PSYCHOLOGY 101 - Christian Allen M.

Lagos
GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
Module 6 – Thinking and Activity 1 – What is Cognition
Memory
Key Ideas Notes

Cognition An essential form of human consciousness.

- Cognitive The field of psychology dedicated to examining how people

Psychology think. It spans the study of human thinking, emotion, creativity,
language, and problem solving.

Concepts and Concepts are basically the header for a group of information
Prototypes that have similarities. They are generated when observing
details of an external experience long enough that they start
forming cognitive patterns. They are generally obtained through
semantic memory.

Prototypes in simple terms, is the representation of a concept.

Natural concepts are made due to your own observation and

Natural and Artificial experiences. Artificial concepts meanwhile are concepts
Concepts governed mainly by a specific set of characteristics that they
exhibit.

A mental construct that consists of a collection of related

Schemata concepts. It is basically a method of organizing information that
allows the brain to work more efficiently.

Types of Schemata A schema that makes assumption on how other people behave
1. Role Schema because of the role they are occupying.

A schema that is based around a routine. Is usually called as

2. Event Schema cognitive script. Is automatic.
Summary

Cognition (and its’ field of study) is centered around the brain’s ability to receive and process
sensory information. Concepts and its’ corresponding prototypes are key helpers in the
brain’s ability to organize, gather and sort new information. Schemata, which are clusters of
related concepts, help in functioning in a situation we are familiar in automatically.
PSYCHOLOGY 101 - Christian Allen M. Lagos
GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
Module 6 – Thinking and Activity 2 – Problem Solving
Memory
Key Ideas Notes

Problem-Solving A plan of action used to find a solution.

Strategies (PSS)

Types of PSS

1. Trial and Error The continued use of different solutions until the problem is
solved. The most commonly used PSS.

2. Algorithm Step-by-step PSS formula. Likened to a recipe with how it

produces the same results every time it is utilized.

3. Heuristic A general problem-solving framework. Can be construed as

mental shortcuts (e.g., rule of thumb, working backwards,
clustering a big task to smaller pieces).

Pitfalls to Problem
Solving

Mental Set Approaching a problem with a solution that worked in the past
but not now.

Functional Fixedness A type of mental set that makes you unable to comprehend an
object being used for another thing.

Biases

1. Anchoring Bias Occurs when you focus on one piece of information when
making a decision. Literally being anchored in by a singular fact.

2. Confirmation Bias Occurs when you only believe in facts that only support your
pre-existing beliefs.

3. Hindsight Bias Occurs when you believe that an event that happened to you
was preordained rather than simple causality.

4. Representative Occurs when you stereotype someone or something.

Bias

5. Availability Bias Occurs when you make a decision that is based upon a
precedent or an example that is likely to be faulty.

Summary

To solve a problem, you employ the usage of problem-solving strategies. These strategies
include: trial and error, using an algorithm (a step-by-step process), and a heuristic approach
(using mental shortcuts). Sometimes we get stuck solving a problem, this is called a mental
set. There are also various biases (representative, anchoring, availability, and etc.) that could
cloud your judgement when it comes to making decisions.

PSYCHOLOGY 101 - Christian Allen M. Lagos

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
Module 6 – Thinking and Activity 3 – How Memory Functions
Memory
Key Ideas Notes

Encoding The input of information into the memory system.

Automatic Processing A process of encoding that deals with the details of time, space,
frequency, and the meaning of words.

Effortful Processing A process of encoding that requires effort and attention.

.
Types of Encoding

a. Semantic encoding The encoding of words and their meaning.

b. Visual encoding The encoding of images.

c. Acoustic encoding The encoding of sounds, words in particular.

Low-imagery and high- Low-imagery words that are abstract and don’t form a concrete
imagery words image when imagined. While high-imagery words are words that
form a solid image when conjured up in your mind.

The self-reference effect The tendency to having a better recollection of things that it
relates to oneself rather than something that has less personal
relevance.

Storage Is the creation of a permanent record of information.

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Sensory input → Sensory Memory → Short-term memory →

model of memory Long-term memory.

1. Sensory Memory Storage of brief sensory events. The storage itself lasts only for
a couple of seconds.

2. Short-term Memory A temporary storage that processes incoming sensory memory.

(STM) It sometimes connects a sensory memory to a long-term
memory. The storage itself lasts from 15 to 30 seconds.

Rehearsal It is moving information from STM to LTM. Repeat an

information enough times and it’ll be moved into the LTM.

3. Long-term Memory The continuous storage of memory. Its capacity is unlimited.

(LTM)

LTM The LTM is divided into 2 types:

a. Explicit Memory The LTM that we consciously try to remember.

b. Implicit Memory The LTM that is not part of our consciousness. Learned outside
of our consciousness and cannot be consciously recalled.
Types of Explicit Memory

a. Episodic Memory Information about events that oneself has experienced.

b. Semantic Memory Knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based

knowledge and facts.

Types of Implicit Memory

a. Procedural The memory on how to do things.

b. Priming Exposure to a stimulus affects the way you view the latter
stimuli.
c. Emotional
conditioning Involves a conditioned emotional response to a particular
stimulus.
Retrieval
The act of getting information out of the storage and back into
the conscious awareness.
Three ways of retrieval

1. Recall
Accessing memory without cues.
2. Recognition
Identifying information after encountering it again. “Hala familiar”
3. Relearning
Relearning information.

Summary

Memory has three functions: encoding, storing and retrieving. Encoding is the process in
which we gather memories. Storing is the act of storing memory, and retrieving is the act of
getting information from the storage.

PSYCHOLOGY 101 - Christian Allen M. Lagos

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
Module 6 – Thinking and Activity 4 – Ways to Enhance Memory
Memory
Key Ideas Notes

Memory-Enhancing Improving the memory, specifically the recall.

Strategies

Rehearsal The repetition of information in order to be remembered.

Chunking Managing information into different chunks or manageable bits.

Elaborative Rehearsal Thinking about the meaning of an information and its

relationship with concepts that already exist within your memory.

Mnemonic devices Memory aids for organizing information.

Summary

There are many ways memory can be enhanced, including rehearsal, chunking, elaborative
rehearsals, and mnemonic devices.