
high-frequency as the
cannothigh-frequency filter S(z)Infor
be suppressed effectively. thisthe RC.
case, the To obtain the
Butterworth filterappropr
4.2. FARC
isterworth
usually used filter
as order n, the frequency
the high-frequency characteristics
filter S(z) for the RC. Toofobtain
the equivalent control pla
the appropriate
Figure 7filter
Butterworth also shows
order that
n, thethe harmonics
frequency of the equivalent
characteristics of control
the plant EP
equivalent m(z) in high-
control plant
with or without
frequency
Butterworth filter are shown in Figure 8. It is worth mentioning
band cannot be suppressed effectively. In this case, the Butterworth filter is
EP m (z) with or without Butterworth filter are shown in Figure 8. It is worth mentioning
Butterworth
usually used as filter cut-off frequency
the high-frequency isfor
filter S(z) setthe
as RC.
2000ToHz (approximately
obtain the appropriate 25 times of
that the Butterworth filter cut-off frequency is set as 2000 Hz (approximately 25 timesBut-of
damental
terworth frequency).
filter order
the fundamental frequency).n, the frequency characteristics of the equivalent control plant EP m(z)

with or without Butterworth filter are shown in Figure 8. It is worth mentioning that the
Butterworth filter cut-off frequency is set as 2000 Hz (approximately 25 times of the fun-
damental frequency).

Figure
Figure
Figure 8. Frequency
8.8.Frequency
Frequency characteristics
characteristics
characteristics ofofthe of the
thecontrol
control control
plant
plant plant
withor
with with
orwithout
without or without
Butterworth
Butterworth Butterworth
filter.
filter. filter

ItItis
isobvious
It obvious
is obvious thatthe
that thetransition
that transition bandwidth
bandwidth
the transition willbecome
will
bandwidth become narrow
narrow
will become andthe
and the phaselag
phase
narrow lagwill
and will
the phas
become large with the increasing of Butterworth filter order n. Hence,
become large with the increasing of Butterworth filter order n. Hence, to obtain the satisfied to obtain the satis-
become largefiltering
fied harmonics
with the increasing of Butterworthband, filterand order n. Hence, to obtain
harmonics filtering effect effect
of EPm of(z)
EPinm(z) in high-frequency
high-frequency band, and maintain maintain the current
the current loop
fiedsimplicity
loop
simplicityharmonics
at the at
samefiltering
the same the
time, effect
time, the of
order ofEP
order
n nm(z) in high-frequency
of Butterworth
Butterworth filter isfilter
set to setband,
is 4. to 4. and maintain th
loopIn simplicity
Inorder at the same
ordertotocompensate
compensate thephase
the time,
phase the
lag
lag order
inthe
in highnfrequency
thehigh of Butterworth
frequency bandcaused
band filter
caused byis
by setand
S(z)
S(z) to 4.
and
EPmm(z),
EP (z),In theorder
the phaseto
phase compensator
compensator zzm
m is added to FARC.FARC. To
To obtain
obtain the
the most
most appropriate
appropriate beat
beat
compensate the phase lag in the high frequency band caused by
mm for
for the
the phase
phase compensator,
compensator,
EPm(z), the phase compensator thebode
the bodezdiagrams
mdiagrams
is added ofofzmzto
mS(z)EP
S(z)EP
FARC. (z)To
mm(z) with
with thevariation
the
obtain variation
the mostofofmmapprop
from55toto17
from 17isisanalyzed,
analyzed,as asshown
shownininFigure
Figure9.9.
m for the phase compensator, the bode diagrams of z S(z)EPm(z) with the varia m

from 5 to 17 is analyzed, as shown in Figure 9.

Figure9.9.Bode
Bodediagrams
diagramsofofzzmmS(z)EP
S(z)EPm(z) with different phase compensators.
Figure m (z) with different phase compensators.

From Figure 9, it is observed that the required phase characteristic can be obtained
while the value of m is set to 11. In this case, the phase characteristic in low-frequency
band of 9.
Figure theBode
control system of
diagrams canzmbe maintained
S(z)EP at zero. Consequently, a large phase lag
m(z) with different phase compensators.
compensation in low-frequency band can be supplied by the phase compensator.
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 10 of 17

From Figure 9, it is observed that the required phase characteristic can be obtained
while the value of m is set to 11. In this case, the phase characteristic in low-frequency
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 band of the control system can be maintained at zero. Consequently, a large phase 10 lag
of 17
compensation in low-frequency band can be supplied by the phase compensator.

4.3. Composite
4.3. Composite Controller
Controller
The proposed
The proposed FARC
FARC is is
located in in
located thethe
forward
forwardchannel
channelofof
thethe
PIC. Hence,
PIC. Hence,when
whenthethe
control signal is changed, the dynamic response performance of the current
control signal is changed, the dynamic response performance of the current loop control-loop controller
is ler
selected as another
is selected forward
as another channel,
forward and the
channel, andreference current
the reference feedforward
current channel
feedforward can
channel
becan
established, which can improve the dynamic response performance of
be established, which can improve the dynamic response performance of the currentthe current loop
controller effectively. The proposed composite controller is shown in Figure 10.
loop controller effectively. The proposed composite controller is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of the composite controller.

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of the composite controller.

It It
is is obvious
obvious that
that thethe control
control signal
signal error
error E(z)
E(z) between
between the
the reference
reference value
value R(z)
R(z) andand
the feedback value Y(z) is small, while the BLDC motor is operated in
the feedback value Y(z) is small, while the BLDC motor is operated in steady state. Conse- steady state. Con-
sequently,
quently, the output
the output of theofBLDC
the BLDC
motor motor control
control systemsystem is mainly
is mainly determined
determined by FARC.
by FARC. On
On the other hand, the PIC can track the error immediately, while large
the other hand, the PIC can track the error immediately, while large control signal error E(z) control signal
error E(z)
appears. appears. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the FARC will thetrack
FARC thewill track the
appeared appeared
error error
after one after one
resonant reso-
period
nant period due to the existence
due to the existence of the lag element. of the lag element.
From
From thethe aforementioned
aforementioned analyses,
analyses, the
the closed-loop
closed-loop transfer
transfer function
function ofof the
the current
current
loop
loop used
used composite
composite controller
controller can
can bebe given
given byby
E( z) 1 − EP ( z)
E(z) =1 − EPm (mz) (12)
=( z) 1 + RC( z) EPm ( z)
R (12)
R(z) 1 + RC (z) EPm (z)
where RC(z) is the transfer function of FARC, which can be illustrated as
where RC(z) is the transfer function of FARC, which can be illustrated as
z − N k z m S ( z)
RC( zz) −=N k zmrS(z)− Ni (13)
RC (z) = 1 −r QA ( z) z (13)
1 − Q A ( z ) z − Ni

4.4.
4.4. Analysis
Analysis of of
thethe Control
Control System
System Stability
Stability and
and Robustness
Robustness
Based
Based onon Formula
Formula (12),
(12), thethe characteristic
characteristic equation
equation ofof the
the control
control system
system canbebeillus-
can illus-
trated
trated asas
1 + RC1(+z)RC
EP(mz)(EP
z ) m ( z)
T (z) = T ( z) = 1 − EP ( z)= [1=+[1PI+ PI
(z)( zEP
) EP z)1][1++RC
(z()][ RC((zz))EP ]
EPm ((zz))]
m
(14)
(14)
1 − EPm (z) m
Based on the Lyapunov theory, the control system is stable if all characteristic equa-
Based on the Lyapunov theory, the control system is stable if all characteristic equation
tion eigen roots located in the unit circle. Hence, to maintain T(z) = 0, the composite con-
eigen roots located in the unit circle. Hence, to maintain T(z) = 0, the composite controller
troller should meet the following stable conditions: (1) all roots of 1+ PI(z)EP(z) = 0 located
should meet the following stable conditions: (1) all roots of 1+ PI(z)EP(z) = 0 located inside
inside the unit
(2)circle; (2) 1 + RC(z)EP m(z) ≠ 0.
the unit circle; 1 + RC(z)EP m (z) 6 = 0.
The establishment condition of
The establishment condition of the stable the stable condition
condition (1)(1)
cancan
be be described
described as the
as the equiv-
equiva-
alent control plant EP m(z) poles located inside the unit circle. The pole distribution of
lent control plant EPm (z) poles located inside the unit circle. The pole distribution of EPm (z)
is EP m(z) is analyzed and shown in Figure 11a.
analyzed and shown in Figure 11a.
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 11 of 17
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 11 of 17

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11. (a) Pole distribution of Gm(z); (b) Nyquist diagrams of H(z) with different kr; (c) Nyquist
Figure 11. (a) Pole distribution of G (z); (b) Nyquist diagrams of H(z) with different kr ; (c) Nyquist
diagrams of H(z) with different d. m
diagrams of H(z) with different d.
It can be found that the poles of EPm(z) are all located inside the unit circle. In short,
It can be found that the poles of EPm (z) are all located inside the unit circle. In short,
the composite controller meets the stable condition (1).
the composite controller meets the stable condition (1).
Additionally, the stable condition (2) can be rewritten as the following:
Additionally, the stable condition (2) can be rewritten as the following:
1 − QA ( z) z − Ni + z − N kr z m S ( z)EPm ( z) ≠ 0 (15)
1 − QA (z)z−Ni + z−N kr zm S(z) EPm (z) 6= 0 (15)
Based on minimum gain theory, the establishment condition of Formula (15) can be
obtained
Based ason minimum gain theory, the establishment condition of Formula (15) can be
obtained as
H ( z) = Q ( z) − k z m S ( z) EP ( z) < 1 (16)
H (z) = | QA (zA) − kr zrm S(z) EPmm(z)| < 1 (16)
From the aforementioned analyses, the RC stability with the variation of the RC gain
From the aforementioned analyses, the RC stability with the variation of the RC gain
kr should be analyzed. The analysis results for the Nyquist diagrams of H(z) with different
kr should be analyzed. The analysis results for the Nyquist diagrams of H(z) with different
kr are shown in Figure 11b. It is worth mentioning that the non-integer part is 0.833 while
kr are shown in Figure 11b. It is worth mentioning that the non-integer part is 0.833 while
the BLDC motor is operated at 1200 rpm, as shown in Figure 3. From the Nyquist dia-
the BLDC motor is operated at 1200 rpm, as shown in Figure 3. From the Nyquist diagrams
grams
of H(z),ofitH(z),
was itfound
was found thatofloci
that loci H(z)ofare
H(z) are always
always located located
in theinunit
the circle
unit circle
whilewhile
kr ≤k0.8r ≤

0.8
andand
d =d = 0.833.
0.833. Additionally,
Additionally, the stability
the stability margin margin is reduced
is reduced with the with the increasing
increasing of kr
of kr value.
value.
Furthermore, the proposed FARC stabilities with different BLDC motor operation
Furthermore,
speeds the proposed
are also analyzed. FARC the
For instance, stabilities
Nyquist with different
diagrams BLDC
of H(z) motor
with operation
different frac-
speeds
tional part d values were studied, as shown in Figure 11c. It is obvious that the loci offrac-
are also analyzed. For instance, the Nyquist diagrams of H(z) with different H(z)
tional part dlocated
are always valuesin were studied,
the unit circleaswhile
shown 0.5in<Figure
d < 1.511c. andItkis
r =obvious
0.7. that the
Additionally,locia of H(z)
certain
are always
margin located
between theinroot
the unit circle
loci and thewhile
unit 0.5<
circled boundary
< 1.5 and kcan r = 0.7. Additionally, a certain
be retained, therefore, the
margin between the root loci and the unit
control system can maintain a sufficient stability margin. circle boundary can be retained, therefore, the
control system can maintain a sufficient stability margin.
Consequently, the BLDC motor parameters are nonconstant under different operation
Consequently,
conditions. the BLDC
The robustness formotor parameters
the control systemare used nonconstant
the composite under differentwith
controller opera-
the
tion conditions. The robustness for the control system used
variation of the BLDC motor parameters should also be analyzed. The analysis results the composite controller with
for
the
the variation of the BLDC
Nyquist diagrams motor
of H(z) withparameters
different phaseshould also be resistances
winding analyzed. The andanalysis
differentresults
phase
for the Nyquist
winding diagrams
inductances of H(z)
are shown in with
Figure different phasebe
12. It should winding
noted that resistances
the valuesand
ofdifferent
kr and d
phase
are setwinding
to 0.7 and inductances are shown in Figure 12. It should be noted that the values of
0.9, respectively.
kr and d are12
Figure setshows
to 0.7 that
and the0.9,loci
respectively.
of H(z) are always located in the unit circle with different
BLDC motor parameters. Additionally, the control system used the proposed composite
controller can meet the stable condition (2).
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 12 of 17
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 12 of 17

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 12. (a) Nyquist diagrams of H(z) with different R; (b) Nyquist diagrams of H(z) with different
Figure
L; 12. (a) diagrams
(c) Nyquist Nyquist diagrams of H(z)
of H(z) with different R and L.R; (b) Nyquist diagrams of H(z) with different
with different
L; (c) Nyquist diagrams of H(z) with different R and L.
Figure 12 shows that the loci of H(z) are always located in the unit circle with different
5. Simulation
BLDC motor parameters. Additionally, the control system used the proposed composite
In order to verify the feasibility and the effectiveness of the proposed composite
controller can meet the stable condition (2).
controller, the steady-state and dynamic response performances of the BLDC motor control
system driven by different current loop controllers were analyzed through simulation
5. Simulation
studies. The BLDC motor control systems used the PIC, the TRC and the FARC are defined
as S1In
, Sorder to verify the feasibility and the effectiveness of the proposed composite con-
2 and S3 , respectively. The BLDC motor parameters are shown in Table 2.
troller, the steady-state and dynamic response performances of the BLDC motor control
system
Table 2. driven by different
The parameters current
of the BLDC loop controllers were analyzed through simulation
motor.
studies. The BLDC motor control systems used the PIC, the TRC and the FARC are defined
Parameter The BLDC motor parameters are shown
as S1, S2 and S3, respectively. Valuein Table 2.
DC voltage 24 V
Table 2. The parameters of the BLDC motor.
Resistance 0.6 Ω
Inductance 2 mH
Parameter
Pole pairs Value
4
DC voltage
Sampling frequency 24kHz
10 V
Rated speed
Resistance 1500
0.6 Ωrpm
Rated torque 0.3 N·m
Inductance 2 mH
Pole pairs 4
5.1. Steady-State Performance
Sampling frequency 10 kHz
The steady-state
Ratedperformances
speed of S1 , S2 and S3 are compared under
1500 rpmthe same operating
conditions. Firstly,
Rated the BLDC motor is operated under condition
torque 1: the reference speed
0.3 N·m
is 1500 rpm and the reference torque is 0.3 N·m. The waveforms of torque and phase A
current
5.1. of S1 , S2Performance
Steady-State and S3 are shown in Figure 13.
From the simulation results shown in Figure 13, it can be seen that the torque ripples
The steady-state performances of S1, S2 and S3 are compared under the same operat-
of S1 , S2 and S3 are 0.24 N m, 0.18 N·m and 0.13 N·m, respectively. Thus, the TRC can
ing conditions. Firstly, the BLDC motor is operated under condition 1: the reference speed
suppress the torque ripple by at least 25% in comparison with the PIC. Additionally, the
is 1500 rpm and the reference torque is 0.3 N·m. The waveforms of torque and phase A
FARC can suppress the torque ripple by at least 45% in comparison with the PIC.
current of S1, S2 and S3 are shown in Figure 13.
Considering that the proposed strategy in this paper does not contain negative feed-
back links and is based only on the ideal model, it has insufficient universality. In order to
analyze the suppression of current harmonics by the proposed control strategy, the control
value of the current loop (im ) is defined as the absolute value of the constant-flow phase
current. For different sectors, the current value can be rewritten as

|iA | + |iB |+|iC |

im = (17)
2
Machines 2022, 10, 1071(a) (b) (c)of 17
13
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 13 of 17
Figure 13. (a) Waveforms of torque and phase A current of S1 under condition 1; (b) Wav
torque and phase A current of S2 under condition 1; (c) Waveforms of torque and phase
of S3 under condition 1.

From the simulation results shown in Figure 13, it can be seen that the torqu
of S1, S2 and S3 are 0.24N m, 0.18N·m and 0.13N·m, respectively. Thus, the TRC
press the torque ripple by at least 25% in comparison with the PIC. Addition
FARC can suppress the torque ripple by at least 45% in comparison with the PIC
Considering that the proposed strategy in this paper does not contain negat
back links and is based only on the ideal model, it has insufficient universality.
to analyze the suppression of current harmonics by the proposed control stra
control value of the current loop (im) is defined as the absolute value of the const
(a) phase current. For different
(b) sectors, the current value can
(c) be rewritten as
Figure 13. (a) Waveforms of torque and phase A current of |Si1 under|+|iB |+condition
|iC | 1; (b) Waveforms of
13. (a)
Figure and
torque Waveforms
phase of of
A current torque and condition
S2 under phase A current
1; (c) =of SA1 under
im Waveforms ofcondition 1; (b)
torque and Waveforms
phase of
A current
torque and phase A current
of S3 under condition 1. of S2 under condition 1; (c) Waveforms 2 of torque and phase A current of
S3 under condition 1.
When the reference speed is set to 1500 rpm, the fundamental frequency is 1
From the simulation results shown in Figure 13, it can be seen that the torque ripples
= 100
of S1,When
Hz.SFigure
S2 and the
14 shows
reference speed the comparison
is set to 1500 rpm, of the
the equivalent
fundamentalcurrent
3 are 0.24N m, 0.18N·m and 0.13N·m, respectively. Thus, the TRC can sup-
frequency spectrum
is a
1500 ×
monics.
press
4/60 = 100
It is worth
the torque
Hz. Figure
ripple by
14
mentioning shows
at least 25%that,
the comparison
when the with
in comparison
of the
frequency equivalent current
the PIC.= Additionally,
spec-
0 Hz, the current the amp
trum at
S1, Scan 6 k
2 and
harmonics. It
S3 is 5.706N·m, is worth mentioning
5.622N·m that,
and 45% when the
5.593N·m, frequency =
respectively. 0 Hz, the current
The total harmon
FARC suppress the torque ripple by at least in comparison with the PIC.
amplitude of S1 , S2 and S3 is 5.706 N·m, 5.622 N·m and 5.593 N·m, respectively. The
Considering
tion (all that the proposed
harmonics) of S 1, S2 strategy
and S 3 in
is this paper does
13.54%, 10.12% not contain
and negative
9.02%, feed-
respectively. T
total harmonic distortion (all harmonics) of S1 , S2 and S3 is 13.54%, 10.12% and 9.02%,
back links and
TRC can suppress is based only on
the torque the ideal
ripplemodel, it has insufficient universality. In order
respectively. Thus, the TRC can suppress theby at least
torque 25%
ripple by atinleast
comparison with the PIC. A
25% in comparison
to analyze the suppression of current harmonics by the proposed control strategy, the
ally,thethe
with FARC
PIC. can suppress
Additionally, the FARC thecan
torque
suppress ripple
the by at least
torque 33%
ripple
control value of the current loop (im) is defined as the absolute value of the constant-flow
inleast
by at comparison
33% in with
comparison
Hence, with
the For the
current PIC. Hence,
harmonics the current
can harmonics
be eliminated can be eliminated by the proposed
phase current. different sectors, the current value can beby the proposed
rewritten as FARC effective
FARC effectively.
|i |+|i |+|i |
im = A B C (17)
2
When the reference speed is set to 1500 rpm, the fundamental frequency is 1500*4/60
= 100 Hz. Figure 14 shows the comparison of the equivalent current spectrum at 6 k har-
monics. It is worth mentioning that, when the frequency = 0 Hz, the current amplitude of
S1, S2 and S3 is 5.706N·m, 5.622N·m and 5.593N·m, respectively. The total harmonic distor-
tion (all harmonics) of S1, S2 and S3 is 13.54%, 10.12% and 9.02%, respectively. Thus, the
TRC can suppress the torque ripple by at least 25% in comparison with the PIC. Addition-
ally, the FARC can suppress the torque ripple by at least 33% in comparison with the PIC.
Hence, the current harmonics can be eliminated by the proposed FARC effectively.

Figure
Figure 14. 14. Equivalent
Equivalent current
current spectrum
spectrum diagram
diagram of S1 , S2 andofS3Sunder
1, S2 and S3 under condition
condition 1. 1.

From
Fromthe the
aforementioned
aforementionedanalyses, it can be observed
analyses, it can bethat the fractional
observed that part
the value
fractional p
of the sampling number N in AIMT is 0.667. According to proposed novel decomposition
of the sampling number N in AIMT is 0.667. According to proposed novel decom
rule for the FARC, the fractional part d is along to the range of 0.5 to 1. Thus, the integer
rule
part for the
values and FARC, the fractional
the fractional part valuespart d is along
calculated to the
by different range of 0.5rules
decomposition to 1.areThus, th
part
the values
same. andtothe
In order fractional
evaluate part values
the feasibility of thecalculated by different
novel decomposition rule decomposition
while the
fractional part d is along to the range of 0 to 0.5, the reference speed of the BLDC motor is
changed to 1300 rpm, and the reference torque is 0.3 N·m, and this operation condition is
Figure 14. Equivalent current spectrum diagram of S1, S2 and S3 under condition 1.
defined as condition 2. In this case, the values of the integer part Ni and the fractional part
d calculated by the novel decomposition rule are 19 and 0.23, respectively. While the values
From the aforementioned analyses, it can be observed that the fractional part value
of the integer part Ni * and the fractional part d* calculated by the novel decomposition rule
of the sampling number N in AIMT is 0.667. According to proposed novel decomposition
rule for the FARC, the fractional part d is along to the range of 0.5 to 1. Thus, the integer
part values and the fractional part values calculated by different decomposition rules are
 fractional part d is along to the range of 0 to 0.5, the reference speed of the BLDC motor is
d calculated by the novel decomposition rule are 19 and 0.23, respectively. Whil
changed to 1300 rpm, and the reference torque is 0.3N·m, and this operation condition is
ues ofasthe
defined integer2. part
condition In thisNcase,
i* and the fractional part d* calculated by the novel decom
the values of the integer part Ni and the fractional part
d rule become
calculated by the18novel
anddecomposition
1.23, respectively. The
rule are 19 andwaveforms of torque
0.23, respectively. and
While the val-phase A
phase
ues of theof S1, S2part
integer and NiS 3 are shown in Figure 15.
* and the fractional part d* calculated by the novel decomposition
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 14 of 17
rule become
From18the and 1.23, respectively.
simulation resultsThe waveforms
in Figure 15, of torque
it can beand
seen phase
thatAthe
current
TRC can re
phase of S1, S2 and S3 are shown in Figure 15.
torque ripple by at least 17% in comparison with the PIC. Furthermore, compar
From the simulation results in Figure 15, it can be seen that the TRC can reduce the
S3 can
become
torque reduce
18 and
ripple atthe
by1.23, torque
least 17% inripple
respectively. by atwith
The waveforms
comparison leastof36%.
thetorque and phase A current
PIC. Furthermore, comparedphase
to Sof
1,
S2 and
S31 ,can S3 are
reduce theshown
torque in Figure
ripple by15.
at least 36%.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Figure 15. (a) Waveforms of torque and(b) (c) of
phase A current of S1 under condition 2; (b) Waveforms
15. (a)
Figure and
torque Waveforms
phase of of
A current torque and phase
S2 under A current
condition of S1 underof
2; (c) Waveforms condition 2; (b)
torque and Waveforms
phase of
A current
ofFigure
S3 under15.
torque and (a) Waveforms
phase A
conditioncurrent
2. of S2 of torque and phase A current of S1 under condition 2;
under condition 2; (c) Waveforms of torque and phase A current of (b) Wav
S3torque
under condition 2.
and phase A current of S2 under condition 2; (c) Waveforms of torque and phase
of SWhen
3 under set condition
to 1300 rpm, 2. the fundamental frequency is 1300*4/60 = 86.667 Hz. Figure 16
shows From the simulation
the comparison results
of the in Figure
equivalent 15, itspectrum
current can be seenat 6that the TRC can
k harmonics. Thereduce the
total har-
torque ripple by at least 17% in comparison with the PIC. Furthermore, compared
monic distortion (all harmonics) of S1, S2 and S3 is 16.8%, 13.24% and 9.59%, respectively. to S1 S3
,
can When
reduce the set to 1300
torque ripple rpm,
by at the fundamental
least 36%. frequency is 1300*4/60 = 86.667 Hz. F
Thus, the TRC and FARC can suppress the torque ripple by at least 21% and 42%, respec-
shows
When
tively, thesetcomparison
in comparison
to 1300 rpm,of the
the
with the PIC. equivalent
fundamental
Therefore, thecurrent
frequency spectrum at 6 kover
is 1300 × 4/60
FARC shows superiority
= harmonics.
86.667 Hz. The
the PIC
Figure
monic 16distortion
shows the comparison
(allthe
harmonics)of the of
equivalent
S1, Scurrent
2 andcurrent
S3 isspectrum at 6 k harmonics.
16.8%, 13.24% and 9.59%, resp
and the TRC in reducing torque ripples and harmonics.
The total harmonic distortion (all harmonics) of S1 , S2 and S3 is 16.8%, 13.24% and 9.59%,
Thus, the TRC and FARC can suppress the torque ripple by at least 21% and 42%
respectively. Thus, the TRC and FARC can suppress the torque ripple by at least 21% and
tively,
42%, in comparison
respectively, in comparisonwithwiththethe
PIC.
PIC.Therefore,
Therefore, the the FARC
FARC shows
shows superiority
superiority over ove
and
the PICthe andTRCthe TRCin reducing
in reducingthe thetorque ripples
torque ripples andand current
current harmonics.
harmonics.

Figure 16. Equivalent current spectrum diagram of S1, S2 and S3 under condition 2.

The harmonic component of commutation torque ripple of BLDC motor is mainly

concentrated in the frequency of 6 kth harmonics (k = 1, 2, 3, …) [30]. Therefore, the pro-
posed control strategy can also suppress the commutation ripple. Hence, condition 2 is
selected for motor commutation analysis, and the Figure 17 is the current vector trajectory
diagram
Figure of
16.S1Equivalent
, S2 and S3. Obviously, the current
current spectrum vectoroftrajectory
diagram changes
S1, S2 and from
S3 under irregular2.
condition
Figure 16. Equivalent current spectrum diagram of S1 , S2 and S3 under condition 2.

The harmonic
The harmonic component of commutation
component torque ripple
of commutation of BLDC
torque motor
ripple of isBLDC
mainlymotor i
concentrated in the frequency of 6 kth harmonics (k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ) [30]. Therefore, the
concentrated in the frequency of 6 k harmonics (k = 1, 2, 3, …) [30]. Therefore,
th
proposed control strategy can also suppress the commutation ripple. Hence, condition 2 is
posedfor
selected control strategy cananalysis,
motor commutation also suppress the 17
and the Figure commutation ripple.
is the current vector Hence, cond
trajectory
selected
diagram of for
S1 , Smotor
2 and Scommutation
3 . Obviously, theanalysis, andtrajectory
current vector the Figure 17 is from
changes the current
irregularvector t
sawtooth shape to standard regular hexagon, which can reduce the
diagram of S1, S2 and S3. Obviously, the current vector trajectory changescommutation torque from
ripple effectively.
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 15 of 17
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 15 of 17

Machines 2022, 10, 1071 15 of 17

sawtooth shape to standard regular hexagon, which can reduce the commutation torque
sawtooth
ripple shape to standard regular hexagon, which can reduce the commutation torque
effectively.
ripple effectively.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 17. (a) Current vector trajectory diagram of S1; (b) Current vector trajectory diagram of S2; (c)
Figure 17.
Current
Figure 17. (a)Current
vector
(a) Current
trajectoryvector trajectory
diagram
vector diagramofofS1S; 1(b)
of S3.diagram
trajectory ; (b) Current
Current vector
vector trajectory
trajectory diagram
diagram of Sof S2 ;
2; (c)
(c) Current
Current vector
vector trajectory
trajectory diagram
diagram 3. S3 .
of Sof
5.2.
5.2.Dynamic
DynamicPerformance
Performance
5.2. Dynamic
To Performance
To evaluate the
evaluate the dynamic
dynamic performance
performance of of the
the proposed
proposed composite
composite controller, acceler-
controller, accelera-
ation To evaluate
anddecelerationthe
deceleration dynamic performance
simulations were of the
carried proposed S1, S2 and S3. Firstly, theacceler-
composite controller,
tion and simulations were carried out out
on Son BLDC
1 , S2 and S3 . Firstly, the BLDC motor
ation and
motor torquedeceleration
is set to simulations
0.3N·m, and thewere carried
reference out isonsetS1to
speed , S900
2 and S3.Then
rpm. Firstly,
the the BLDC
reference
torque is set to 0.3 N·m, and the reference speed is set to 900 rpm. Then the reference speed
motoristorque
speed is settoto1500
0.3N·m, and the 0.2
reference speed isreference
set to 900speed
rpm. Then the reference
is increased to 1500 rpm within 0.2 s. Finally, the reference speed is reduced to 12001200
increased rpm within s. Finally, the is reduced to rpm
speed
rpm is0.067
within
within increased
0.067
s. The s.to 1500
The rpm results
within
simulation
simulation 0.2 s.
results
are Finally,
are
shown shown the
inreference
in Figure 18. 18.speed is reduced to 1200
Figure
rpm within 0.067 s. The simulation results are shown in Figure 18.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 18. (a) Speed trajectory of S1; (b) Speed trajectory of S2; (c) Speed trajectory of S3.
Figure 18. (a) Speed trajectory of S1; (b) Speed trajectory of S2; (c) Speed trajectory of S3.
Figure 18. (a) Speed trajectory of S1 ; (b) Speed trajectory of S2 ; (c) Speed trajectory of S3 .
From Figure 18, it can be observed that the speed ripples of S1, S2 and S3 are 17 rpm,
16 rpm FromandFigure
15 rpm, 18, it can be observed
respectively. that
Hence, that the speed
compared ripples
withripples
PIC and of S1, S2the andFARC
S3 arecan17 rpm,
From Figure 18, it can be observed the speed of TRC,
S1 , S2 and S3 are 17 sup-
rpm,
16 rpm
press and
theand 15
speed rpm, respectively. Hence, compared with PIC and TRC, the FARC can sup-
16 rpm 15 ripples and improveHence,
rpm, respectively. the operation
compared performance
with PIC and of the BLDC
TRC, themotor
FARCcon- can
press
trol the speed
system ripples Additionally,
effectively. and improve the operation canperformance theofreference
the BLDC motor con-
suppress the speed ripples and improve FARC the operation maintain
performance of the speed
BLDC signal
motor
trol systemunder
accurately effectively. Additionally,
acceleration condition theand FARC can maintain
deceleration the reference
condition, as wellspeed
as PICsignal
and
control system effectively. Additionally, the FARC can maintain the reference speed signal
accurately
accurately under acceleration condition and deceleration condition, as well as PIC and
TRC. under
Therefore, theacceleration
main advantagecondition
of and
traditional deceleration
PIC, i.e., condition,
the reliable as well
dynamic as PIC
response,and
TRC.
is Therefore,
maintained
TRC. Therefore, in the
the main
FARC.main advantage
advantage of of traditional
traditional PIC, PIC, i.e.,
i.e., the
thereliable
reliabledynamic
dynamicresponse,
response,
is
is maintained
maintained in in FARC.
FARC.
6. Conclusions
6.
6. Conclusions
Conclusions
In this paper, FARC is designed in this paper to improve the alternating-current har-
monics In
In this
thispaper,
paper,FARC
suppression ability
FARC isisfor
designed in in
the current
designed thisthis
paper
loop of to
papertheimprove
BLDC
to improve the alternating-current
motor thecontrol system. Con-
alternating-current har-
monics
sidering
harmonics suppression
the real ability
thatsuppression sampling for number
ability the
forcurrent
the may loop
current of an
be not
looptheofBLDC
integer,
the BLDC motor
an adaptivecontrol
motor system.
internal
control Con-
model
system.
sidering
controller
Considering that
andthe real
thesampling
a novel
that decomposition
real number
sampling may
rule
number arebe notbeannot
proposed
may integer,
foranFARC.an adaptive
integer, internalinternal
Consequently,
an adaptive a model
novel
controller
current loopand
model controller a novel
scheme adecomposition
andthat novel rule areofrule
decomposition
is a concatenation proposed
PICareand for
proposed
FARC FARC. forConsequently,
was FARC. a novel
Consequently,
established. Further-
current
a novel loop scheme
current loop that
schemeis a concatenation
that is a of
concatenationPIC andof FARC
PIC
more, a composite controller that added a froward channel in the proposed current loop and wasFARCestablished.
was Further-
established.
more, a composite
Furthermore, controller
a composite that added
controller a froward
that added channel
a froward in the in
channel proposed current
the proposed loop
current
loop was derived. The stability of the composite was verified through Lyapunov theory,
and the design method of the composite controller parameters is also revealed in this paper.
Machines 2022, 10, 1071 16 of 17

The steady-state and dynamic simulation results validate that the proposed composite
controller exhibits satisfied current harmonics suppression ability with outstanding torque
and speed control performance, and nearly the same dynamic performance in comparison
to PIC and TRC. Furthermore, the proposed FARC can also be used in active power filters,
harmonics suppression for grid-connected inverters, and other industrial fields.
Future work will focus on the suppression of the transient current harmonics and
the low frequency signal harmonics. It is worth mentioning that, due to the use of the
reference current feedforward channel and PIC, the BLDC motor control system can realize
the accurate track of the ramp speed signal. However, the speed ripple will increase
briefly while the operation condition changes. Therefore, the speed feedforward and phase
compensation need to be considered in future research. On the other hand, it is assumed
that the accurate control signal can be supplied by the sensors. It is significant to study
the suppression of the sensorless control noise, which can further increase the composite
controller applicability.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.Y. and Y.Z.; methodology, Y.Z.; software, Y.Z.; validation,
T.Y.; formal analysis, Y.Z.; investigation, T.Y.; resources, T.Y.; data curation, Y.Z.; writing—original
draft preparation, Y.Z.; writing—review and editing, T.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the project is supported by Doctoral Scientific Research
Foundation of Northeast Electric Power University (No. BSJXM-2020202).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.

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