NARROW RANGE THEORIES AND
MODELS OF INFORMATION
PROCESSING:
 Levels of processing theory
 Parallel distributing theory
 Connectionistic model theory
LEVELS OF PROCESSING THEORY
 States that information is a processed
sequentially, from perception to
attention to labeling and meaning.
 The processing sequence occurs in
both memory storage and memory
retrieval
PARALLEL DISTRIBUTING MODEL
 Proposes that information is processed
by different parts of the memory system
simultaneously rather than being a
sequential process.
CONNECTIONISTIC MODEL
 Information is stored in many places
throughout the brain, forming a network
of connections.
 The more connections that are to an
item in memory storage, the easier it is
to achieve it from memory.
 This model has received significant
research.
STAGE THEORY
 Relates to memory activity
 The core of this theory is that
information is both processed abs store
in three stages:
1st stage sensory memory – is fleeting.
- objects we see may last in sensory
memory for only half second.
 Things we hear – 3 seconds. If these
things are not attended in that time
frame, they are usually forgotten.
 Second stage short term memory –
these sensations must be of some
interest to the person or activate a
known schema.
 Short term memory – may consist of
what we are thinking, about or that
which impinges on us from an external
stimulus at any given time.
 This memory may last for 20 seconds.
 Unless we mentally or verbally repeat
the item.
 May be retained if rehearsed or
especially meaningful to us.
 Example: introduce to a person and
forgetting the name immediately= can
be forgotten in 3 seconds.
 Third stage long term memory –
firmly tie the information to an existing
schema in the brain.
 May use some mnemonic device or
relate to other similar name, face or
place or create a mental association
picture.
 Would also help to practice periodically
to fix it firmly in the long-term memory.
 “Educators who base their work on
cognitive theories ten to focus on
making learning meaningful and
interesting and trying it to students
existing mental schema.
TECHNIQUES USED IN COGNITIVE
LEARNING
 Active learning technique – deep
understanding of core material through
participation.
 Advance organizer technique –
statements made at the beginning of
class to help students activate prior
knowledge and relate it to the new
material.
 Elaboration of concepts and ideas
technique – applying to various
situations, drawing analogies such ass
questions about them and organizing
and summarizing the information.
COMMON CONCEPTS OF COGNITIVE
THEORIES
 Learning
 Metacognition
 Memory
 Transfer
DEFINITION OF LEARNING ACCORDING
TO THEORY
 Behavior theory – acquisition of
knowledge and skills that changes a
person’s behavior.
 Cognitive theory – focus more on the
acquisition of knowledge than the
resulting behavior change.
- more connected with what the
knowledge means to a person than
they are with whether the person’s
behavior will change as a result of it.
 Learning (Breur) – The process
novices become more expect
- this discovery has led to the term
domain-specific learning= possess
body of knowledge then easier for
you to learn because you have a
scheme which helps you to make
sense of new information and lodge
it in memory.
METACOGNITION
 Thinking about one’s thinking
 Gauge thinking while learning, readding,
studying or problem solving
 Mental monitoring and control.
 Intelligent novices (Brown and
Palinscar) – Some people know what
they’re know and what they don’t know
and they plant to get the information
and understanding they need.
TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR
METACOGNITIVE POWERS:
 Journal writing
 Group dialogue
 Problem based learning
 Think aloud techniques when reviewing
test questions with an instructor help
students strengthen metacognitive
powers
MEMORY
 Consolidation function in memory
process- it is through consolidation that
items are stationed in memory.
 Connect new information to old, the
more frequently we recall
- Problem arises: we construct a
memory rather than retrieve one fully
formed.
 Typical retention and forgetting curve
 Retention= meaningful information
(material that is elaborated and
consolidated in the schema)
 Forgetting- we can hold about 7 items
in short term memory, pure repetition
doesn’t help to extend beyond 7 items
but serves only duration to remain in
short term memory
 To go beyond 7 items, mental strategy
is needed in the form of chunking
 Chunking – information is clustered
into patterns.
FORGETTING
 Memories are in our brains but we may
be not be able to retrieve them because
the connections (networks) to the
memory have been weakened.
 Factors that contribute to weakening
of memory:
1. Disuse overtime
2. with disease
3. with interference from new
memories (more meaningful)
4. new memories may interfere with old
ones when there is some similarity
between them.
5. if you don’t have the right stimulus or
cue, you may not be able to
remember something panic.
6. intent to learn – determines
whether to remember or forget
something learned.
TRANSFER
 The ability to take information learned in
one situation and apply it to another.
 Transfer of learning is teaching.
 Successful transfer depends on
several factors:
1. the extent to which material was
original learned.
2. the ability to retrieve information
from memory.
3. the way in which the material was
taught and learned.
4. the similarity of the new situation to
the original.
 Positive transfer – occurs when the  Factors that have impact on adult’s what counts
present learning is enhanced or learning: variables of culture, ethnicity, Readiness Must be Ready to learn
accelerated by past learning. personality and political ethos to learn ready when when they feel
 Negative transfer – occurs when past  The teacher who takes an adult learning the teacher the need to
learning interferes with present learning. model into consideration when teaching says they know.
must or they
 Transfer of learning – is a will be less of a disseminator of will not be
phenomenon that is acknowledged in all information and director of the learning promoted
major theories of learning. process and more of a facilitator
Orientation Subject- Life-centered
 In behaviorism – stimulus-response  The teacher takes the following roles: to learning centered or task
generalization or interference. guide, coach, mentor, role model, orientation centered
 In cognitive learning – related to challenger and motivator orientation
schema restricting.  The teacher should have confidence in Motivation Externally Primarily
 In learning theory – transfer is seen in most adult learners' abilities to self-plan motivated internally
modeling process. learning experiences and should see motivated, with
him as taking part in a dialogue among some external,
MODEL OF ADULT LEARNING motivation
equals
 Malcolm Knowles – Education for LEARNING PROPOSITIONS WITH
COMPARISON OF PEDAGOGY TO
adults is different from the education of WHICH MOST PSYCHOLOGIST WILL
ANDRAGOGY ACCORDING TO
children. AGREE
KNOWLES
 Andragogy – teaching of adults 1. “Behaviors which are rewarded
 Pedagogy – teaching of children 0 PEDAGODY ANDRAGODY
(reinforced) are more likely to occur.
Need to Learn what Need to know - positive feedback or reward- is a
ANDRAGOGY know the teacher why they need
wants them to
powerful tool in the hands of the
 Adults are motivated to learn teacher
to learn
information for which they understand - absence of feedback is negative
the purpose and see practical Self- Perception of Feel
concept being responsible for feedback.
applications Ex. In the clinical setting, if a nurse
dependent their own
- Adults want to take control of their student receives a positive written
on the learning
learning process and be self-directed teacher for evaluation, then that desirable behavior
 Adults want their life experience to be learning is more likely to be repeated.
considered in the learning situation and Role of The Adults learn 2. “Sheer repetition without indications of
also want to learn from other's experience teacher’s from each improvement or any kind of
experiences experience other’s reinforcement is a poor way to attempt
and not the experiences
to learn”.
children’s is
 - practice must include feedback.
3. “Threat and punishment have variable
and uncertain effects upon learning”.
- the punished may set up avoidance
tendencies which prevent further
learning.
Ex. A new nurses may make medication
errors and may be given ultimatum that
he may be let go if he makes any more
errors but this threat may actually
increase the likelihood of more errors.
- it is more effective to stress the
positive aspects of improvement of
performance.
4. ” Reward (Reinforcement) to be most
effective in learning, must follow almost
immediately after the desired behavior
and be clearly connected with that
behavior in the mind of the learner”.
- immediate knowledge of success
encourages students to proceed and
learn even more material
5. “Learners progress in any area of
learning only as far as they need to in
order to achieve their purposes”.
- intrinsic motives include wanting to
be the best at whatever job one
undertakes and wanting to learn
because learning brings its own
satisfaction.
- teachers can use extrinsic motivation
which is curiosity. Help set them to
path to discover things they are
curious about.
Ex. Nurses help patient to see how
learning about adherence to medical
regimen can improve their quality of life.
6. “Forgetting proceeds rapidly at first-then
more and more slowly; recall shortly
after learning reduced the amount
forgotten”
Ex: learners should be encouraged to
study each night the class material
learned that day. There is probably no
better way to help fix it in memory.
7. “Learning from reading is facilitated
more by time spent recalling what has
been read than by rereading”
- simply rereading is passive.
- reconstructing or recalling make us
use information in an active way.
8. “The best way to help pupils from a
general concept is to present the
concept in numerous ways and varied
situations, contrasting experiences with
and without the concept, then to
encourage precise formulations of the
general idea and its application in
situations different from those in which
the concept was learned”.
- priority setting
9. “When children or adults experience too
much frustration, their behavior ceases
to be integrated., purposeful, and
rational”
- the threshold of what is ‘too much’
varies, it is lowered by previous
failures.
10. “No school subjects are markedly
superior to others. For strengthening
mental powers”. General improvement
as a result of study in any subject
depends on the instruction designed to
build up generalization about principles
concepts formation, and improvements
of techniques of study, thinking, and
communication.
- the nurse educators may help
students learn more effectively by
helping them with study and memory
techniques and with practice in
problem solving and logical thinking.
11. “What is learned is most likely to be
available for use if it is learned in a
situation much like that in which it is to
be used and immediately preceding the
time when it is needed”
- can be done through written or
laboratory stimulations help learners
see that information can be applied.
12. “Children (and adults even more)
remember new information which
confirms their previous attitudes better
than they remember new information
which runs counter or their previous
attitudes”
Ex: some students may have little
interest in or concern with the elderly.
13. Adults need to know why they need to
learn something before undertaking to
learn it.
Ex: help learners to see now the
information will fit into real life setting.
TYPES OF LEARNING
 Signal learning
 Stimulus-response learning
 Chaining
 Verbal association
 Discrimination learning
 Concept learning
 Rule learning
 Problem solving
SIGNAL LEARNING
 Or the conditional response – the first
type and simplest level of learning
wherein the person develops a general
diffuse reaction to a stimulus.
 Ex: a student nurse may feel fear every
time the term skill test is mentioned
because he has felt fear whenever
taking an actual skill test.
STIMULUS-RESPONSE LEARNING
 Involves developing a voluntary,
spontaneous or automatic response to a
specific stimulus or combination of a
stimuli.
 Ex: initially the instructor may instruct
the learner, “if you see that an
intravenous infusion is not dripping, first
open the clamp farther”. Eventually, the
learner response automatically to an
intravenous line that is not running by
opening the clamp before doing
anything else.
CHAINING
 Is the acquisition of a series of related
conditioned responses or stimulus
response connections.
 After learning to open the clamp farther
is the line is not dripping, the nursing
student is taught that if it was not
successful, checking the line for a return
blood flow is in order.
VERBAL ASSOCIATIONS
 A type of chaining and is easily
recognized in the process of learning
medical terminology.
 Ex: a nurse student learning that the
word thermal means temperature. The
instructor introduces hyperthermia and
its definition.
DISCRIMINATION LEARNING
 The newer chains to learn, the easier to
forget. To learn and retain the large
number of chains, the person has to be
able to discriminate among them.
 Finding something unique or
noteworthy, retention will be increased.
CONCEPT LEARNING
 Is learning how to classify stimuli into
groups represented by a common
concept.
 A patient with a chronic wound infection
who has to learn to empty a drain and
change a dressing has to learn about
the concepts of infection and
inflammation.
RULE LEARNING
 A rule can be considered a chain of
concepts or relationship between
concepts.
 A fairly sophisticated learning. If a
learner does not learn and truly
comprehend a lot of rules then he will
have a difficulty with the highest level of
learning called problem solving.
 Rules are generally expressed as “if….
then”
Ex: a home care nurse teaching a wife
 Rules are generally expressed as
“if……then”.
Ex: a home care nurse teaching a wife
to prevent decubitus ulcer (pressure
ulcer) in her post stroke husband. “If
you leave your husband in one position
too long, the pressure on a body part
can cause ulceration”.
PROBLEM SOLVING
 The learner must have a clear idea of
the problem or goal being sought and
must be able to recall and apply
previously learned rules that relate to
the situation.
 A process of formulating and testing
hypothesis.
 SITUATION: a student is planning care
for a patient, Mr. john snow who has
been stabilized after an extensive
myocardial infarction but is still on
bedrest. How to prevent muscle
weakness in this patient yet also
prevent strain on the heart.
EXERCISE
 It involves the active contraction and
relaxation of muscles.
1. according to muscle contraction:
A. Isotonic (dynamic) exist heart
rate
B. Isometric- change in muscle
tension
C. Isokinetic
2. According to the source of energy:
A. Aerobic
B. Anaerobic
ISOTONIC EXERCISES
 The muscle shortens to produce muscle
contraction and active movement.
 Most physical conditioning exercises-
running, walking, swimming, cycling,
and other such activities.
 Activities of daily living (ADL)
 Active ROM range of motion exercises
those initiated by a patient.
 Increase muscle tone, mass and
strength and maintain joint flexibility and
circulation.
 During this exercise, both heart rate and
cardiac output quicken to increase
blood flow to all parts of the body which
depends on the activity. Little or no
changes in blood pressure occurs.
 Ex: of isotonic bed exercise: pushing or
pulling against a stationary object, using
a trapeze to lift the body off the bed,
lifting the buttocks off the bed by
pushing with the hands against the
mattress, pushing the body to a sitting
position.
ISOMETRIC (STATIC OR SETTING)
EXERCISES
 There is change is muscle tension but
no change in muscle length and no
muscle or joint movement.
 Produce moderate increase in heart
rate and cardiac output but no
appreciable increase in blood flow to
other parts of the body.
 Exercise useful for strengthening
abdominal, gluteal and quadriceps
muscles used in ambulation; for
maintaining strengths in immobilized
muscles in casts ort tractions and for
endurance training
 Ex: tensing the thigh muscles. Pressure
the knee against the bed and holding it
for several seconds (quad sets).
ISOKINETIC (RESISTIVE) EXERCISES
 Involves muscle contraction or tension
against resistance thus they can be
either isotonic or isometric.
 During isokinetic exercise, the person
moves (isotonic) or tenses (isometric)
against resistance.
 Special machines or devices provide
the resistance to the movement
 Used in physical conditioning and are
often to build a certain muscle group.
 Ex: the pectorals (chest muscles) may
be increases in size and strength by
lifting weights.
AEROBIC EXERCISE
 The amount of oxygen taken in the body
is greater than that used to perform the
activity
 Use large muscle groups, are
performed continuously and are
rhythmic in nature
 Ex: walking, jogging, running
ANAEROBIC EXERCISE
 The muscles cannot draw out enough
oxygen from the bloodstream, and
anaerobic pathways are used to provide
additional energy for a short time.
 Used in endurance training for athletes
 Pilates, yoga.
CONCEPT DISTINCTIVENESS
 Some are more able to select useful
and relevant concepts that will help to
define and solve the problem.
LEARNING STYLES (COGNITIVE
STYLES)
 The habitual manner in which learners
receive and perceive information,
process it, understand it, value it, store
it and recall it.
LEARNING STYLE MODELS:
 Holistic (global) thinkers – want to get
the whole picture quickly, or get the gist
of things.
 Analytic thinkers – process the details
of a picture, outlining the component
parts in a logical progression.
 Verbal – represent in their brains,
information they read, see or hear in
terms of words or verbal association.
 Visual approach – experiences
information they read, see or hear in
terms of mental pictures or images.
KOLB’S THEORY OF EXPERIENTIAL
LEARNING
 4 stage cycle:
1. Immediate concrete experience
(CE) abilities – learning from actual
experience
2. reflective observation (RO)
abilities – learning by observing
others/
3. abstract conceptualization (AC)
abilities – creating theories to
explain what Is seen.
4. Active experimentation (AE) –
Using theories to solve problems.
KOLB’S POSSIBLE LEARNING STYLES:
 Converger – a person who learns by
abstract conceptualization (AC) And
active experimentation (AE).
 This person is good at decision
making and problem solving and
likes dealing with technical work
rather than interpersonal
relationships.
 Diverger – a person who stresses
concrete experience (CE) and reflective
observations (RO)
 This person excels in imagination
and awareness of meaning.
 Is feeling oriented and people
oriented and likes working in groups.
 Accommodator – a person who relies
heavily on concrete experience (CE)
and active experimentation (AE)
 Likes to actively accomplish things,
often using trial and error methods to
solve problems.
 May be impatient with other people
 Acts on intuition and is a risk taker.
 Assimilator – a person who
emphasizes abstract conceptualization
(AC) and reflective observation (RO)
 The strengths of this person are in
inductive reasoning, creating
theoretical model’s and integrating
ideas.
 Prefers playing with ideas to actively
applying them
 More concerned with ideas than
people.
GREGORC COGNITIVE STYLES MODEL
 Gregorc hypothesized that the mind has
the mediation abilities of perception and
ordering that is the perception and
ordering of knowledge affects how the
person learn.
 Perception- the way a person grasps
incoming stimuli from abstractness to
concreteness.
 Ordering ability- the way you arrange
and systemize incoming stimuli from
sequence to randomness.
4 MEDIATION CHANNELS:
1. concrete sequential (CS)
2. Concrete ransom (CR)
3. abstract sequential (AS)
4. Abstract random (AR)
1. Concrete sequential – learners like
highly structured, quiet learning
environments and do not like being
interrupted.
 focus on details, like concrete
learning materials especially those
that are visual, and may interpret
words literally.
2. Concrete random – learners are
intuitive, uses trial and error methods
and look for alternatives.
3. Abstract sequential – learners are
holistic thinkers who seek
understanding of incoming information.
 need consistency in the learning
environment and do not like
interruptions.
 have good verbal skills and are
logical and rational.
4. Abstract random – learners think
holistically and benefit greatly from
visual stimuli.
 like busy, unstructured learning
environments and are often focused
on personal relationships.
FIELD INDEPENDENCE/ DEPENDENCE
MODEL (HERMAN WITKIN)
 A continuum of perception that ranges
from a field-independent style in which
items are perceived relatively
independently of their surrounding field
and a field dependent style in which a
person has difficulty perceiving items
aside from their surrounding field
 Field independent - more analytical
(seeing the parts more than the whole)
 Field dependent - more global (seeing
the whole more than the parts).
According to studies, women of Western
cultures are examples.
MATCHING LEARNING STYLES TO
INSTRUCTION
 Help students to diversify their learning
styles as they encounter variety of
learning environments
 Teachers should encourage to use
variety of teaching strategies so the
various students' learning needs may be
addressed
HOW USEFUL IS LEARNING STYLE
THEORY
 There are over 100 instruments to
measure learning styles
 20 are well known
 None seem to unify all aspects of
concepts in literature
LEARNING PRINCIPLES TO USE IN
MOTIVATION LEARNERS
1. Use several senses
2. Actively involve the patients or clients in
the learning process
3. Provide an environment conducive to
learning
4. Assess the extent to which the learner
is ready to learn
5. Determine the perceived relevance of
the information
6. Repeat information
7. Generalize information
8. Make learning a pleasant experience
9. Begin with what is known, move toward
what is unknown
10. Present information at an appropriate
rate
MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
THEORIES
 Theory – set of interrelated concepts,
definitions and propositions that
presents a systematic view of events or
situations by specifying relations among
 variables in order to explain and predict
the events of the situation
 Help us understand why people do
or don't do certain things in a given
situation.
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
THEORIES
1. Health Belief Model Theory - based on
perceptions of seriousness or severity
of health problem; personal belief of
susceptibility to or risk of illness;
benefits of adopting the new behavior or
changing the old behavior; barriers to
changing or adopting the behavior.
Change is triggered by cues to action
and supported or hindered by modifying
variables.
2. Transtheoretical or Stages of Change
Model Theory – there are 5 stages
people go through in the process of
change:
 Precontemplation – before they
even begin to think about the
change
 Contemplation – when they weigh
the pros and cons of changing the
behavior- this stage can last for long
periods and when it does it is termed
as behavioral procrastination
 Preparation – when they decide on
how they will undertake the change,
what they will do
 Action – when they start the  The most important determinant of
change, they put the plan into behavior change is learning a new
motion behavior by doing it
 Maintenance – keeping the new  Performance accomplishment –
behavior and resisting the old refers to learning that occurs through
 Termination – when the behavior personal mastery of a particular skill
becomes a habit or task
3. Theory of Reasoned Action - this is  Vicarious experience – learning
based on a person's intention to do through observation
something. Intention to change behavior  Models – are people or events
is the result of: being observed
 A person's attitude toward the  Modelling – enables people to learn
behavior- whether it is positive or by watching, through demonstration.
negative  Verbal persuasion – involves acting
 Subjective norms – significant as the coach and providing
other's reaction to the behavior encouragement.
 Behavioral control – how easy or  Verbal persuasion – involves acting
difficult the person believes the new as the coach and providing
behavior is encouragement
4. Social Cognitive Theory – based on
reciprocal determinism, the behavior is
the result of an interaction between the
behavior, the person or personal factors
and the environment. If one is changed,
all are changed.
 this uses self-efficacy, modeling,
reinforcement, locus of control.
5. Self-efficacy Theory – this is based on
the idea that people will do only what
they think they can do. Four variables
determine the strength of a person’s
belief in ability: performance
accomplishments, vicarious experience,
verbal persuasion and physiological
state