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Control Systems

Chapter 2
Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

2-1 Introduction:
Mathematical Models. A mathematical model of a dynamic system is
defined as a set of equations that represents the dynamics of the system
accurately, or at least fairly well.

• a mathematical model is not unique

• The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical,
electrical, thermal, economic, biological, and so on, may be described
in terms of differential equations.
• we assume that the principle of causality applies to the systems
considered.

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• Simplicity Versus Accuracy.

• Linear Systems. A system is called linear if the principle of
superposition applies.
• Linear Time-Invariant Systems and Linear Time-Varying Systems.

In this course we will only consider LTI-SISO system

LTI: linear time invariant

SISO: single input single output

2-2 Transfer function and Impulse-Response function

Transfer functions are commonly used to characterize the input-output
relationships of components or systems (electrical, mechanical, or
thermal) that can be described by linear, time-invariant, differential
equations.

𝑑 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑡
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑎 𝑦 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑡
𝑏 𝑏 ⋯ 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 𝑚
Where
𝑦 𝑡 is the output
𝑥 𝑡 is the input
𝑎 , and 𝑏 are the system parameters
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Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides

𝑎 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 𝑎 𝑌 𝑠
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦 𝑡
𝑏 𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑏 𝑠𝑋 𝑠 𝑏 𝑋 𝑠
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 𝑡
If we assume all initial conditions are zero, then
𝑎 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑌 𝑠
𝑏 𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑏 𝑋 𝑠
Taking the common factor out
𝑎 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑌 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑏 𝑋 𝑠
Now, form the ratio of output transformed 𝑌 𝑠 divided by the input
transformed 𝑋 𝑠

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ℒ
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺 𝑠
ℒ
⋯
,𝑛 𝑚.
⋯

• If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is

equal to 𝑛, the system is called an nth-order system.
• 𝑛 𝑚, because any physically realizable transfer function must have
finite bandwidth.

Notes:
𝐵 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠
𝐴 𝑠

𝐵 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑏 𝑠 𝑏 .
𝐴 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑠 𝑎 .
7

• The condition for feasible physical implementation is 𝑛 𝑚

• If 𝐺 𝑠 has only real coefficients and if complex a number is a pole
(zero), then its complex conjugate must also be a pole (Zero).
• The order of 𝐺 𝑠 is the degree of its denominator
• If 𝐵 𝑠 and 𝐴 𝑠 are coprime in the sense that they have no common
factor of degree 1 or higher then all roots of 𝐵 𝑠 are zeros of 𝐺 𝑠
and all roots of 𝐴 𝑠 are poles of 𝐺 𝑠 .
• In defining the order of 𝐺 𝑠 , the coprimeness condition between its
numerator and denominator is essential. Without the condition, the
order of 𝐺 𝑠 is not uniquely defined.
• In the s-domain, signals and systems have the similar forms, therefore,
special caution must be taken not to mix them up.

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Comments on Transfer Function.

1. it is an operational method of expressing the differential equation that

relates the output variable to the input variable explicitly.
2. The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of
the magnitude and nature of the input or driving function.
3. Transfer function is a higher level of abstraction of a physical system,
i.e. it is independent of the nature of the physical system it describes.
4. The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input
to the output.
5. If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response
can be studied for various forms of inputs.
6. If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be established
experimentally by introducing known inputs and studying the output
of the system.
7. the denominator of the transfer function is identical to the
characteristic polynomial of the differential equation.
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Note:
1. In mathematics, the characteristic equation (or auxiliary equation) is
an algebraic equation of degree 𝑛 on which depends the solutions of a
given nth-order differential equation. The characteristic equation can
only be formed when the differential equation is linear, homogeneous,
and has constant coefficients.
2. Note that a transfer function can have one of the following equivalent
forms:
⋯
a. The poles-zeros form of transfer function:
⋯
⋯
b. The time constants form of transfer function: 𝐾
⋯
c. The rational polynomial form of transfer function:
⋯
⋯
3. From points “a and b”, the system transfer function can then be
specified to within a constant by specifying the system poles and zeros
(singularities), or “complex” time constants (modes).
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Note:
↔ ℒ𝑦 𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 𝑌 𝑠
↑ ↑
↑ ↑
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 "𝑦" 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 "𝑌"
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

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Convolution Integral
𝑌 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠
𝑋 𝑠
therefore
𝑌 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝑋 𝑠

𝑦 𝑡 𝑥 𝜏 𝑔 𝑡 𝜏 𝑑𝜏

𝑔 𝜏 𝑥 𝑡 𝜏 𝑑𝜏

Where both 𝑔 𝑡 and 𝑥 𝑡 are zeros for 𝑡 0.

Impulse response:
𝑌 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺 𝑠 ℒ 𝐺 𝑠 𝑔 𝑡

is called the impulse-response function. 12

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2-3 Automatic Control Systems

A control system may consist of a number of components. To show the
functions performed by each component, in control engineering, we
commonly use a diagram called the block diagram.
Block Diagrams.
• A block diagram consist of connected functional blocks or simply
blocks.
• a block diagram has the advantage of indicating explicitly the signal
flows of the actual system.
• A block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal
to the block that produces the output.
• The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in the
corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the
direction of the flow of signals.
• the signal can pass only in the direction of the arrows. Thus a block
diagram of a control system clearly shows a unilateral property.
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Figure 2–1: Element of a block diagram.

• arrowhead pointing toward the block indicates the input

• arrowhead leading away from the block represents the output
• arrows are referred to as signals.
• Dissimilar and unrelated systems can be represented by the same
block diagram
• In a block diagram the main source of energy is not explicitly shown
• Block diagram remove the ambiguity in discerning between signals
and transfer functions (systems) in the s-domain.

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Summing Point.

It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted have the

same dimensions and the same units.

Branch Point.

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Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System.

Block diagram of a
closed-loop system.

The role of the feedback element

𝐻 𝑠 is to modify the output before it
is compared with the input.
In most cases the feedback element
is a sensor that measures the output
of the plant. The output of the sensor
is compared with the system input,
and the actuating error signal is 16
generated.

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Open-Loop Transfer Function and Feedforward Transfer Function.

Referring to the previous figure

𝐵 𝑠
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
𝐸 𝑠

𝐶 𝑠
𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺 𝑠
𝐸 𝑠

If the feedback transfer function 𝐻 𝑠 is unity, then the open-loop

transfer function and the feedforward transfer function are the same.

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Closed-Loop Transfer Function.

𝐶 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
𝑅 𝑠 1 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠

𝐺 𝑠
𝐶 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠
1 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠

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Obtaining Cascaded, Parallel, and Feedback (Closed-Loop) Transfer

Functions with MATLAB.
Covered in Lab. sessions

Automatic Controllers.

Figure 2–6: Block diagram of an industrial control system, which

consists of an automatic controller, an actuator, a plant, and a sensor
(measuring element). 19

Industrial controllers is a general term that describes types of

controllers widely used (as time-tested and established technology) in
industrial production, including supervisory (using open-loop) control
and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, distributed control systems
(DCS), and programmable logic controllers (PLC) often found in the
industrial sectors and critical infrastructures.
Classifications of Industrial Controllers. Most industrial controllers
may be classified according to their control actions as:

1. Two-position or on–off controllers

2. Proportional controllers
3. Integral controllers
4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers
5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers
Let the output signal from the controller be 𝑢 𝑡 and the actuating error
signal be 𝑒 𝑡 . 20

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Two-Position or On–Off Control Action.

• Nonlinear control method
• Relatively simple and inexpensive
• Very widely used in both industrial and domestic control systems

𝑈 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒 𝑡 0
𝑢 𝑡
𝑈 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒 𝑡 0

Block diagram of an on–off controller.

To prevent too-frequent operation of the on–off mechanism,

the differential gap is used.
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block diagram of an on–off

controller with differential gap.

Liquid-level control system

Level h(t)-versus-t curve for the

system
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Proportional Control Action.

𝑢 𝑡 𝐾 𝑒 𝑡
𝑈 𝑠
𝐾
𝐸 𝑠
Where the constant 𝐾 is termed the proportional gain.
The proportional controller is essentially an amplifier with an adjustable
gain.
Integral Control Action.
𝑢 𝑡 𝐾 𝑒 𝜆 𝑑𝜆

Where the constant 𝐾 is an adjustable constant.

𝑈 𝑠 𝐾
𝐸 𝑠 𝑠 23

Proportional-Plus-Integral (PI) Control Action.

𝐾
𝑢 𝑡 𝐾 𝑒 𝑡 𝑒 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
𝑇
𝑈 𝑠 1
𝐾 1
𝐸 𝑠 𝑇𝑠
Where 𝑇 is called the integral time.

Proportional-Plus-Derivative (PD) Control Action.

𝑑𝑒 𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 𝐾 𝑒 𝑡 𝐾 𝑇
𝑑𝑡
𝑈 𝑠
𝐾 1 𝑇 𝑠
𝐸 𝑠
Where 𝑇 is called the derivative time.
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Proportional-Plus-Integral-Plus-Derivative (PID) Control Action.

𝐾 𝑑𝑒 𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 𝐾 𝑒 𝑡 𝑒 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝐾 𝑇
𝑇 𝑑𝑡
𝑈 𝑠 1
𝐾 1 𝑇 𝑠
𝐸 𝑠 𝑇𝑠
Where 𝐾 is the proportional gain, 𝑇 is the integral time, 𝑇 is the
derivative time.

Block diagram of a Proportional -

plus- integral –plus- derivative
controller.

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Closed-Loop System Subjected to a Disturbance.

, 𝐶 𝑠 is the output signal caused by 𝐷 𝑠 only,

i.e. with 𝑅 𝑠 0.
, 𝐶 𝑠 is the output signal caused by 𝑅 𝑠 only,
i.e. with 𝐷 𝑠 0.
𝐺 𝑠
𝐶 𝑠 𝐶 𝑠 𝐶 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 𝐷 𝑠
1 𝐺 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
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Procedures for Drawing a Block Diagram.

The following assumptions are made in driving transfer functions of
physical systems:
• It is assumed that there is no loading, i.e. no power is drawn at the
output of the system. Otherwise the overall transfer function should be
derived by basic analysis without regard to the individual transfer
functions.
• The system should approximated by a linear lumped constant
parameters model by making suitable assumptions.
Steps to draw a block diagram for a system:
1. Write the equations that describe the dynamic behavior of each
component.
2. Take the Laplace transforms of these equations, assuming zero initial
conditions.
3. Represent each Laplace-transformed equation individually in block
form.
4. Assemble the elements into a complete block diagram. 27

(a) RC circuit;
(b) block diagram representing Equation 𝐼 𝑠 ;
(c) block diagram representing Equation 𝐸 𝑠 ;
(d) block diagram of the RC circuit.
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Cascade Form

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Parallel Form

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Feedback Form

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Moving Blocks to Create Familiar Forms

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EXAMPLE 2–1: Consider the system shown in Figure shown below.

Simplify this diagram.

Hints:
1. Move blocks to create familiar forms: cascade, parallel or feedback
forms.
2. Use the cascade forms, parallel forms and feedback forms to achieve
block diagram reductions.

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Electromechanical system transfer function: DC motor

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Speed transfer function

𝜔 𝑠 𝐾
𝐺 𝑠
𝐸 𝑠 𝑠 𝛼

DC motor behaves as a
first order system with
step input.

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Position transfer function

𝜔 𝑠𝜃

𝜃 𝑠 𝐾
𝐺 𝑠
𝐸 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝛼

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Torque speed curves with an

armature voltage 𝑒 , as a parameter

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