Appendix A : Laplace Transform Tables

Appendix A first presents the complex variable and complex function.

Then it presents tables of Laplace transform pairs and properties of
Laplace transforms. Finally, it presents frequently used Laplace
transform theorems and Laplace transforms of pulse and impulse
functions.

Complex Variable. A complex number has a real part and an imaginary

part, both of which are constant. If the real part and/or imaginary part
are variables, a complex quantity is called a complex variable. (1)

o In the Laplace transformation we use

the notation 𝑠 as a complex variable;
that is,
𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔
where 𝑠 is the real part and 𝑗𝜔 is
the imaginary part.
Complex Function. A complex function 𝐺 𝑠 , a function of s, has a real
part and an imaginary part or 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐺𝑥 + 𝑗 𝐺𝑦 where 𝐺𝑥 and 𝐺𝑦 are
real quantities. The magnitude of 𝐺 𝑠 is:

(2)

and the angle 𝜃 of 𝐺 𝑠 is:

−1 𝐺𝑦
∠𝐺 𝑠 =𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝐺𝑥
The angle is measured counterclockwise from
the positive real axis.
The complex conjugate of 𝐺 𝑠 is:

Complex functions commonly encountered in linear control systems

analysis are single-valued functions of 𝑠 and are uniquely determined
for a given value of 𝑠.
A complex function 𝐺 𝑠 is said to be analytic in a region if 𝐺 𝑠 and all
its derivatives exist in that region.

(3)

o Points in the s plane at which the function 𝐺 𝑠 is analytic are

called ordinary points, while points in the s plane at which the
function 𝐺 𝑠 is not analytic are called singular points.

Singular points at which the function 𝐺 𝑠 or its derivatives approach

infinity are called poles. Singular points at which the function 𝐺 𝑠
equals zero are called zeros. (4)
Pole-Zero Patterns :

o where the terms 𝑠 + 𝑧𝑖 are factors of the numerator polynomial

and the terms 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖 are factors of the denominator polynomial.

Those values of the complex variables 𝑠 for which 𝐺(𝑠) is zero are
called the zeros of 𝑮(𝒔).
Those values of the complex variables 𝑠 for which 𝐺(𝑠) is infinite are
called the poles of 𝑮(𝒔). (5)

Example:

Zeros of 𝐹(𝑠) are at 𝑠 = −1, 2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∞

Poles of 𝐹(𝑠) are at 𝑠 = −3, −1 − 𝑗, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1 + 𝑗 (6)
The location of a pole in the 𝑠 plane is denoted by ×, and The location
of a zero in the 𝑠 plane is denoted by 𝑜.

Laplace Transformation: Let us define 𝑓(𝑡) as a function of time t such

that 𝑓 𝑡 = 0 for 𝑡 < 0. Then, the Laplace transform of 𝑓(𝑡) is given
by.
(7)

o The parameter 𝑠 is a complex number, 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 with real

numbers 𝜎 and 𝜔.
Advantages:
1. Transform linear differential equation into an algebraic equation
in a complex variable.
2. It allows the use of graphical techniques for predicting the
system performance without actually solving system differential
equation.
3. It can obtain both the transient and steady-state component of
the solution simultaneously.

Inverse Laplace Transformation: The reverse process of finding the

time function 𝑓 𝑡 from the Laplace transform 𝐹 𝑠 is called the
inverse Laplace transformation. (8)

o The inverse Laplace transform can be found from 𝐹 𝑠 by the

following inversion integral:
where 𝑐, the abscissa of convergence, is a real constant and is chosen
larger than the real parts of all singular points of 𝐹(s). Thus, the path of
integration is parallel to the 𝑗𝜔 axis and is displaced by the amount 𝑐
from it. This path of integration is to the right of all singular points.

o Evaluating the inversion integral appears complicated. In practice,

we seldom use this integral for finding 𝑓 𝑡 . We frequently use the
partial-fraction expansion method given in Appendix B.

o In what follows Table A–1 is given, which presents Laplace transform

pairs of commonly encountered functions, and Table A–2 is given,
which presents properties of Laplace transforms.
 Singularity Functions:
Some well-known input functions are generally applied to test the
behavior of an unknown system. A set of such test functions is called
singularity functions. The singularity functions are important because
they can be used as building blocks to construct any arbitrary input
function and, by the superposition principle, the response of a linear
system to any arbitrary input can be easily obtained as the linear
superposition of responses to singularity functions.

The two distinct singularity functions commonly used for determining

an unknown system's behavior are the unit impulse and unit step
functions. (9)

o A common property of these functions is that they are continuous in

time, except at a given time. Another interesting fact about the
singularity functions is that they can be derived from each other by
differentiation or integration in time.
o 1. Unit step function:

The Laplace transform of unit step

function is 1/s.

ℒ[1(t)] = 1/s (10)

o 2. Unit ramp function

The Laplace transform of unit

1
ramp function is 2 .
𝑠

1
ℒ[r(t)] = (11)
𝑠2
 Final Value Theorem:
 If ℒ 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠), 𝑓 (1) (𝑡) is Laplace transformable, and
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡→∞ 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓(∞) exists, then:

(12)

o if 𝑓 𝑡 and 𝑓 (𝑡) are Laplace transformable and all poles(roots) of

𝑠𝐹(𝑠) are in the left half-plane (s-plane).

o The final value theorem is useful because it gives the long-term

behavior without having to perform partial fraction decompositions
or other difficult algebra.
o It predicts the system behavior in the time domain without actually
transforming functions in 𝑠 back to time functions.
(13)
Mathematical Modeling:
o In studying control systems one must be able to model dynamic
systems in mathematical terms and analyze their dynamic
characteristics. Note that a mathematical model is not unique to a
given system. A system may be represented in many different ways
and, therefore, may have many mathematical models, depending on
one’s perspective.

A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of

equations that represents the dynamics of the system accurately,
or at least fairly well. (14)

o Note that a mathematical model is not unique to a given system. A

system may be represented in many different ways and, therefore,
may have many mathematical models, depending on one’s
perspective.
o The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical,
electrical, thermal, economic, biological, and so on, may be
described in terms of differential equations. Such differential
equations may be obtained by using physical laws governing a
particular system—for example, Newton’s laws for mechanical
systems and Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems. We must always
keep in mind that deriving reasonable mathematical models is the
most important part of the entire analysis of control systems.
 Principle of Causality: Throughout this course we assume that the
principle of causality applies to the systems considered. This means
that the current output of the system (the output at time t = 0)
depends on the past input (the input for t < 0) but does not depend
on the future input (the input for t > 0). (15)

Mathematical Models:
Mathematical models may assume many different forms. Depending on
the particular system and the particular circumstances, one
mathematical model may be better suited than other models.
o For example, in optimal control problems, it is advantageous to use
state-space representations. On the other hand, for the transient-
response or frequency-response analysis of single-input, single-
output, linear, time-invariant systems, the transfer-function
representation may be more convenient than any other.

• Once a mathematical model of a system is obtained, various

analytical and computer tools can be used for analysis and synthesis
purposes. (16)

Simplicity Versus Accuracy:

In obtaining a mathematical model, we must make a compromise
between the simplicity of the model and the accuracy of the results of
the analysis. In deriving a reasonably simplified mathematical model,
we frequently find it necessary to ignore certain inherent physical
properties of the system. In particular, if a linear lumped-parameter
mathematical model (that is, one employing ordinary differential
equations) is desired, it is always necessary to ignore certain
nonlinearities and distributed parameters that may be present in the
physical system.

o In general, in solving a new problem, it is desirable to build a

simplified model so that we can get a general feeling for the
solution. A more complete mathematical model may then be built
and used for a more accurate analysis.

Linear Systems : A system is called linear if the Principle of

Superposition applies. (17)

• The principle of superposition states that the response produced by

the simultaneous application of two different forcing functions is the
sum of the two individual responses. (18)

o Hence for the linear system, the response to several inputs can be
calculated by treating one input at a time and adding the results. It is
this principle that allows one to build up complicated solutions to
the linear differential equation from simple solutions.