Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Effectiveness of wood waste sawdust to produce medium- to low-strength

concrete materials
Farnaz Batool a, Kamrul Islam b, *, Celal Cakiroglu c, Anjuman Shahriar d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, NED University of Engineering & Technology, Pakistan
b
Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Canada
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Turkish-German University, Istanbul, Turkey
d
FortisBC, Okanagan, British Columbia, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper investigates the use of sawdust as fine aggregate and its influence on the properties of hardened
Sawdust concrete, and examines the correlation between sawdust content and hydration days. In this study, untreated
Sulphate resistance wood sawdust from a wood factory in Bangladesh is added to concrete mixtures. Concrete mixtures prepared by
Scanning electron micrograph
replacing fine aggregates with sawdust in the ratio of 10%–60% are evaluated for compressive, tensile, and
Hardened properties
Macrocracks
flexural strength along with sulphate resistance for four different hydration periods. In addition, the micro­
structure of sawdust concrete is studied using scanning electron microscopic images. The micrographs show a
wider formation of cracks, openings, and interface gaps in the cement matrix with the addition of sawdust.
However, after sulphate immersion, the gaps and cracks are found to contract due to the ettringite filler effect.
The addition of sawdust is found to reduce the workability and to have an adverse effect with increasing
replacement levels. Similarly, reduced density of the hardened concrete is observed in the case of the sawdust
concrete mixtures. Experimental results and cost comparison reveal that ten percent sawdust substitution is
found to be optimal and low-cost replacement to natural fine aggregates with respect to the hardened properties,
as it yields better performance in comparison with the other replacement ratios. Also, sulphate immersion for a
period of 28 days is found to improve the compressive strength, even for mixtures with higher sawdust content.
Moreover, a model is developed to predict the compressive and tensile strength of sawdust concrete using
regression analysis.

1. Introduction
Aggregates are among the main components of concrete and
increasing demand within the construction industry has resulted in the
rapid depletion of natural aggregate sources. Globally almost eleven
billion tons of natural aggregates are extracted from riverbeds, lakes,
and other sources each year [1]. In recent years, several countries have
imposed restrictions on the extraction of sand from rivers to reduce the
adverse effects on the environment [2–5]. Such measures have led re­
searchers and construction enterprises to search for alternative aggre­
gate materials, such as industrial by-products and waste materials
[6–18]. Sawdust, as one such example, is generated on a large scale as an
industrial waste that requires careful disposal into the environment.
Sawdust is mainly generated by timber industries around the whole
world. Every year the USA produces 3 million tons of sawdust, and they
are mostly disposed in landfills [19,20]. Moreover, the open disposal of
sawdust might cause serious health-related problems [21]. For devel­
oping countries like Bangladesh and Pakistan, these issues are even more
severe, causing environmental problems such as pollution while they are
burnt off. Therefore, proper utilization of sawdust is still a great chal­
lenge and will further pose a threat to the ecology and environment [19,
22].
Recent studies have reported on the use of sawdust ash as a pozzolan
in concrete [23–25]. Siddique et al. [26] replaced fine aggregates in
concrete with sawdust and observed a significant reduction in the
workability and the hardened density with increased sawdust substitu­
tion. Similar findings were reported by Ahmed et al. [27], Chen et al.
[28], Oyedepo et al. [29], Osei and Jackson [30]. The response of the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: batool1@ualberta.ca (F. Batool), kamrul.islam@polymtl.ca (K. Islam), cakirogl@ualberta.ca (C. Cakiroglu), anjuman.shahriar@gmail.com
(A. Shahriar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103237
Received 6 January 2021; Received in revised form 24 August 2021; Accepted 1 September 2021
Available online 4 September 2021
2352-7102/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Batool et al.
hardened properties against sawdust substitution, meanwhile, has been
similar to the workability results. Ahmed et al. [27] and other studies
[29,31] also reported a consistent drop in short-term mechanical prop­
erties of sawdust concrete. Similarly, Mageswar and Vidivelli [32] re­
ported the effectiveness of utilizing sawdust ash as a replacement of sand
in concrete. In a recent report, Elinwa [33] investigated the efficacy of
using sawdust in clay bricks which ultimately reduces shrinkage. The
effect of sawdust as a replacement of limestone to produce low-cost
lightweight brick materials was studied by Turgut and Align [34].
They recommended using sawdust for manufacturing lightweight brick,
which satisfies the code requirement. Ravindrarajah et al. [35] con­
ducted an experimental study on concrete blocks made with saw dust
and observed compressive strength more than 12 MPa. Recently, Sid­
dique et al. [26] identified 5% as the optimal replacement level of sand
with sawdust and found comparable mechanical properties with the
control concrete mixture.
From the past literature, it has been observed that sawdust waste can
be a viable option to utilize as a raw material for construction to
manufacturing sustainable lightweight concrete materials. Very few
literatures were found to investigate the short- and long-term mechan­
ical and durability properties of sawdust concrete with the replacement
of sand. However, several studies focused on using sawdust ash as a
partial replacement of cement [21,23,25]. Therefore, a detailed inves­
tigation is warranted to further substantiate the use of sawdust as a
replacement of aggregate or sand. No such study has been conducted so
far to investigate the viability of proper and effective utilization of
sawdust as a replacement of sand. The insulative properties of concrete
are another important consideration (in addition to its mechanical
properties) due to rising concerns about emissions and climatic changes.
In this regard, a study by Sales et al. [36] observed a reduction in the
thermal conductivity of concrete following the addition of sawdust.
Ahmed et al. [27] recommended the use of sawdust concrete to improve
the energy efficiency of structures. A reduction of 21.4% in energy use
associated with heating and ventilation due to superior insulative
properties and a 13% reduction in CO2 emissions in a single room
constructed of sawdust concrete compared to the performance of con­
ventional concrete was reported by Ahmed et al. [27]. In another study,
Boob [37] investigated the thermal and mechanical properties of
sawdust-based cement composites and found improved performance
when fine aggerates were replaced with sawdust. Most of these studies
have investigated the short-term mechanical and thermal properties of
concrete featuring sawdust as a substitution for natural fine aggregates
(NFA). Past research has shown that although the addition of sawdust
adversely affects the mechanical properties of the concrete, it has great
potential as an alternative aggregate in medium-to low-strength con­
crete applications such as sidewalk, roadside barriers in highways and
bridges, concrete blocks, reduced strength footings, partition walls,
insulation barriers for noise control, pipe bedding, and low-risk
applications.
In many Asian countries (e.g., Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Turkey), 20
MPa concrete is used for low-rise concrete building construction, including
the casting of roofs. Japan has already given permission to use recycled
concrete for structural and non-structural applications having compressive
strength with a range of 18 MPa–45 MPa. Many developed countries like
Canada, UK, Hong Kong, Brazil permit the use of industrial waste and
recycled concrete to produce low-strength non-structural concrete. Ac­
cording to ACI 229R [38], low-strength concrete materials can have a
strength as low as 10 MPa. As such, sawdust concrete is suitable as an
alternative material for various structural and non-structural applications.
No study has been conducted to date examining the properties and per­
formance of structural and non-structural concrete materials featuring
sawdust at a replacement rate of up to 60% with NFA.
2
Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237
To address this gap, the present study explores the influence of
sawdust as a partial replacement of fine aggregates on the fresh, hard­
ened, and durability properties of concrete and correlates these effects
with hydration period, substitution ratio, and microstructure. Based on
the experimental results, the regression equations to predict the
compressive and tensile strength of sawdust concrete mixtures are
developed. It is expected that the comprehensive specifications and
optimum combination of sawdust provided through this study will aid
manufacturers in producing sawdust concrete.
1.1. Research significance
In the past, researchers have investigated the short-term mechanical
and thermal properties of sawdust concrete. However, in most cases they
have failed to provide authoritative conclusions based on the limited
amounts of experimental data and suggested a lower replacement ratio
[26–30]. Considering the amount of abundant sawdust, the current
research aims to investigate the feasibility of utilizing a higher percentage
of sawdust as an alternative to NFA to produce medium-to low-strength
concrete materials. This study serves as a proof-of-concept that sawdust can
be used effectively in concrete as a replacement of fine aggregates (up to
20%) for both structural and non-structural applications. To the authors’
knowledge, this is the first study to have explored the effect of varying the
replacement level of sawdust for the purpose of determining the upper limit
of its effective use to achieve a sustainable and durable construction ma­
terial without any pre-treatment. The use of sawdust concrete in con­
struction opens opportunities for cleaner, more sustainable infrastructure,
as well as for innovative structural and non-structural applications where
low-strength concrete is required. Given that sawdust concrete has a much
lower density compared to conventional aggregate concrete, its use also
helps to reduce the dead load of the structure, which in turn helps to reduce
foundation requirements. Furthermore, since sawdust is a waste material
with no other useful purpose or resale value, the innovative use of sawdust
as a construction material has the potential to divert a large volume of
industrial waste from landfills. Other beneficial effects of the use of sawdust
concrete may be soundproofing and heat resistance. Therefore, it can be
anticipated that this investigation will bridge the knowledge gap with
respect to understanding the influence of sawdust on the properties of
concrete and ultimately will help manufacturers to broaden the application
of sawdust concrete as an insulating material for commercial use.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Constituent materials and mix details
The sawdust was collected from a local wood industry in Bangladesh.
The sawdust was obtained from Shorea robusta wood while sawing large
timber pieces. The sawdust used in this study was air-dried and without
any prior treatment (Fig. 1). Coarser sawdust particles were removed
while selecting the materials for mix design by sieving through 4.75 mm
sieve in the initial stage. Along with sawdust, the Portland Composite
Cement (PCC) conforming to ASTM C595 [39] and aggregates following
ASTM C136 [40] were used in concrete mixtures. The PCC used in this
study is in the class of CEM II/B-M. The physical and chemical properties
of PCC are tabulated in Table 1 and the measured properties of aggre­
gates and sawdust are summarized in Table 2. Altogether, seven con­
crete mixtures were prepared with an effective water-binder ratio (w/c
ratio) of 0.45 for mechanical and sulphate resistance properties testing.
In these mixtures, the fine aggregates were replaced by sawdust in the
ratio of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, and 60%, while coarse aggregates
remained unchanged. These proportions are considered based on the
previous studies conducted by the authors and other researchers on
F. Batool et al. Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237

Fig. 1. a) Sylhet Sand; b) Sawdust before Sieve.

utilizing the industrial waste product as a replacement of natural fixed in this study to have a comparable strength according to the cur­
aggregate [12,24]. For each mixture, eighty specimens were prepared. rent industry practice. It is to be noted that all the aggregates used in this
The mixture details with other mix proportions can be found in Table 3. study were in saturated surface dry (SSD) condition.
In total, seven different concrete mixtures were prepared along with a
control concrete mixture to perform a comparative analysis of the me­ 2.2. Sample preparation
chanical properties of sawdust concrete. The strength of 25 MPa was
In this study, concrete was mixed according to the proportion details
given in Table 3. A standard mixture machine was used for concrete
Table 1
Chemical composition and physical properties of PCC. mixing. Before mixing the materials, sawdust was mixed with the sand
manually to have a uniform mixture. Then, the coarse aggregates and
Chemical Composition PCC (%)
sands were poured into the mixture machine. Finally, cement and water
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 20.60 were added in the mixture. Slump test and air content test were per­
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 3.28
formed using the freshly prepared concrete mixture. After completing
Calcium oxide (CaO) 64.82
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 2.40
the mixing process, the moulds of different sizes given in Table 4 were
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.38 filled and stored in a curing room at a controlled temperature of 24 ±
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) 0.17 2 ◦ C and humidity of 95 ± 5% for 28 days till the specified day of testing
Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) 0.10 [42].
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 4.74
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.84
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.21 2.3. Testing methods
Physical Properties

LOI 1.73
2.3.1. Mechanical properties and microstructure of concrete
Unit Weight (kg/m3) 3150 To investigate the compressive strength [43] of sawdust concrete
Specific Surface Area (m2/kg) 439.25 samples, a universal testing machine having the capacity of 1500 kN was
Colour Grey used at a controlled loading rate of 0.2 MPa/s. Also, the splitting tensile
Normal Consistency (%) 29
strength testing was carried out on the same machine following the
ASTM C496 [44] standard. Sulfur capping was used on both sides of the
Table 2 specimens to eliminate the eccentricity of loading before testing under
Physical properties of coarse aggregates, sand and sawdust. compression. The concrete prisms of size 100 mm × 100 mm ×350 mm
were tested under the four-point bending to study the flexural strength
Aggregates Water Absorption Specific Fineness D50
Type Capacity (%) Gravity Modulus (mm) of concrete samples blended with sawdust. This testing was carried out
with a constant displacement rate of 0.15 mm/min following the ASTM
Coarse 1.70 2.70 6.69 17.00
Aggregates
C78 [45] specification by using a universal testing machine with a
Sylhet Sand 4.81 2.60 2.40 0.45 flexural setup. Also, the scanning electron microscopic (SEM) was
Sawdust – 0.45 1.81 0.40 employed for examining the microstructures of sawdust concrete sam­
ples including those exposed to sulphate. The micrographs were recor­
ded for three magnifications ×500, ×1000, and ×5000, respectively, for
Table 3
in-depth details. Moreover the slump and air content test were carried in
Proportion of aggregates for different concrete mixtures.
accordance with ASTM C143 [46] and ASTM 138 [47], respectively.
Mixture Id/ Sawdust Fine Aggregates Coarse Sawdust
Series (%) (kg/m3) Aggregates (kg/ (kg/m3)
2.3.2. Sulphate resistance
m3)
For this study, the sulphate bath solution was prepared with 5% of
SD0 0 840 1260 0
sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) conforming to ASTM C1012 [48] and
SD10 10 756 1260 84
SD20 20 672 1260 168 selecting the volume of sulphate solution to the volume of cylindrical
SD30 30 588 1260 252 ratio equal to 4 ± 0.5. In this solution, the 28-day old water cured
SD40 40 504 1260 336 sawdust concrete samples were submerged for further 28 days. During
SD50 50 420 1260 420 this period, the storage containers were sealed very tightly to avoid the
SD60 60 336 1260 504
loss of moisture and the pH level of the sulphate was maintained

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F. Batool et al. Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237

Table 4
Sizes and numbers for sawdust concrete samples tested.
Testing Compressive Tensile Flexure Sulphate Resistance

Size of Samples 100 mm × 200 mm 100 mm × 200 mm 100mm × 100mm × 350 mm 100 mm × 200 mm
Shape of Samples Cylinder Cylinder Prism Cylinder
Testing at Hydration Age 7th,14th,28th, 56th 7th,14th,28th, 56th 7th,14th,28th, 56th 56th
Mixture Tested Seven Mixtures Seven Mixtures Seven Mixtures Seven Mixtures
# of Samples used for Mean & St Dev/hydration age 5 5 5 5
Total Samples Casted 140 140 140 35

between 6.5 and 7 and temperature at 23 ± 2. After 28 days of exposure
to sulphate, the samples were tested for strength and microstructural
morphology.
3. Test results and discussions
3.1. Physical properties of sawdust
Fig. 2 presents the particle size distribution curve for the sawdust and
sand used in this study. It can be noticed that the particle size distri­
bution curve of sawdust is slightly finer than sand with an average
particle size (D50) value of 0.40 mm (Table 2). The high-water ab­
sorption capacity and low specific gravity properties of this wood
sawdust are quite evident from Table 2. In addition, most of the sawdust
particles were found in an irregular shape with micropores on the sur­
face and deep yellow to dark brown in color (Fig. 3). A similar
microstructure of sawdust was reported by Elinwa and Abdulkadir [49],
Corinaldesi et al. [50], and Duan et al. [51].
3.2. Effect of sawdust on the microstructure of concrete mixtures
The micrographs of sawdust concrete mixtures examined under the
scanning electron microscope (SEM) are illustrated in Fig. 4a–f. These
images were taken at ×500 magnification after the 28th day of water
curing. The addition of sawdust had created openings, voids, and
interface gaps in the microstructure of concrete, and this was found
irrespective of sawdust content (Fig. 4). Especially, those mixtures
blended with higher sawdust substitution had more visible and larger
openings along with voids/gaps (Fig. 4e and f). Moreover, the concrete
matrix was found denser in the presence of sawdust. This was expected
because the density of concrete reduces with higher substitution. As
expected, crystalline products like portlandite, ettringite, and calcium
silicate hydrate were also seen in the micrographs indicating the
ongoing process of hydration.

3.3. Effect of sawdust on workability of concrete mixtures

Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and
sawdust used in concrete mixtures.
Table 5 presents the results of the slump and air content for the
concrete mixtures blended with sawdust. During the preparation of
samples, the water/cement ratio was kept constant to identify the in­
fluence of sawdust in concrete mixtures as a replacement for fine ag­
gregates. The slump values of the concrete mixtures decrease with the
higher content of sawdust with the difference of almost 85% recorded
between the SD10 and SD60 mixtures. This implies that the workability
of the concrete mixtures decreases with the addition of sawdust and gets
more pronounced with higher content. Similar results were reported by
Oyedepo et al. [29] and Ahmed et al. [27]. Next, the air content values
were noticed increasing with the higher sawdust percentages. This was
not surprising as opening and voids are evident in micrographs of Fig. 4,
indicating the high porosity. Also, the density of sawdust concrete de­
creases with higher substitution, which is primarily due to low specific
gravity of sawdust (Table 2) in comparison with fine aggregates.

Fig. 3. Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) images of sawdust particle.

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F. Batool et al. Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237

Fig. 4. SEM micrographs for sawdust concrete mixtures: a) SD0; b) SD10; c) SD20; d) SD30; e) SD40; f) SD50.

3.4. Effect of sawdust on hardened concrete density

Table 5
Slump and air content of sawdust concrete samples.
The results of the average hardened concrete density for different
Mixture Id/ Slump Air Content (%) Density @ 28th Day (kg/ concrete mixtures are shown in Table 5. It can be noticed that the control
Series (mm) m3) concrete showed a higher density than sawdust concrete. However, with
SD0 85 5.53 2389 the increment of sawdust replacement level, the density of hardened
SD10 75 7.20 2323 concrete gradually decreases. Also, the 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60%
SD20 59 8.96 2263
SD concrete mixtures were found to be 5.3%, 7.2%, 10%, 13% and 18%
SD30 36 11.23 2217
SD40 22 12.10 2140 lighter in density compared to the control concrete specimen. This drop
SD50 15 12.94 2086 is primarily due to the lower specific gravity of sawdust particles which
SD60 11 14.13 1970 is much lower than fine aggregates. This reduction in density cannot be
classified as lightweight concrete; however, low-density SD concrete
will reduce the dead load of the structure.

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F. Batool et al. Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237

Fig. 5. Compressive strength of sawdust concrete for different hydration age (with standard deviation bar).

Fig. 6. Tensile strength of sawdust concrete for different hydration age (with standard deviation bar).

3.5. Effect of sawdust on compressive strength of concrete
The compressive strength of the concrete mixtures blended with
sawdust in the ratio of 10–60% is illustrated in Fig. 5. As seen, the strength
gain of sawdust concrete mixtures was lower in comparison with reference
mixtures (SD0). This difference is not significant for 10% replacement level
of sawdust (i.e., SD10) in fact, the target compressive strength value of
SD10 was achieved in 56th days. Moreover, the difference becomes sig­
nificant with the increased content of sawdust which is primarily due to the
porous nature of sawdust and high-water absorption capacity. Thus,
leaving insufficient water for the hydration process. Vaidkelionis and
Vaickelionene [52] explained this lower compressive strength due to the
hydration process, which gets slower in the presence of wood extractives.
As seen in Fig. 5, the strength gain was progressive with the hydration age
in the mixtures, including those with high sawdust substitution. At 7 days,
the control concrete and 10% SDC gained around 70% of the design
compressive strength whereas 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% SDC showed
12%, 67%, 73%, 82%, and 91% lower strengths compared to the design
compressive strength. This is mainly due to the variation in chemical
composition between sawdust and NFA, resulting in a weaker bond in the

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F. Batool et al. Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237

Fig. 7. Comparison between the predicted and observed values: a) Compressive Strength; b) Tensile Strength.

Fig. 8. Flexural strength of sawdust concrete for different hydration age (with standard deviation bar).

maximum strength of 24.5 MPa for medium strength and 20% (SD10) can
Table 6 be considered for low strength concrete material having a compressive
Flexural response of sawdust concrete samples for 28th days. strength of 18.6 MPa. The mixtures with sawdust as a replacement for NFA
Mixture Sawdust Macrocrack Macrocrack Ultimate Flexural exhibited reduced compressive strength compared to conventional con­
Id/Series (%) Load (kN) Toughness Load (kN) Stress crete, but they were still found to comply with ACI 229R [38].
(N-m) (MPa)

SD0 0 12.36 6.44 16.22 5.26

SD10 10 10.48 4.38 13.43 3.90 3.6. Effect of sawdust on tensile strength of concrete
SD20 20 10.10 3.13 11.34 3.33
SD30 30 6.13 2.56 6.96 1.91 Fig. 6 presents the tensile strength of sawdust concrete mixtures. The
SD40 40 3.32 1.36 4.85 1.72
SD50 50 2.96 0.98 3.87 1.24
addition of sawdust resulting in the reduction of tensile strength is quite
SD60 60 1.79 0.70 2.59 0.84 evident. However, the SD10 mixture in comparison with SD0 had shown
improved strength on the 56th day of hydration which is 14% higher
than the SD0 mixture. Micropores filling effect could be the reason for
hardened concrete matrix. The weak interfacial transition zones (ITZ) be­ this rise, as is also evident from SEM images of Fig. 4b, which in com­
tween aggregates and cement paste normally lower the compressive parison with other images have fewer cracks and voids. Ahmed et al.
strength, especially with higher sawdust content [26]. These changes are [27] observed heterogenous discontinuity within the concrete matrix
quite evident from SEM images presented in Fig. 4. Another potential cause with the presence of sawdust which creates weaker ITZ resulting in
of the decrease in compressive strength might be the porous nature of lower tensile strength. Similarly, Siddique et al. [24] also noticed higher
sawdust and reduced hardened concrete density as shown in Table 5. In tensile strength during the later hydration period and explained this
comparison with all sawdust concrete mixtures, 10% (SD10) can be change due to micropores filing effects. In addition, Fig. 6 also reveals a
considered as the optimum replacement of fine aggregates with a significant drop of strength in mixtures with sawdust substitution

7
F. Batool et al.
Fig. 9. Compressive strength of sawdust concrete after exposure to sulphate.
greater than 20%. According to Chowdhury et al. (2015) [15], this
reduction can be attributed due to weak bonding between sawdust
particle and cement mortar.
3.7. Predicted equation for compressive and tensile strength
The mathematical equations for predicting the compressive and tensile
strength of sawdust concrete were formulated by following the regression
analysis. This operation which was performed by statistical analysis soft­
ware (SPSS), resulted in a multiple linear regression model presented in
Equations (1) and (2). The data for compressive and tensile strength pre­
sented in Figs. 5 and 6 were used during the analysis. These equations can
predict for sawdust substitution ratio of 0–60% and hydration age of 7th to
56th day. Two variables, “t” age of the concrete and “r” sawdust replace­
ment ratio, were included as independent variables while the compressive
(fcs) and tensile strength (fts) as the dependent variables. The SPSS output
results indicate that the adjusted R-square values were 90% and 75%,
respectively for compressive and tensile strength equations. Also, the sta­
tistical test for the two models was proven to be significant as the p-values
associated with the F-test and the t-test were less than 0.001. The validation
results are of equations (1) and (2) are presented in Fig. 7a and b, and as
seen, the models are predicting the strength for sawdust concrete (for all
mixtures) with reasonable accuracy.
fcs = 11.65 + 3.5 ln (t) – 38.2(r) (1)
fts = 1.66 + 0.29 ln (t) – 4.28(r) (2)
where,
fcs = compressive strength of sawdust concrete
fts = tensile strength of sawdust concrete
t = age of concrete (hydration days)
r = sawdust substitution ratio (fractions)
3.8. Effect of sawdust on flexural strength of concrete
The influence of sawdust on the flexural strength of the concrete
mixtures is demonstrated in Fig. 8. It can be noticed that the addition of
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Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237
sawdust as a replacement of fine aggregates resulted in reduced flexural
strength. This reduction in strength in comparison with SD0 becomes
significant with increased substitution of sawdust has also been noticed
for compressive and tensile strength. The weaker bond between the
sawdust particle and concrete could be the reason for this reduction as
explained by Chowdhury et al. [25]. In comparison with other sawdust
mixtures, SD10 was found optimum with 3.94 MPa. Like tensile
strength, the mixtures greater than 20% had also gained almost the same
strength for 7th,14th, 28th, and 56th days. Also, the flexural strength for
10% substitution was found lower in comparison with tensile strength.
56th days mean flexural strength was decreased by 27% (for SD10), 37%
(for SD20), 62% (for SD30), 69% (for SD40), 76% (for SD50) and 83%
(for SD60), respectively compared to the control concrete mixes.
In view of these results, Chowdhury et al. [25] is justified in stating
that the addition of sawdust in a higher ratio increases the gap or space
between the particle in the cement matrix. Also, the possibility of the
sawdust getting swelled due to high-water absorption cannot be ignored.
In addition, the macrocracks load at which sudden widening of cracks
happened without further increase in load, and then the related mac­
rocracks toughness for the sawdust concrete mixtures, are presented in
Table 6. A sharp decline in macrocrack and ultimate load can be noticed
in mixture with more than 20% sawdust substitution, whereas the drop
in toughness and stress was gradual. This can be anticipated due to the
formation of wide openings and gaps in the microstructure (Fig. 4) of
mixtures with the higher sawdust content. Another possible reason of
reducing the flexural strength with the increasing percentage of sawdust
is due to the larger interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between cement
paste and sawdust, as observed from the micrographs. The possibility of
sawdust particles acting as fibers could not be ignored as anticipated by
toughness and tensile strength results.
3.9. Effect of sulphate on sawdust and microstructure analysis
The durability of sawdust concrete is examined through sulphate
testing which is an effective way to quantify the resistance of concrete
material under sulphate attack. Sulphate has a detrimental influence on
hardened concrete specimens, and when concrete is exposed to
F. Batool et al. Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237

Fig. 10. SEM micrographs for sawdust concrete mixtures after exposure to sulphate: a) SD0; b) SD10; c) SD20; d) SD30; e) SD40; f) SD50.

Fig. 11. 28-days compression failure pattern of: a) SD0; b) SD10; c) SD20.
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F. Batool et al.
Fig. 12. Failure modes of various concrete batches after flexural strength tests: (a) SD0; (b) SD10; (c) SD20.
sulphate-rich solution, SO4− ions ingress into the concrete matrix, and
further dissolute portlandite and C3A to form ettringite and gypsum. The
formation of expansive products like ettringite and gypsum helps gain
initial strength through filling the pores in the concrete matrix. How­
ever, in the long term they cause volume expansion of the concrete
matrix, and thereby formation of cracking takes place in the concrete.
This phenomenon has been clearly observed through SEM images pro­
vided in Fig. 10. The effect of sulphate on the compressive strength of
concrete mixtures blended with sawdust is presented in Fig. 9. As was
seen, the mixtures of sawdust after exposure to sulphate for 28 days led
to an increase in the compressive strength. This gain in strength was
consistent in all sawdust mixtures with a maximum increase of 25% in
SD50. After sulphate exposure, the compressive strength increased up to
6.2% for the control concrete specimen. In contrast, for 10%–60%
sawdust content, the compressive strength increased to a considerable
10
Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237
extent and increment percentages were found to be 3.6%, 5.2%, 23.8%,
28.7%, 32.6%, and 16.8% respectively. Mamun et al. [53] explain this
improvement in strength due to the formation of ettringite products as
most of the crack and other openings get filled due to the formation of
crystalline hydrated products. Similar hydrated products especially the
ettringites can easily be noticed in SEM micrographs of sawdust concrete
samples exposed to Sulphate (Fig. 10e and f). Moreover, as the PCC was
used, concrete matrix shows improved ITZ due to pozzolanic reaction by
forming secondary C–S–H which further reduces the sulphate attack,
and thereby delays the compressive strength reduction. In addition, the
microstructure of Fig. 10 seems to be dense with minor cracks and
smaller openings as compared to Fig. 4. This implies that sawdust con­
crete samples can easily withstand the sulphate attack for 28 days. The
SEM images clearly showed that the sulphate-rich environment helps fill
the pores of the concrete matrix into gypsum (CaSO4) and ettringite
F. Batool et al. Journal of Building Engineering 44 (2021) 103237

Table 7
Economy index for different concrete mixtures.
Mixture Id/Series Cement (kg) NCA (kg) NFA (kg) Total cost of Compressive Economy Index
Concrete/m3 (USD) Strength (MPa) (Strength/Cost)

SD0 420 1260 840 89.75 28.14 0.31

USD 46.20 USD 34.81 USD 8.74
SD10 420 1260 756 88.87 24.52 0.28
USD 46.20 USD 34.81 USD 7.86
SD20 420 1260 672 88.0 18.61 0.21
USD 46.20 USD 34.81 USD 6.99
SD30 420 1260 588 87.12 10.27 0.12
USD 46.20 USD 34.81 USD 6.11
SD40 420 1260 504 86.25 7.81 0.10
USD 46.20 USD 34.81 USD 5.24
SD50 420 1260 420 85.38 5.74 0.07
USD 46.20 USD 34.81 USD 4.37

(C3A.3CaSO4⋅32H2O). Similar phenomena have been observed by Huda
[41] and Quadir et al. [12] while submerging the concrete samples
under sulphate-rich environment. However, further exposure to sul­
phate could reduce strength, which needs more investigation along with
other influencing parameters.
3.10. Failure pattern of concrete cylinders and beams
The failure pattern of concrete cylinders under compressive loading
is shown in Fig. 11. All the concrete specimens showed shear-type fail­
ure. It can be noticed that the inclusion of sawdust in the concrete
mixture does not change the failure pattern of the hardened concrete
under compression. Similar observations were recorded for concrete
prisms when tested under flexural loading condition (Fig. 12). Both the
control and sawdust concrete showed flexural failure mode, and a sud­
den drop in the load was observed during the testing.
3.11. Cost analysis
The cost analysis of different concrete mixtures made with wood
waste sawdust has been presented in Table 7. The economic index has
been quantified by dividing the compressive strength of a particular
concrete mixture by the cost of one cubic meter of materials which will
help in identifying the optimum sawdust mix ratio. For estimating the
total cost of a batch, the cost of cement, NCA, and NFA are taken into
consideration, whereas sawdust and water are not considered. It is to be
noted that the cost of sawdust will not affect this cost estimation as it is
obtained from sawmill as free material and used as a better approach
rather than piling up on landfills or using it as a burning agent for
cooking in rural areas. Proper utilization of sawdust in concrete will
conserve the environment by reducing the use of natural resources,
reducing the volume of waste material, and reducing CO2 emissions.
Table 7 shows that the 10–20% sawdust content can be considered as the
optimum limit compared to the control concrete mixture.
4. Concluding remarks
This study investigated the fresh, hardened, and durability properties
of SD concrete at different replacement levels of NFA with sawdust.
Based on the experimental results of this investigation, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
concrete mixtures was found inversely relating to sawdust replace­
ment content which could be due to differences in specific gravity.
• The density of sawdust concrete mixtures decreases with the sawdust
replacement that could be helpful in producing lightweight concrete.
• The presence of sawdust as a fine aggregate replacement had shown
reduced compressive and flexural strength. This reduction gets sig­
nificant with higher substitution; however, 10% substitution can be
considered as the optimum replacement of fine aggregates if strength
is not a great concern.
• A sharp decline in the macrocrack and the ultimate load was recor­
ded in sawdust concrete mixtures with more than 20% substitution
with the possibility of sawdust particles acting as fibers in these
mixes.
• Replacement of sawdust up to 10% had shown 14% improvement in
the tensile strength at a mature age, while substitution greater than
20% had adversely worsened the strength.
• Exposure of sulphate for 28 days improves the compressive strength
of sawdust concrete mixtures with increases of 25% was recorded
with 50% substitution. This could be due to the formation of
ettringites, reducing the cracks and size of the opening.
Future studies should be carried out to investigate the thermo-
mechanical properties, chemical compositions of hydration products
in sawdust concrete, and EDS analyses of fractured sawdust concrete.
Author contributions
Conceptualization: Farnaz Batool and Kamrul Islam; Formal analysis:
Farnaz Batool and Kamrul Islam; Funding acquisition: Kamrul Islam and
Anjuman Shahriar; Investigation: Farnaz Batool; Methodology: Farnaz
Batool, Kamrul Islam and Celal Cakiroglu; Writing – original draft:
Farnaz Batool and Kamrul Islam; Writing – review & editing: Farnaz
Batool, Kamrul Islam Celal Cakiroglu and Anjuman Shahriar; Project
Administration: Kamrul Islam and Celal Cakiroglu.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment

• The addition of sawdust resulted in openings, cracks, and interface
gaps in the cement matrix. Those concrete mixtures blended with
higher sawdust substitution had more visible and wider openings
identified by SEM images.
• The inclusion of sawdust in higher content reduces the workability of
the mixtures. A reduction of almost 85% was recorded in slump
values for SD10 and SD60 mixtures. Also, the density of sawdust
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support pro­
vided by CATS-MIST and NED University of Engineering & Technology,
Pakistan. The second author would like to recognize the start-up fund
provided by CE-MIST in the academic year 2014–2016. The authors
appreciate suggestions from Dr. Muntasir Billah on the manuscript. The
authors appreciate the support received from the laboratory technicians
of Concrete Lab and Strength of Materials Lab. Special thanks to the

11
F. Batool et al.
former research assistants Upal M. Towfiqul Quadir, Devabrata Dutta
and Arun Acharjee, and two undergraduate students Md. Mohinul Islam
and Irfan Chowdhury who helped during the experimental program as a
part of their final project.
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