ferrous and non-ferrous metals

Ferrous Metals:

1. Strength and Durability: Ferrous metals, especially steel, exhibit high strength and
durability, making them suitable for heavy-duty equipment in chemical processes.
They can withstand high temperatures, pressure, and mechanical stresses.
2. Magnetic Properties: Ferrous metals are typically magnetic, which can be
advantageous in certain applications such as magnetic separators and equipment
involving magnetic fields.
3. Corrosion Susceptibility: Ferrous metals are prone to rust and corrosion, which can
be a limitation in chemical engineering environments where exposure to corrosive
substances is common. However, with proper coatings and treatments, their
corrosion resistance can be enhanced.
4. Weldability and Formability: Ferrous metals, particularly steel, are known for their
weldability and formability, allowing for various fabrication techniques like welding,
bending, and shaping to create complex equipment structures.

Non-Ferrous Metals:

1. Corrosion Resistance: Non-ferrous metals, such as stainless steel, aluminum, and

titanium, offer excellent resistance to corrosion, which is crucial in chemical
engineering applications where exposure to corrosive chemicals is prevalent.
2. Lightweight: Many non-ferrous metals have lower density than ferrous metals,
making them lightweight and suitable for applications where weight reduction is
desired. For example, aluminum is commonly used for fabricating lightweight heat
exchangers.
3. Conductivity: Some non-ferrous metals, like copper and aluminum, have good
electrical and thermal conductivity. They are utilized in heat exchangers, electrical
wiring, and other equipment requiring efficient heat transfer or electrical
conductivity.
4. Non-Magnetic: Non-ferrous metals are generally non-magnetic, which can be
advantageous in certain chemical processes where magnetic interference should be
avoided.

In chemical engineering equipment fabrication, the selection of ferrous or non-

ferrous metals depends on factors such as the specific application, the environment
(corrosive or non-corrosive), temperature and pressure requirements, mechanical
stresses, and cost considerations. Engineers consider these properties to ensure the
fabricated equipment meets the desired performance, safety, and durability
standards in chemical processes.
 lining And material used for lining

Lining refers to the process of covering the internal surface of a structure or

equipment with a protective material to enhance its durability, resistance to
corrosion, wear, and other forms of damage.

1. Purpose of Lining: Lining serves to protect the base material or structure from
chemical attack, abrasion, erosion, permeation, temperature extremes, and other
harsh operating conditions. It can also provide a smooth surface to improve flow
characteristics, prevent contamination, or facilitate easy cleaning.
2. Rubber Lining: Rubber linings are widely used due to their excellent resistance to
chemical attack, abrasion, and impact. They are often applied to tanks, pipes, vessels,
and other equipment in industries such as chemical processing, mining, and oil
refining.
3. Polymer Lining: Polymer linings, such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), or
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), offer exceptional resistance to various chemicals and can be
used in applications where rubber linings may not be suitable. They are commonly
used in chemical storage tanks, pipelines, and wastewater treatment systems.
4. Ceramic Lining: Ceramic linings are highly resistant to abrasion, making them suitable
for lining equipment subjected to high-wear environments. They are commonly used
in chutes, hoppers, cyclones, and other equipment handling abrasive materials in
industries like mining and mineral processing.
5. Epoxy Lining: Epoxy linings provide excellent chemical resistance and can be used to
protect concrete structures, tanks, and pipes against corrosion. They are often
applied in water treatment facilities, sewage systems, and industrial plants.
6. Glass Lining: Glass linings are known for their exceptional resistance to corrosion and
thermal shock. They are commonly used in chemical reactors, storage vessels, and
pipelines that handle corrosive chemicals.
7. Refractory Lining: Refractory linings are designed to withstand high temperatures
and thermal cycling. They are used in furnaces, kilns, and other high-temperature
equipment in industries like steelmaking, glass manufacturing, and cement
production.
8. Anti-corrosion Coatings: Various anti-corrosion coatings, such as epoxy,
polyurethane, or zinc-rich coatings, can be used as linings to protect metal surfaces
from corrosion in a wide range of applications.
 characteristics required for materials

1. Strength: Materials should possess adequate strength to withstand applied loads and
stresses without experiencing deformation or failure.
2. Durability: Durability is essential to ensure that materials can withstand prolonged
exposure to harsh environments, including chemicals, temperature extremes,
humidity, and mechanical wear and tear.
3. Corrosion Resistance: Many applications require materials with excellent resistance to
corrosion caused by exposure to chemicals, moisture, or other corrosive agents.
4. Heat Resistance: Materials that can withstand high temperatures without significant
degradation or deformation are crucial for applications involving heat or thermal
cycling.
5. Chemical Resistance: Certain industries, such as chemical processing or wastewater
treatment, require materials that can resist the effects of various chemicals and
substances.
6. Wear Resistance: Materials should have the ability to resist wear and abrasion,
especially in applications involving the movement of solid particles or surfaces in
contact with each other.
7. Electrical and Thermal Conductivity: Depending on the application, materials may
need to exhibit good electrical or thermal conductivity properties.
8. Lightweight: In industries such as aerospace or automotive, lightweight materials are
preferred to reduce weight and improve fuel efficiency or overall performance.
9. Dimensional Stability: Materials should maintain their shape and dimensions under
varying temperature and humidity conditions to ensure proper functioning and fit.
10. Cost-effectiveness: The cost of materials is an important consideration in many
applications, and materials should provide a balance between performance and
affordability.
11. Machinability: Ease of machining and fabrication is a desirable characteristic for
materials, as it can impact the manufacturing process and cost.
12. Environmental Impact: With increasing focus on sustainability, materials that are
environmentally friendly, recyclable, or have a low carbon footprint are gaining
importance.
 VESSELS

1. Purpose: Vessels are containers or tanks used to store, process, or transport liquids,
gases, or solids in various industries.
2. Construction: Vessels are constructed from materials such as metals (carbon steel,
stainless steel, aluminum), non-metallic materials (fiberglass, reinforced plastics), or a
combination based on the application requirements.
3. Types: Common types of vessels include storage tanks, reactors, columns, separators,
condensers, and mixing vessels, each serving a specific purpose in industrial
processes.
Purging of Vessels:
1. Purpose: Purging is a process of removing unwanted or undesirable substances, such
as air, gases, or contaminants, from a vessel before introducing a different substance
or initiating a specific operation.
2. Gas Purging: Gas purging involves filling a vessel with an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen) to
displace or remove atmospheric gases or prevent oxidation, moisture, or
contamination.
3. Benefits: Purging ensures a clean and controlled environment inside the vessel,
reduces the risk of hazardous reactions, improves product quality, and maintains
process efficiency.
High Pressure Vessels:
1. Purpose: High-pressure vessels are designed to safely contain fluids or gases under
high-pressure conditions, typically above atmospheric pressure.
2. Construction: High-pressure vessels are constructed with thicker walls and reinforced
structures to withstand the high internal pressures. They undergo stringent testing
and inspection to ensure their integrity and safety.
3. Applications: High-pressure vessels are used in industries such as oil and gas,
petrochemicals, chemical processing, power generation, and aerospace, where
containment of high-pressure fluids or gases is necessary for specific processes or
applications.
Purging of Vessels (High Pressure):
1. Purpose: Purging high-pressure vessels involves removing or displacing gases or
contaminants from the vessel to create a clean and controlled environment for safe
operation.
2. Safety Considerations: Purging high-pressure vessels requires careful planning and
adherence to safety procedures to prevent overpressure, ensure proper venting, and
protect personnel and equipment.
3. Purging Methods: Purging high-pressure vessels can be achieved through various
techniques, such as using high-pressure inert gases or introducing a controlled flow
of fluids to displace the unwanted substances.
4. Verification: Verification procedures, such as gas monitoring or pressure testing, are
often conducted to ensure the purging process is effective and the vessel is ready for
the desired operation.
 Pipe Thickness and Diameter:

1. Pipe Thickness: Pipe thickness refers to the measurement of the wall thickness of a
pipe. It is an essential parameter in determining the strength, pressure rating, and
durability of the pipe.
2. Purpose: The thickness of a pipe is designed to withstand the internal pressure,
external loads, and other forces acting on the pipe during operation.
3. Material Selection: The material of the pipe, along with its intended application and
operating conditions, influences the required thickness. Different materials have
different strength properties and corrosion resistance, which affect the thickness
selection.
4. Pressure Rating: The thickness of a pipe is directly related to its pressure rating.
Higher-pressure applications typically require thicker-walled pipes to ensure safe
operation and prevent failures.
5. Diameter: Pipe diameter refers to the measurement of the inner or outer diameter of
a pipe. It determines the flow capacity and volume of fluid that the pipe can carry.
6. Flow Rate: The diameter of a pipe affects the flow rate of the fluid passing through it.
A larger diameter allows for higher flow rates, while a smaller diameter restricts the
flow.
7. Velocity: Pipe diameter influences the fluid velocity within the pipe. A larger diameter
results in lower fluid velocities, reducing frictional losses and pressure drop.
8. Application Considerations: The choice of pipe diameter depends on factors such as
the desired flow rate, pressure drop limitations, available space, and cost
considerations.
9. Pipe Sizing: Proper pipe sizing involves selecting an appropriate diameter based on
the anticipated flow rate, ensuring that it meets the required pressure and velocity
criteria.
10. Structural Integrity: The thickness and diameter of a pipe must be carefully selected
to ensure structural integrity and prevent excessive deflection, sagging, or buckling.
11. Codes and Standards: Pipe thickness and diameter requirements are governed by
industry standards and codes, such as ASME B31.3 for process piping or ASTM
standards for various pipe materials.
12. Cost Considerations: Pipe thickness and diameter influence material and
manufacturing costs. Thicker-walled pipes and larger diameters generally require
more material and may be more expensive to produce and install.
 types of roofs

1. Flat Roof: Flat roofs are often employed in process engineering designs due to their
simplicity and cost-effectiveness. They provide a horizontal or nearly horizontal
surface, making it easier to install equipment or access rooftop installations such as
HVAC systems.
2. Pitched Roof: Pitched roofs with gable or hip designs may be utilized in process
engineering designs for ancillary buildings, such as control rooms, maintenance
facilities, or warehouses. These roofs offer better water drainage and may
complement the architectural style of the overall facility.
3. Industrial Shed Roof: Industrial sheds or structures in process engineering designs
may have simple shed roofs. These roofs consist of a single sloping plane and are
commonly used for open-sided storage areas, loading docks, or covered walkways.
4. Curved Roof: In some specialized process engineering facilities, such as research
laboratories or testing facilities, curved roofs may be incorporated for architectural
appeal or to accommodate specific equipment requirements.
5. Roof Structures for Specialized Equipment: Process engineering designs may include
roof structures to support and house specialized equipment, such as exhaust
systems, chimneys, vents, or large-scale industrial machinery.

Pipping supprt

1. Piping support is crucial for maintaining the stability and integrity of a piping system.
2. It prevents excessive movement, sagging, vibration, and stress in the pipes.
3. Common types of piping supports include clamps, hangers, shoes, spring supports,
and resting supports.
4. Supports are designed based on factors such as pipe material, size, load analysis, and
operating conditions.
5. Supports should accommodate thermal expansion and contraction of the pipes.
6. They should be designed to withstand external forces such as vibration, seismic
activity, and wind loads.
7. Proper support spacing, as per codes and standards, is important to ensure the
pipe's structural integrity.
8. Piping supports should allow for easy access for inspection, maintenance, and
potential modifications.
9. The design and selection of supports should consider factors like load distribution,
material compatibility, and safety requirements.
10. Well-designed piping support systems contribute to the safe and reliable operation
of the piping system, minimizing the risk of failure.
 Nozzle/types

1. Pipe Nozzle: A pipe nozzle is a standard cylindrical nozzle used to connect pipes and
equipment. It allows for the transfer of fluids between different components of a
system, such as tanks, vessels, pumps, or heat exchangers.
2. Spray Nozzle: Spray nozzles are designed to produce a fine spray or mist pattern.
They are commonly used for applications such as cooling, humidification, dust
suppression, chemical dosing, and cleaning processes. Spray nozzles come in various
designs, including flat fan, full cone, hollow cone, and air-atomizing nozzles.
3. Jet Nozzle: Jet nozzles generate a high-velocity jet of fluid or gas. They are often
used for applications that require concentrated force, such as cutting, cleaning, or
propulsion systems. Jet nozzles can produce a straight stream or a solid cone-shaped
jet.
4. Mixing Nozzle: Mixing nozzles are designed to create turbulence and promote
mixing of fluids within a process. They typically have specialized internals or
geometries that help facilitate the blending of different liquids or gases. Mixing
nozzles are commonly used in chemical reactions, wastewater treatment, and mixing
processes.
5. Reactor Nozzle: Reactor nozzles are specifically designed for use in chemical reactors.
They are engineered to introduce reactants or catalysts into the reactor vessel,
ensuring proper distribution and mixing of the substances. Reactor nozzles may have
specific configurations, such as tangential or axial entry points, to optimize the
reaction process.
6. Atomizing Nozzle: Atomizing nozzles are used to break down a liquid into fine
droplets. They are commonly employed in processes such as spray drying, coating,
humidification, and fuel combustion. Atomizing nozzles utilize mechanisms like air-
atomization or high-pressure liquid atomization to achieve the desired droplet size
and distribution.
7. Gas Injection Nozzle: Gas injection nozzles are utilized to introduce gases into a
process or reaction vessel. They are commonly used for sparging, aeration, or
oxygenation in applications such as fermentation, wastewater treatment, and gas
stripping processes. Gas injection nozzles can be designed to disperse the gas
uniformly or create specific flow patterns within the system.
8. Fire Protection Nozzle: Fire protection nozzles are designed specifically for fire
suppression systems. They deliver water or firefighting agents in various patterns,
such as straight stream, wide-angle, or fog patterns, to effectively extinguish fires in
industrial facilities.
 Piping layout

Piping layout refers to the arrangement and positioning of pipes, fittings, and other
components within a piping system. It plays a crucial role in process engineering
design to ensure efficient fluid or gas flow, proper support, accessibility for
maintenance, and compliance with safety regulations.

1. Flow Direction: The piping layout should ensure a logical and efficient flow direction
for the fluids or gases being transported. It is typically designed to follow the process
requirements, minimizing pressure drop and maintaining desired flow rates.
2. Pipe Routing: The routing of pipes involves determining the most optimal path for
the piping system while considering factors such as space availability, accessibility,
and interference with other equipment or structures. The routing should aim to
minimize the length of piping, avoid sharp bends, and ensure proper support.
3. Equipment Connection: Piping layout involves connecting pipes to various
equipment, such as pumps, vessels, heat exchangers, and control valves. The layout
should consider the proximity of equipment, alignment of connections, and proper
clearance for installation, operation, and maintenance activities.
4. Pipe Support: Adequate pipe support is essential to maintain the integrity and
stability of the piping system. The layout should incorporate appropriate pipe
supports, such as hangers, clamps, and brackets, to prevent excessive stress, sagging,
or vibration of the pipes.
5. Safety Considerations: Piping layout should adhere to safety regulations and
standards, including proper spacing between pipes to facilitate maintenance access,
sufficient clearance for equipment operation, and compliance with fire protection
and explosion prevention measures.
6. Pipe Sizing: The layout should consider proper pipe sizing to ensure the desired flow
rates, pressure drop, and fluid velocities within the system. Pipe sizing involves
selecting the appropriate diameter based on factors such as flow rate, friction loss,
and pressure requirements.
7. Branching and Interconnections: Piping layout includes designing and positioning
branch connections, valves, fittings, and instrumentation along the piping system.
This ensures proper control, isolation, and measurement of fluid or gas flow at
specific points.
8. Material Compatibility: The layout should consider material compatibility to avoid
corrosion, chemical reactions, or contamination. It involves selecting appropriate
materials for pipes, fittings, and gaskets based on the properties of the fluid or gas
being transported.
9. Accessibility and Maintenance: Piping layout should allow for easy access to valves,
control points, instrumentation, and other components for maintenance, inspection,
and repair activities. Clearances and walkways should be provided for operators and
maintenance personnel..
 design of pipelline on fluid dynamics parameters

 Flow Rate: Determine the desired flow rate of the fluid being transported through the
pipeline based on process requirements and production demands.
 Pressure Drop: Minimize pressure drop along the pipeline to maintain the desired
flow rate and ensure efficient energy usage. Factors such as pipe diameter,
roughness, fluid viscosity, and pipe length affect pressure drop.
 Reynolds Number: Calculate the Reynolds number to determine the flow regime
(laminar or turbulent). Consider the fluid properties, flow velocity, and pipe diameter.
This information helps select appropriate pipe diameters, estimate friction losses, and
consider the effects of turbulence.
 Velocity Profile: Aim for a uniform velocity profile across the pipe cross-section to
ensure efficient flow and minimize the formation of eddies or regions of stagnant
flow. Pipe diameter, fluid viscosity, and flow rate influence the velocity profile.
 Pipe Diameter: Select an appropriate pipe diameter to accommodate the desired
flow rate, minimize pressure drop, and ensure economic considerations. Consider
factors such as fluid properties, flow velocity, allowable velocity limits, and available
pipe sizes.
 Pipe Roughness: Consider the roughness of the pipe's internal surface, which affects
friction losses. Choose pipes with appropriate roughness values based on the fluid
being transported to minimize pressure drop.
 Fluid Properties: Understand the properties of the fluid, such as density, viscosity, and
compressibility, as they influence the flow behavior and determine the appropriate
pipeline design.
 Pipe Length: Account for the total length of the pipeline, including straight sections
and bends. Longer pipelines generally result in higher pressure drops and require
careful consideration of pressure requirements and pumping systems.
 Pumping Systems: Design and select pumps or other pressure generation
mechanisms to overcome pressure losses and maintain the desired flow rate.
Consider factors such as pump capacity, head requirements, efficiency, and system
redundancy.
 Heat Transfer: If there is a need for heat transfer within the pipeline (e.g., in thermal
processes), consider the design and placement of heat transfer elements such as heat
exchangers or insulation to optimize energy efficiency and temperature control.
 Safety Considerations: Ensure the pipeline design meets safety standards and
guidelines, including pressure ratings, material selection, leak detection, and
protection against corrosion or erosion.
 Environmental Factors: Consider environmental factors such as temperature
variations, potential for freezing, seismic activity, and exposure to corrosive
substances. Choose materials and insulation methods suitable for the specific
environment.
 Condensate piping

1. Condensate piping is used to transport condensed water or liquid from a steam

system or condensing process.
2. It is typically made of materials that can withstand the temperature and pressure
conditions of the condensate.
3. Condensate piping is designed to be sloped properly to facilitate the drainage of
liquid and prevent the accumulation of condensate.
4. Insulation is often applied to condensate piping to prevent heat loss and maintain
the temperature of the liquid.
5. The size of condensate piping is determined based on factors such as the
condensate flow rate, pressure drop considerations, and pipe material limitations.
6. Valves, traps, and other components are installed in the condensate piping system to
regulate flow, remove air, and prevent water hammer.
7. Condensate piping should be properly supported to ensure stability and prevent
sagging or stress on the pipe.
8. Proper maintenance and periodic inspection of condensate piping are necessary to
detect and address any leaks, blockages, or corrosion issues.
9. Condensate piping is often connected to a condensate recovery system, where the
recovered condensate can be reused or discharged appropriately.
10. Proper design and installation of condensate piping are essential for efficient steam
system operation, energy conservation, and preventing water wastage.

Agitators / types

1. Agitators are mechanical devices used for mixing and stirring fluids or solids within a
liquid medium.
2. Paddle agitators have flat or curved blades and are suitable for gentle mixing and
blending.
3. Propeller agitators have propeller-like blades and generate axial flow for mixing low
to medium viscosity liquids.
4. Turbine agitators feature multiple blades and provide high-shear mixing and rapid
blending.
5. Anchor agitators have curved blades or paddle shapes and are designed for viscous
materials.
6. Magnetic agitators use magnetic fields to rotate an impeller without the need for
shafts or seals.
7. High-speed agitators operate at high rotational speeds for intense mixing and
dispersion.
8. Bottom entry agitators are submerged in the liquid and are efficient for large tanks
and vessels.
9. Top entry agitators are mounted on the top of tanks and offer easy access for
maintenance.
 how to design a shaft for agitator

1. Determine the application requirements, including mixing intensity, operating speed,

and torque requirements.
2. Select a suitable material for the shaft based on factors like corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties.
3. Calculate the shaft diameter considering torque, bending moment, and torsional
stresses.
4. Design keyways and couplings for proper torque transmission and secure
connections.
5. Determine the bearing locations and select appropriate bearings for shaft support.
6. Analyze shaft stability and vibrations to avoid excessive deflection or resonance.
7. Consider practical aspects of machining and fabrication, such as standard sizes and
manufacturing tolerances.
8. Validate the design through finite element analysis (FEA) if needed.
9. Optimize the shaft's geometry and material selection based on FEA results.
10. Prototype testing can help ensure the shaft's performance meets the desired
requirements.

theories of failure

Combined Stresses: Combined stresses refer to situations where multiple types of

stresses act simultaneously on a structural component or material. These stresses can
include axial, bending, shear, and torsional stresses.

1. Maximum Normal Stress Theory (Rankine's Theory): Failure occurs when the
maximum normal stress (tensile or compressive) in a material exceeds its ultimate
tensile or compressive strength.
2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca's Theory): Failure occurs when the maximum
shear stress in a material exceeds its shear strength.
3. Distortion Energy Theory (Von Mises' Theory): Failure occurs when the distortion
energy (Von Mises stress or equivalent stress) in a material exceeds its yield strength.
It relates yielding and failure in ductile materials to accumulated elastic strain energy.
4. Mohr's Circle: Mohr's circle is a graphical method used to analyze stresses and
predict failure in materials under combined stresses. It helps determine principal
stresses, maximum shear stresses, and critical failure conditions.
Q3)Explain the failures of thin cylindrical shell subjected to internal
pressure.

Ans When subjected to internal pressure and it may fail due to no. of
reasons-The failure mode will depend on the material properties of shell, its
thickness, the magnitude of internal pressure and other factors.

Some possible foilures are:

1 Buckling:- Buckling occurs when the compressive stresses in shall

exceed. stress. The shell may buckle inwards or outwards,

depending on shape of shell. Buckling can Cause The shell to collapse under
internal pressure.

Yielding:

Yielding occurs when the material of shell reaches it yield strength and
begins to deform permanently Thir.can cause the shell to bulge outwards.
resulting in plastic detormation or rupture. lil

Plastic Instability -

PS can occur when the material of shell undergoes localized plastic

deformation , leading to formation of bulge or a wrinkle • This can couse the
shell to develop- exacks-or other forms of damage, sahich ton. evenhally
lead to failoren to buckle or fail under internal presure. Fatigue :- Faligue
failure can occur when the shell is subjected to reopeted cylees of internal
pressure. This can caue shall to develop crocks or other forms of damage ,
which can eventually lead to fahre.

To prevent failure the shell must be deigned to withstand the internal

pressure and the expected loading conditions. Take into act the materia!
properties of shell. its thickness and other factors, Proper

manufacturing and quality control techniques should also be employed to

ensure that the shell is free from defect that could lead to failure.
Q9)Explain the various types of Cyclie Stresses.

Ans - 1) Asial on Tanile Compresive Cydie Stres:

This type of cydic stress occors when a malend experiens alleinaling tensile
and comprensive stresses den direction: I i common in application involving
& leading set as stiratiral mentars selfeded bo hiding i

• Bending Cyelic Stres:

Bending cydic stress occurs when a moterid experientes alternating tensile

and compressive stresses due y eyehie bending loads. I is prevalent in
application indie beams. shalt or other components subjected to repeated
bend

• Torsional Cyclic Stress:

Ocours in material or structures subjected to alternate twisting or torsional

loads. If leads to development of allerat

Iv shear stresses along the cross -sectional planes of material

Shear cyclic Stress sires eles to alandling dies dead that occur in material
or structures subjected to cyclic bur loading. I con repeated sheararise from
various loading conditions, such e forces cydlic torsoinal lodds.

Combined Cydic Stresses : In many real world applicie materials and

structures experience a combination of and torsiona! axial.
Q11)Explain the deign ad skirl support in detail-

Ans -Welded at bottom and reart over concrete fondation

Design Conrideration:

1)Dead weigh of vessel

2)Operating pof vessels

3)latent load by restrained

4)weight of vessel restrained thermal growth of inter. Connecting pipipes.

5)Wind Load acting over the vessel

6)Sesmic Load

One of the most common methods of supporting vertical pressure vessels is

by means of a rolled cylindrical or conical shell called a skirt. The skirt can
be either lap-, fillet-, or butt-welded directly to the vessel. This method of
support is attractive from the designer's standpoint because it minimizes the
local stresses at the point of attachment, and the direct load is uniformly
distributed over the entire circumference. The use of conical skirts is more
expensive from a fabrication standpoint, and unnecessary for most design
situations.

The critical line in the skirt support is the weld attaching the vessel to the
skirt. This weld, in addition to transmitting the overall weight and
overturning moments, must also resist the thermal and bending stresses
due to the temperature drop in the skirt. The thinner the skirt, the better it
is able to adjust to temperature variations. A "hot box" design is used for
elevated temperatures to minimize discontinuity stresses at the juncture by
maintaining a uniform temperature in the region. In addition, skirts for
elevated temperature design will normally be insulated inside and outside
for several feet below the point of attachment.
Q.12)Explain the design of sadle support in detail.

Ans:-The design of a saddle support involves several key considerats to

ensure the effective load distribution and stability

Saddlle Configurations :-The saddle support consist of hwo curved

surfaces. resembling the shape of saddle. that cradle the pipe. The shape,
sadelle is usually Semi-cellular or elliplical to match the counts lot pipe:

Material Selection:-The material chasen for saddle support depends on

speck. application and the properties of pipe being supported. Common.
material used for saddle support include steel stainless steel. cast iron, or
non metallic materials like rein force plastic.

Load Calculation:=The design of the saddle support requires

determiningthe maximom load that support will be subjected to. This involve
considering factor such as the weight of pipe, the contents it cariesand any
additional loads like wind or seis mic forces.

Support Attachmentt: The sadile support red to be montes method may

involve welding, bolting or clamping depending on Specitic design and
material used

Load Distribution: -One of the primary function of a saddle support is to

distribute the load along the lengts of pipe. To achieve His the saddle
support

must have a sullient contact area with the pipe to minimize stress
concentration.

Insulation Consideration :- In some application , piper may contain

insulation to prevent heat loss or condensation.When designing

a saddle support for insulated pipes, provisions must be made accommodate

the additional thickness insulation.

vi] Thermal Expansion:=

Tipes are subjected to thermal expansion and contraction. clue to temp

changes. The saddle support design should allow. for this thermal
movement without causing excerive strew an the pipe or the support itself.
Q18)How can we select economical head

Ans -il Standardization :- look for standard head deign and sizer that ser
readily. available in market Standard heads are typically mass - produced .
which often resull in lower cost dese to economies of scale. commonly
available shapes are elliptical, hemispherical or torispherical heads.

*i) Material selection: - Opt for materals that strike a balance. Talwen cast
and performance. Malerials with excelent carrasion resistance like stainless
steel may be expensive. There are cart repetitive options such as carton steel
a lower grade alley.

Iii)Supplier Comprison : Peach ant to makiple suppliers and cam their

prices, services and product qualita • Obrain quates from.rictionachovers, to
get a belter understanding & mawkst grice ronge. and idenhily gutential cast
savings,

Iv)fabrication Method: Consider dilherent tabrication metted A produking

the houds such as hat forming, cold fouring a sining. Each method has it
advantages and cast implications.The head dimension basad on your
preshre vessels requireme

Vi)local Suplies. Explore local manutschres who mag Her comportive

preing due to redixed transportation cost Provide besfer support and quicker
turnaround times.

Vii)Used or Surplus Head Itpossible to find. used or surplus heads meet

your requirement.

Q.Different types of jackets used for reaction

Plain jacket ;It can be termed as an extra covering all around the vessel or
on some part of the vessel. The annular space between the vessel wall and
jacket wall is used for circulation of heating or cooling medium. Plain
jackets are suitable for small capacity vessels and for operations where
pressure inside the vessel is more than twice the jacket pressure.

Half pipe coil jacket;Pipe is cut into 1wo pieces and half pipe coil is welded
to the vessel wall. It helps to provide high velocity and high turbulence. It
also helps to provide strength to the vessel wall and thereby reduce the cost
of vessel. It provides structural rigidity which is an advantage for high
temperature operation. To have flexibility and high efficiency the half coil
jacket can be divided into multiple zones.

Dimple jacket;It can be fabricated by using thin sheets. It is useful for high
jacket pressure operation. Dimple jacket can induce turbulence even at very
low flow velocity. It can be used for circulating steam and hot Oil.
Q20)Parameters to be considered while good agitation system

Ans- When designing a good agitation system, there are several parameters
that should be considered. The specific parameters may vary depending on
the application and the desired outcome, but here are some general factors
to take into account:

Mixing Intensity: The level of mixing intensity required depends on the

nature of the materials being mixed. Consider factors such as viscosity,
density, and the desired level of homogeneity. Higher mixing intensity may
be required for more viscous or dense materials.

Agitation Speed: The rotational speed or linear velocity of the agitation

system should be determined based on the desired mixing effect. It should
be optimized to achieve efficient mixing without causing excessive
turbulence or damaging the materials being mixed.

Agitator Design: The design of the agitator plays a crucial role in achieving
effective mixing. Factors such as the shape, size, and number of agitator
blades or impellers should be considered. The agitator design should be
selected based on the specific application and the characteristics of the
materials being mixed.

Agitator Placement: The position of the agitator within the mixing vessel or
system is important. It should be strategically located to ensure proper
circulation and avoid dead zones or stagnant areas where mixing may be
inadequate.

Power Input: The power input to the agitation system should be sufficient to
overcome the resistance caused by the materials being
Q23)Loss mechanism in storage tank

Ans -The loss mechanism in a storage tank refers to the factors or processes
that result in a reduction or loss of the stored contents over time. Several
common loss mechanisms can occur in storage tanks, including:

Evaporation: If the stored material is volatile or has a high vapor pressure,

evaporation can lead to a loss of the substance. This is especially true for
liquids such as gasoline, solvents, or volatile chemicals. Evaporation losses
can be minimized by using tanks with tight seals, employing vapor recovery
systems, or storing the material under controlled atmospheric conditions.

Leakage: Tank leakage can occur due to corrosion, mechanical failure, or

damage to the tank structure. Corrosion can be caused by factors like
exposure to moisture, chemicals, or other corrosive substances. Mechanical
failure can be the result of poor maintenance, material fatigue, or excessive
stress on the tank. Leakage can lead to significant losses and potential
environmental hazards, so regular inspections, maintenance, and
appropriate tank integrity testing are essential to minimize this loss
mechanism.

Seepage or Percolation: Depending on the properties of the stored material

and the tank construction, seepage or percolation losses can occur. This
typically happens when liquids or dissolved substances slowly migrate
through the tank walls, resulting in a loss of the stored material. Proper
lining or coating of the tank walls can help reduce seepage losses.

Overflow or Spillage: Improper filling or handling of the tank can lead to

overflow or spillage, resulting in material loss. This can occur during filling
operations, transferring the material into or out of the tank, or during
maintenance procedures. Adequate training, monitoring, and safety
measures should be implemented to prevent accidental overfilling or
spillage.

Metering and Measurement Errors: Inaccurate measurement devices or

improper calibration of instruments used to monitor the tank's contents can
contribute to losses. Errors in measuring the quantity of the stored material
can lead to overfilling or underutilization of the tank's capacity, resulting in
potential losses.