Metal Casting

1. Fundamentals: Melting - Pouring - Fluidity

and Fluid Flow - Gating system -
Solidification.
2. Processes (Expendable Mould Casting
and Permanent Mold Casting ): Examples
3. Cleaning, Finishing and Tolerances
4. Continuous Casting
5. Defects
6. Inspection and Tests
7. Heat Treatment
8. Design of Casting
9. Cost Evaluation
 Part 2

Fluid Flow and Gating System

Design
References:
[1] Serope Kalpakjian & Steven R. Schmid, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”,
Any edition (2001 to 2008), Prentice Hall.

[2] Prof. Karl B. Rundman: Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, Michigan Tech.
University, “Metal Casting”, http://samme.parsaspace.com/METAL%20CASTING.pdf

[3] U.K.Singh. Manish Dwivedi, “Manufacturing Processes”, New Age International

Publishers, 2009.

[4] Jaromir Roučka et al., “Casting Alloy Filtration”, Brono, 2000.

[5] John Campbell and Richard A. Harding, “The Fluidity of Molten Metals”, IRC in
Materials, The University of Birmingham,
[6] B. Borowiecki*, O. Borowiecka, E. Szkodzińka, “Casting defects analysis by the Pareto
method”, A R C H I V ES o f F O U N D R Y ENG IN EER I NG V o l u me 1 1 , S p e c i a l I s s u
e3/2011,33-36
[7] Rajesh Rajkolhe, J. G. Khan, “Defects, Causes and Their Remedies in Casting Process:
A Review”, International Journal of Research in Advent Technology, Vol.2, No.3, March
2014 E-ISSN: 2321-9637, pp.375-383

[8] Castings – System of dimensional tolerances and machining allowance, International

Standard – ISO 8062
 Fluid Flow and Gating System Design
- A major factor in making a good casting is the ability to get the metal from the
container into the mold with a minimum of turbulence, slag, entrapped sand or other
materials in the mold or molten metal system which could get swept into the mold
cavity [2].
- Through the gating system (sprue, runners, and gates , Fig. ), the molten metal is fed
to the mold cavity.
-The traveling speed of molten metal, its shrinkage, turbulence, and trapping dross
are controlled by the gating system. Some positions and characteristics of runners,
gates, and risers are shown in Fig.
 Gating system
Basic elements of gating system
Classification of gating system based on position of ingates
Gating system with filter
Requirements needed in gating system to achieve a free casting defects:

1-The mould should be completely filled in the smallest time possible without having
to rise metal temperature.
2-The metal should flow smoothly into the mould.
3-The unwanted material –slag –should not be allowed to enter the mould cavity.
4-The metal entry into the mould cavity should be controlled.
5-A proper thermal gradient be maintained.
6-Metal flow should be maintained to avoid erosion.
7-Be ensure that enough molten metal reaches the mould cavity.
8-The gating system should be economical and easy to implement and remove after
casting solidification.
9-The casting yield should be maximized.

Factors controlling the functioning of gating system:

-Type of pouring equipment, such as ladles, pouring basin etc.

-Temperature/Fluidity of molten metal.
-Rate of liquid metal pouring.
-Type and size of sprue.
-Type and size of runner.
-Size, number and location of gates connecting runner and casting.
-Position of mould during pouring and solidification.
Pouring Basin

• A pouring basin makes it easier for the ladle or crucible operator to direct
the flow of metal from crucible to sprue.
• Helps maintaining the required rate of liquid metal flow.
• Reduces turbulence at the sprue entrance.
• Helps separating dross, slag etc., from metal before it enters the sprue.
Pouring basin design
considerations.

Pouring cup with a

strainer core (a) and
ceramic foam filter (b).
Various pouring cup
designs that are cut in
the mold: (a) conical; (b)
semi conical; (c) square.

Pouring basin designs: (a)

cut in the mold;
(b) made as an extension
of the mold of dry sand or
as a separately made core.
Sprue

• A sprue feeds metal to runner which in turn reaches the casting through
gates.
• A sprue is tapered with its bigger end at top to receive the liquid metal.
The smaller end is connected to runner.

• As the liquid metal passes down the sprue it loses its pressure head but
gains velocity.
• To reduce turbulence and promote Laminar Flow, from the Pouring
Basin, the flow begins a near vertical incline that is acted upon by gravity
and with an accelerative gravity force
Consider the following simple fluid flow system.
Notes:
- Pouring basin remains full at all times.
- Liquid metal is leaving at Efflux point.
- Assume pouring basin is impermeable.
Law of Conservation of Mass
Along a line of flow matter is conserved so that [2]
A 2 v 2 = A 3 v3
where A2 and A3 are the cross-sectional areas at points 2 and 3 and v2 and v3 are the
fluid velocities at points 2 and 3.

- For the tapered sprues ( Fig. ), assuming that:

* The pressure at the top of the sprue = The pressure at the bottom [1]
* No frictional losses [1].
The relationship between height and cross-sectional area at any point in the sprue is
given by [1]:

(A1)/(A2) =

Where, A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of the sprue top and bottom, respectively.
h1 and h2 are the heights of the sprue top and bottom, respectively.
Law of Conservation of Energy (Bernoulli’s Law)
Energy, E, along a line of flow in a fluid can be expressed as [2]:
E = h + v2/2g + P/ρ + z
where:
E = energy in units of length (for ease of calculation)
h = Potential Energy or Head
v2/2g = Kinetic Energy
z = Catch-all term Containing Energy Losses due to Friction, Turbulence, Heat Loss
h = distance, in.
v = velocity, in/sec
g = acceleration of gravity, 384 in / sec2
P = Pressure, lbs / in2
ρ = Density, lbs / in3

Ideally the catch-all term z is equal to zero.

Bernoulli’s Law states that energy is conserved along a line of flow [2], so that at any
two points:
E1 = E2
and therefore h1 + v12/2g + P1/ρ = h2 + v22/2g + P2/ρ
Velocity at the Efflux Point
The velocity of flow within a gating system will determine the time required
to fill a mold cavity [2].
Using Bernoulli’s Law at points 1 and 3 gives:
h1 + v12/2g + P1/ρ = h3 + v32/2g + P3/ρ
Using the convention that the head is measured relative to the Efflux point,
then h3 = 0. Assuming that the system is operating in normal conditions of 1
atmosphere, then the free surfaces at points 1 and 3 require that P1 = P3 =
14.7 lbs /in2. Finally, the assumption is always made that the pouring basin
remains full so that at point 1, v1 = 0 in / sec. Therefore, Bernoulli’s Law
reduces for points 1 and 3 to:
v3 = (2gh)1/2
Or v3 = 27.71 (h)1/2
This velocity would also represent the velocity at the ingate in a so-called
“pressurized” gating system, a system in which the smallest cross-sectional
area (the choke) occurs at the ingate.
In this situation, then, the above velocity equation can be used to estimate

mold cavity filling time, tF.

tF = (Volume of Casting) / (vi Ai)
vi is the velocity at ingate, and Ai is the ingate area.
A typical gating system contains a pouring basin, a downsprue, a sprue well, a runner
(usually in the drag), and ingates (usually in the cope on the parting line of the casting).
This system is illustrated below for a riserless casting together with a calculation which
uses the above velocity relationship to estimate casting filling time.

The above ratio of sprue base area to runner cross sectional area to ingate area is called
the gating ratio, a common way to quantitatively describe gating systems. Filling times
for just such a casting has been experimentally measured at Michigan Tech for a number
of years in which the head (Distance from top of pouring basin to the parting line) and
the ingate cross sectional area were independently varied to control flow rates.
Number of Gates in System:
- The number of gates needed to fill a casting cavity in an acceptable
time is determined by the size of the casting as well as the casting
complexity, both factors which are dealt with using experience and a
certain amount of common sense.

- Consider a plate casting (30 in. x 20 in. x 4 in.) which needs to be

filled uniformly and quickly.

- The simplest gating configuration is shown , in which one gate is

attached to a short runner leading from the sprue well.

- While this method would seem to be the most straightforward way to

fill the mold, it becomes clear when considering the basics of heat
transfer that the metal that is required to pass the length of the plate
could conceivably solidify before the end of the plate is reached.

- In fact, it is likely that this casting would contain some cold shuts,
defects in which the metal does in fact solidify followed by more
liquid thereby leaving an interface between successive volumes of
metal. In fact, many cold shuts may appear within one casting.
- The solution to this problem is one in
which a gating system is constructed
so that the metal enters the cavity at
the same time from several gates
located at convenient places around
the plate . A better gating scenario is
illustrated above (See gates A1, A2, and
A3 in the sketch) in which several gates
are positioned on either side of the
plate casting.
- The dimensions of these gates are
adjusted so that metal flow rate from
each is nearly equivalent, so that no
opportunities arise to allow the
development of the cold shuts which
occurred in the poor gating
configuration.
- Uniform metal flow will require that A1
> A2 > A3 because of momentum
effects of the molten metal rushing
down the runner (It would just as soon
continue in a straight line if possible).
- The gating system above also contains sand traps (ST) at the
ends of the long runners which would be the place to which the
first metal in the runners would be found. This first metal would
most likely contain loose sand from the molding process in
addition to being the coldest metal into the system.

- The remaining metal will have the benefit of traveling through a

gating system in which heat has already been added to the
molding sand and therefore will not be expected to cool down as
much.

- Many other design features are possible to add to gating systems

to accomplish the goal of delivering molten metal in a timely way,
free from entrapped sand, slag or other foreign material supplied
either by the mold, by the metal, or even created during the
pouring operation.

- Details of these features can be found in texts dealing

specifically with gating design, i.e., from the American
Foundrymen’s Society (AFS).
Typical design of horizontal gating system with risers used
for casting alloys prone to solidification shrinkage.
3-D model of the test casting with attached gating system.
Typical design of vertical gating system used in vertically
parted sand automatic molding lines and shell molding.
Risers and Riser Design
•General design rules for riser necks used in iron castings;
a. General riser
b. Side riser for plates
c. Top round riser

a. General riser
b. Side riser for plates
c. Top round riser
Gating System Design
 CASTING ALLOY FILTRATION

INTRODUCTION
Alloy filtration is now an integral part of casting technology. It helps to
achieve high-quality castings, and, moreover, it is instrumental in removing
defects and production difficulties.

Filtration has mainly been applied to low-temperature casting alloys –

especially to aluminum alloys, and this method is also often used for ductile
cast irons. The goal of filtration is to capture both the non-metallic inclusions
that penetrate into the gating system from the ladle and the inclusions that
arise in the course of pouring. This "refining" of melts results in increased
homogeneity of the metal, improved mechanical properties, removal of many
metallurgical defects, improvement of casting surfaces and (which is
sometimes surprising and often not fully appreciated) significantly improved
machinability. Many foundries use filtration to increase surface quality and
machinability. However, filtration is rarely used for steel. The main obstacle to
a larger exploitation of filtration is mainly its high pouring temperature and
other related problems. However, fast progress can be witnessed in this field.
Filters are mainly used in sand moulds, and filtration plays an important role
in investment casting.
The application of filters entails additional costs. If the filtration effect is
assessed in a wide range of the production process and improved sale
ability, it can be said that the price of filters is negligible compared to the
effect achieved, and that filtration is very economic.

Inclusions
According to their composition, inclusions fall into two groups – metallic
inclusions and non-metallic inclusions.

Non-metallic inclusions are found in castings much more frequently, and

their effect is more harmful than that of metallic inclusions.
The main sources of inclusions are as follows:
· slag - metal oxidation products
· refractory materials
· refining agent residua
· mould materials and erosion products from moulds and cores
· eroded paints
· endogenous inclusions formed in consequence of the metallurgical
reactions in metal
· non-dissolved inoculant/alloying addition residua
 (b)
(a)

Examples of inclusions in ductile iron

a) Magnesium silicate inclusion sticking to the filter

b) Dispersed MgS inclusions
c)Solid inclusion fixed to a filter wall

(c)
 FILTER TYPES: Examples
Ceramic elements that are designed to capture
inclusions in the gating systems are usually divided into
strainer cores and filters.

Strainer cores
- (Fig.) are flat ceramic bodies with straight circular
holes with diameters from 4 to 10 mm, and thickness
values from 6 to 12 mm, which capture primary slag
at the beginning of pouring, when the pouring basin is
still unfilled.

- The strainer cores are usually placed on the bottom of

the pouring basin at the foot of the sprue,
exceptionally in another place of the gating system.

- In addition to capturing coarse impurities, they have

further advantages, for example, they speed up the
filling of the pouring basin, prevent the appearance of
vortexes above the sprue and reduce metal Ceramic strainer cores
turbulence.

- The inclusions are captured only by the straining

mechanism.
Filters usually work in a different way. The size of filter pores is considerably
lower than in strainer cores, ranging usually from 1 to 2.5 mm. The refining
mechanism consists in blocking the large inclusions on the inlet filter side (similar to
strainer cores) but, in addition, the mechanisms of "filter cake" and "depth filtration"
play a role in capturing inclusions. In this way, considerably smaller inclusions than
the size of filter holes can be captured, i.e., only a few micrometers in size.

Flow cross section of a filter

Flat filters
Due to their "two-dimensional" pores, flat filters
act as strainer cores. All impurities larger than
the dimensions of filter holes, sometimes also
smaller particles, get captured on the filter inlet
side, where a filter cake is formed. The depth
filtration does not come into play here (or its
share is very low). Metal gratings, but more
often woven textiles produced from refractory
fibers, are employed as flat filters.
Flat woven filter
The cloth filters are inserted in the mould
parting planes such that they overlap the flow
profile on each side by at least 10 – 15 mm. The
method of positioning is shown in Fig. Due to
their low thermal capacity; it is possible to
place many filters in one mould at different
sites. This allows impurities that have entered
the mould with molten metal to be captured on
the first filter, and to remove other, tiny
inclusions that have been formed due to the
flow in the gating system. The filters are used
without a frame or with a reinforcing frame. Cloth filter for the pouring basin
The filter should be positioned horizontally in
the gating system. This type of filter is very suitable for
precision casting by the method of lost
wax pattern. Filters in the shape of
baskets are used, they are easy to
insert into the pouring basin funnel.

Positioning filters in a mould

DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM

POSITIONING FILTERS IN GATING SYSTEM

There are a number of possibilities of

positioning the filter in the gating system. In
principle, they can be divided into two groups:
Direct pouring – the filter is in horizontal
position so that the metal flow impinges
directly on the filter (Fig.). This method is used Transition from turbulent to laminar
for the positioning of filters in the pouring cup flow of metal due to a filter
or in moulds with vertical parting plane.
Positioning the filter in the parting plane below
the sprue is used in practice very often but
there is a danger of filter rupture due to the
dynamic impact of the metal. The danger of
rupture exists particularly when the sprue is
very high or when pouring from a ladle with
bottom outlet.
If direct pouring is applied, only 1 filter can be
employed in one mould.
Direct pouring on a filter
Indirect pouring –
the filter is placed in a
special chamber in the
gating system so that it is
not loaded directly by
the stream of falling
metal. Depending on
their position with
respect to the direction
of metal flow the filters
can be situated:
· perpendicular to flow
direction – Fig. a,b
· parallel with inflowing
metal – Fig. c
· slanting – Fig. d
 DIMENSIONING GATING SYSTEM WITH FILTERS
Gate systems with filters should always be designed as system without overpressure – acting
as the choke is the sprue or the narrowing where the sprue opens into the distribution runner.
It is recommended that the cross sections of the sprue, the distribution runner and the
ingates should be in the following ratio:
Ssprue : Srunner. : Singate = 1 : 1.1 : 1.2
Filter flow area

To avoid throttling the gating system by the filter cross section, it is recommended that the
minimum ratio of the filter flow area Sf to choke Sch is chosen as suggested in the
following Table:
With respect to flow rate, the size of filter is given by the relation:

Filter area = Metal quantity / Filter flow rate

where: Filter area – cm2
Metal quantity – kg
Flow rate – kg/cm2

For example, to pour 100 kg of ductile iron through a filter with a porosity of 10 ppi,
a flow rate of 2 kg/cm2 may be expected. The minimum filter flow area must then be
100/2 = 50 cm2. This corresponds to a square filter with dimensions of 75 x 75 mm.