BUILDING MATERIALS AND

CONSTRUCTION V
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THE VULNERABILITY PROFILE …
• 59% of land mass prone to earthquakes
• 40 million hectares (8%) of landmass prone to
floods
• 8000 Km long coastline with two cyclone
seasons
• Hilly regions vulnerable to
avalanches/landslides/Hailstorms/cloudburst
• 68% of the total area susceptible to drought
• Different types of manmade Hazards
• Tsunami threat
• 1 million houses damaged annually + human,
economic, social and other losses
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EARTHQUAKE …
• An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the
shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden
release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.

• Some 80 percent of all the planet's earthquakes occur along the rim
of the Pacific Ocean, called the "Ring of Fire“
• On average, a magnitude 8 quake
strikes somewhere every year and some
10,000 people die in earthquakes
annually

• Ground shaking from earthquakes can

collapse buildings and bridges; disrupt
the services; and sometimes trigger
landslides, and huge, destructive ocean
waves (tsunamis). MODULE 04 | 12 | 04 | 2023
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EARTHQUAKE … Death Toll

Damages due to earthquake in 2011 …

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NEED TO STUDY …

EARTHQUAKE DON’T KILL PEOPLE …

IMPROPERLY DESIGNED STRUCTURES DO …

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SEISMOLOGY …
• The term ‘Seismology’ is derived from Greek word Seismo, which
means earthquake and logos means science; hence the Seismology
is Science of Earthquakes .

• Seismology can be defined in two ways ,

1. The science of earthquakes and the physics of the earth’s
interior
2. The science of elastic wave (seismic waves)
• Seismometers are instruments that
measure motions of the ground, including
those of seismic waves generated
by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
other seismic sources.

• Seismometers may be deployed at Earth's

surface, in shallow vaults, in boreholes, or
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SEISMIC ZONES …
• The earthquake zoning map of world are divides into 5 seismic
zones Based on the observations of the affected area due to
Earthquake.

• Zone –I : This zone is totally safe from earthquake.

• Zone - II: This is said to be the least active seismic zone.

• Zone - III: It is included in the moderate seismic zone.

• Zone - IV: This is considered to be the high seismic zone.

• Zone - V: It is the highest seismic zone.

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SEISMIC ZONES IN INDIA …
• The earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic
zones Based on the observations of the affected area due to
Earthquake India divided into four types of zones:

More than 60 % area is

earthquake prone.

Zone V 12 %
Zone IV 18 %
Zone III 26 %
Zone II 44 %

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MAGNITUDE VS INTENSITY …
• The magnitude of an earthquake is determined instrumentally
and is more objective measure of its size

• Intensity (Mercalli intensity scale ) of an earthquake is a subjective

parameter based on assessment of visible effects/damages
happened. It depends on factors other than the actual size of the
earthquake.

• The magnitude scale is “Richter magnitude scale“ , invented by

Charles Francis Richter, circa 1970.

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MAGNITUDE …

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INTENSITY SCALE …

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INERTIA FORCES IN STRUCTURES …
• During Earthquake building experiences motion at its base
• Roof has a tendency to stay in its original position
• Wall and column drag the roof along with them
• Roof experiences a force (Inertia Force-IF)
• Mass is more, IF will be more,
• Lighter building performs better in Earthquake shaking

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ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES AND EARTHQUAKE …
Size of the building …
• Horizontal Movement is very large in tall building (Ht /Base).
• Damaging effects are many in long buildings
• Horizontal seismic force becomes excessive in case of building with
large plan area (force to be carried by column/wall)

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Vertical layout of buildings …
• EQ force travels through the shortest path along the height of the
building (Developed at different floor level of the bld.)
• Any discontinuity in this load transfer path results in poor
performance of the building.
• Bld. With vertical set backs causes a sudden jump in earthquake
force at the level of discontinuity.

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• Bld. With fewer column/wall in a particular storey or with
unusually tall story tend to damage or collapse.
• Unequal height of the column along the slope caused ill effects
like twisting and damage is more in shorter column
• Building with hanging and floating column have discontinuities in
load transfer path
• Building with RCC Walls that stops at an upper level gets severely
damaged .
Adjacency of buildings …
• Two buildings too close pound on
each other during the strong shaking.
• If Bld. Heights do not match, shorter
building may pound at the mid
height of the column of the taller one
which is very dangerous

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EARTHQUAKE DESIGN … THE AIM
• Under minor but frequent shaking the
main members of the building that carry
vertical and horizontal forces should not
be damaged, however the building parts
that do not carry load may sustain
repairable damage.
• Under moderate but occasional shaking
the main members may sustain
reparable damage, while the other parts
of the building may be damaged such
that they may even have to be replaced
after the EQ
• Under strong but rare shaking the main
members may sustain severe damage
but the building should not collapse .

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Unacceptable damages …
• Damage should occur at right place
by right amount eg. RCC Framed
Building (with masonry filler wall)
cracks between vertical columns and
masonry fillers is acceptable and
diagonal cracks running through
column is not acceptable.

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Acceptable damages … Ductility
• Identify Acceptable form of damage
and desirable building behavior
during EQ
• EQ resistant buildings (Main Element)
need to built with maximum ductility
in them.
• Such building withstand EQ effects
with some damage but without
collapse.

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Behaviour of Wall …
• Masonry Bld. Most vulnerable under EQ
shaking(Brittle Structure)

• Wall is most vulnerable component of the

Bld due to horizontal force (EQ)

• Wall offers greater resistance if pushed

along its length (Strong Direction)

• Wall topples easily if pushed in a

direction perpendicular to its plan(Weak
Direction)

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Behaviour of Wall …
• All walls if joined properly to the
adjacent wall ensures good seismic
performance.

• Walls loaded in weak direction take

advantage of the good lateral resistance
offered in their strong direction.

• Walls need to be tied to the roof and

foundation to reserve their overall
integrity

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EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN …
1 . Configuration of planning …
• Regular configuration is seismically ideal.
These configurations have low heights to
base ratio, symmetrical plane, uniform
section and elevation and thus have
balanced resistance.
• Buildings with irregular configuration will
have re entrant corners which weakness
the structural stability while EQ.

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Elevation Irregularities …

1) Soft-Storey/Pan-caked 2) Set-backs 3) Connections

4) Pounding 5) Breaks in 6) Staggered 7) In-fills

Columns Levels
or Beams MODULE 04 | 12 | 04 | 2023
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Open ground storey building …

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Short column …

• Short column effect can be

avoided by giving
separation gap between
wall and columns.

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2. Ductility …
The currently adopted performance criteria in the earthquake codes
are the following ,
• The structure should resist moderate intensity of earthquake
shaking without structural damage.
• The structure should be able to resist exceptionally large intensity
of earthquake shaking without collapse.

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• Seismic Inertia Forces generated at its floor level is transferred
through its beam and column to the ground.
• Failure of a column can affect the stability of the whole building.
• Failure of beam causes localized effect only.
• Correct building components should be ductile.
• RC building should be designed using strong column weak beam
design method.

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3. Shear walls …
• Shear walls ( RC WALLS ) are designed to resist lateral forces
having excellent structural system to resist earthquake.
• Provided throughout the entire height of wall , which starts from
foundation iteslf.
• Practicing from 1960s for medium and high rise buildings (4 to 35
stories high)

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• Load transferred directly to the ground , which provides large
strength and stiffness in the direction of orientation .
• Thickness 150 – 400 mm.
• Minimum reinforcement 0.25% of gross area in each direction.
• Shear walls in building must be symmetrically located in plan to
reduce ill effects of twist in building.

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• Located symmetrically to avoid ill effects of twisting.
• Symmetry can be along one or both the directions.
• Can be located at exterior or interior. More effective when located
along exterior perimeter of building.

Possible geometry of walls , from rectangle to L - shape , C

- shape and around the elevator core.
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3. Diagonal framing (Bracing ) …
• Bracing is a system utilized to reinforce building structures in which
diagonal supports intersect.
• Cross bracing can increase a building’s capability to withstand
seismic activity.
• Cross bracing is usually seen with two diagonal supports placed in
X shaped manner, these support compression and tension forces ,
applied to mainly rectangular framed buildings.

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Types of Cross bracing MODULE
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• Depending on the forces, one brace may be in tension while the
other is slack. It helps make buildings sturdier and more likely to
withstand lateral forces.
• In steel construction, steel cables may be used due to their great
resistance to tension .
• The common uses for cross bracing includes bridge (side) supports,
along with structural foundations. This method of construction
maximizes the weight of the load a structure is able to support.
• The bracing helps keep the shape of the building, and if the
foundations are built on bedrock, the building may resist even the
biggest earthquakes.

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4. Base Isolation …
• The idea behind base isolation device is
to detach (isolate) the buildings from the
ground in such a way that EQ motions
are not transmitted up through the
building or at least reduced.
• A Careful study is required to identify
the most suitable type of device for a
particular building
• Most suitable building for base isolation
are low to medium rise building rested
on hard soil underneath.
• High rise buildings or building rested on
soft soil are not suitable for base
isolation.

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Before earthquake After earthquake

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• In India base isolation technique was
first demonstrated after 1993 Killari
Earthquake.
• Two single storey building (one school
and another shopping complex bld)
were built with rubber base isolators
resting on hard ground
• The four storey bhuj hospital bld was
built with base isolation technique
after 2001 bhuj Earth quake.

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• Base isolators are made by rubber ,
lead and steel etc.
• It is a collection of structural
elements which should substantially
decouple a superstructure from its
substructure resting on a shaking
ground thus protecting a building or
non-building structure's integrity.

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5. Seismic Dampers …
• Special devices introduced in the
building to absorb the energy
provided by the ground motion to
the building.
• Seismic dampers are provided in
place of structural elements such as
diagonal braces.
• These dampers act like hydraulic
shock absorbers and absorbs part of
the seismic energy transmitted
through them, thus damps the
motion of the building.

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• Ground movement forces the lead to pass through a narrow gap.
When the direction of movement changes, the flow of lead is
reversed. The principle is still the same as the lead rubber bearing,
with kinetic energy being converted into heat energy, thereby
preventing the building absorbing the kinetic energy.
• Three types of dampers are available ,
• Viscous Dampers (energy is absorbed by silicone-based
fluid passing between piston-cylinder arrangement),
• Friction Dampers (energy is absorbed by surfaces with
friction between them rubbing against each other), and
• Yielding Dampers (energy is absorbed by metallic
components that yield).

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6. Vertical and Horizontal Reinforcement … Banding
RCC Framed - Brick Masonry structures ( Seismic zone V )

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RCC Framed – Gable roofed structures

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Earthquake resistance – Recommendations

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Seismic Design Codes in India …
• Bureau of Indian standards has published various seismic design
codes which gives guidelines for design and construction of
earthquake resistance structures.

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 THANK YOU
|

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