Unit 6 Earthquake resistant design and principles

Unit 4 Earthquake Resistance Design and Principles
Contents: Part – I:- Conceptual Design: Planning aspects, Load path, Stiffness and
strength distribution, different structural system, liquefaction and settlement.
Part – II:- Earthquake Resistance Design Principles: Design philosophy, Behavior of

RC building, ductility and ductile detailing of beam and columns using IS 13920.
4.1 Conceptual design

For construction of new structure, an architect or designer should give thorough thought to form,
shape and material of structure as well as functional & cost requirements, to avoid critical failure
during an earthquake.
The architect should interact with structural engineer to conceive the most appropriate &
seismically safe structure. A good configuration and a reasonable framing system can even
overcome poor quality of construction, without greatly affecting the ultimate performance.
In a rational conceptual design, the basic factors contributing to the proper seismic behavior of
building are simplicity, symmetry, ductility & transfer of lateral load to ground without excessive
rotation.
4.1.1 Planning aspects
The following are the main aspects of building configuration to enhance its earthquake
resistance.
(a) Symmetry – The building as a whole or various components should be kept symmetrical
about both areas as it avoids torsion during earthquake. To avoid torsional deformation,
the centre of stiffness of building should coincide with centre of mass & for this it is
desirable to have symmetry both in building configuration as well as in structure. Also
symmetry is desirable in placing and sizing of opening. Whereas the unsymmetry will
result in torsion leading to failure of corner columns & walls at the perimeter of building.
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Fig. 4.1 Symmetry

(b) Regularity – Building regular in plan and elevation, without re-entrant corners or
discontinuities in transferring the vertical loads to ground behave good during earthquake.
Hence, simple rectangular shapes behave better than other shapes i.e. shapes with many
projections. Torsional effects of earthquake are more in long narrow rectangular blocks.
Hence length to width ratio should be restricted to 3. This is because buildings that are too
ling in plan, may be subjected to different earthquake movement. Simultaneously at two
ends leading to disastrous. However, if longer lengths are required, two separate blocks
with proper separation should be provided.
Fig. 4.2 Regularity
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(c) Simplicity – Simplicity is one of the most important aspect to enhance earthquake
resistance because ornamentation like large cornices, cantilever projection are dangerous
& undesirable from seismic point of view. The complex structures are more likely to be
damaged during an earthquake because of lack of proper detailing due to complexity.
However, if ornamentation is to be done, it must be reinforced & should be properly
embedded or tied to main structure. For design of cantilever projection, seismic coefficient
of about 5 times than that used for main structure should be used.
(d) Separation of block – In order to obtain symmetry and regularity, separation of large
buildings into several blocks may be required. The separation should be such that there
should be no hammering or pounding damage between the block. Hence a separation of 3-
4cm throughout the height above the plinth level will be adequate as well as practical for
upto 3 storied buildings.
The separation section can be treated as expansion joint or may be filled with weak material
which would easily crush or crumble during an earthquake. Such separation may be
considered in case of large building only.
(e) Enclosed area – A small building enclosure with properly interconnected walls acts like a
rigid box because the earthquake strength which long wall derives from transverse walls
increases as their length decreases. Hence it is desirable to have separate room rather than
one long room.
a
For unframed walls, ratio of  40 should be maximum where t=thickness of wall &
t
a=spacing of wall. This is applicable for rich mortar.
Fig. 4.3 Enclosed area
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(f) Separate building for different function – In case of important buildings like school,
hospitals, security building etc. It may be economical to plan separate blocks for different
function so as to affect economy in strengthening costs.
4.1.2 Load path

The path along which the earthquake load or any other load is transmitted from the structural
member to the ground is called as load path.
Load path is one of the most fundamental consideration in earthquake resistant design. There
should be at least one continuous load path with adequate strength and stiffness right from the
origin of initial load manifestation to final lateral load resisting moment.
It is necessary to have proper and continuous load path in order to provide better performance
under any type of loading. Buildings are generally composed of horizontal and vertical structural
elements. The horizontal elements are usually diaphragms, such as floor slab, horizontal bearing
etc. whereas vertical elements are shear walls, braced frames and moment resisting frames.
The horizontal forces generated by seismic motion are directly proportional to the masses of
building elements & are considered to act at centre of mass of these elements. The earthquake
forces developed at different floor levels in building should be brought down to the ground through
shortest path.
The general load path is as follows: Earthquake forces generated in an element are transmitted
through structural connections to a horizontal floor & floor diaphragm. The diaphragm distributes
these forces to vertical resisting components & finally vertical elements transfer the forces to
foundation & eventually to ground.
A discontinuity in this load transfer path results in performance of the building. Also failure to
provide adequate strength and toughness of individual elements in system or failure to tie
individual elements together can result in complete collapse of the system.
4.1.3 Stiffness and strength distribution

Stiffness is property of element to resist displacement whereas strength is property of element to
resist force. When two elements of different stiffnesses are forced to deflect with some amount,
the stiffener element will carry more of total load. Stiffness greatly affects the structure’s behavior
under earthquake loading.
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On the basis of stiffness, the structure may be classified as brittle or ductile. A brittle structure
have greater stiffness but proves to be less durable during an earthquake, whereas ductile structure
performs well in earthquake.
Sudden changes in strength and stiffness are very common & are associated with setbacks,
discontinuous shear walls, changes in storey height, changes in material & unanticipated
participation of nonstructural components. These sudden changes in strength, stiffness in either
plane of building can result in distribution of lateral loads and deformations different from these
that are anticipated for uniform structures. Also drastic change in vertical configuration causes
changes in stiffness & strength between adjacent stories of building & hence should be avoided.
This is because failure due to discontinuity of vertical members of lateral load resisting system
have been most notable & spectacular.
Also building with soft storey are more prone to damage because soft storey have stiffness much
less than that of other storey. When earthquake takes place, plastic deformation tends to
concentrate in soft storey & may cause entire building to collapse. The unequal height of columns
causes twisting & damage to short column because shear force is concentrated in relatively stiff
short column which fail before long column.
The most common form of vertical discontinuity arises because of unintended effects of
nonstructural elements. The problem is more severe in structures having relatively flexible lateral
load resisting systems because in such case, the nonstructural component can compromise a
significant portion of total stiffness. Stiffness and plan irregularities can result in significant
torsional response.
4.1.4 Different structural system

The following are various structural systems:
1) Bearing wall system – In this system, the walls are load bearing. However some walls are
shear walls. This system is designed for gravity as well as lateral loads. Under the action
of lateral load, the wall acts as cantilever wall. The shear distribution is proportional to
moment of inertia of cross section of walls. The relative displacement of floor results from
bending deformation of the walls. This system is most common for low rise buildings.
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2) Moment resisting system – This system consists of beams, columns, & joints which resists
the earthquake force primarily by flexure. These are frame which when subjected to lateral
forces, exhibits zero moment at mid height of columns. Shear deformation is proportional
to moment of inertia of column & relative displacement is proportional to shear forces. The
continuity of frame also consist in resisting gravity loading more effectively by reducing
positive moment in centre span of girders. The moment resisting frame is fundamental
structural system. However it is applicable only up to 30 storeys.
3) Dual system – This system consists of moment resisting frame either braced or with shear
walls. The characteristics of this combination is that in the lower floors the wall retains the
frame while in the upper floor, the frame inhibits large displacement of wall. As a result,
the frame exhibits a small variation in storey shear between first & last floor. Dual system
may be designed to resist the total design force in proportion to their lateral stiffness. This
system is used in multistoried building where strength & stiffness of a frame is not adequate
& is required further strengthening. Dual system also useful in preventing failure of
nonstructural components by reducing drift.
4) Tube system – It is 3 dimensional system that utilizes the entire building perimeter to resist
lateral load. Tube system may be classified as framed tube, trussed tube, tube in tube &
bundled tube systems. In framed tube system, closely spaced columns are tied to each floor
level by deep spectral beams, thereby creating effect of hollow tube, perforated by openings
for windows. The trussed tube system is an advancement over the framed structure. The
diagonal members along with girders and columns, form a truss system that imparts a great
deal of stiffness to building. The tube in tube system consists of an exterior tube that resists
the bending moment due to lateral forces & an interior tube which resist the shear produced
due to lateral forces. The bundled type system is made up of no. of tubes separated by shear
walls, the tube raises to various heights and each tube is designed independently.
4.1.5 Liquefaction
Liquefaction may be defined as sudden drop of shear strength of soil from the yield strength to
substantial critical state strength due to vibratory motion taking place during an earthquake. Under
the earthquake loading, some soils may compact increasing pore water pressure & causing a loss
in shear strength & behave like mud. This phenomenon is generally referred as liquefaction.
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Liquefaction can occur at some depth causing an upward flow of water. Although this flow may
not cause liquefaction in upper layers, it is possible that the hydrodynamic pressure may reduce
the allowable bearing pressure at the surface.
In liquefaction, loss of shear strength occurs due to the transfer of intergranular stress from grains
to pore water. Thus, if this transfer is complete i.e. pore pressure becomes equal to total stress, the
effective stress reduces to zero & there is complete loss of shear strength of soil. This stage is
called ‘Complete liquefaction’. However, if stress is partially transferred from grains to pore water,
it is known as ‘Partial liquefaction’ & there is only partial loss of shear strength.
In case of complete liquefaction, soil behaves as a viscous fluid. However in case of partial
liquefaction, only internal changes occur in soil & no apparent evidence of liquefaction can be
seen on surface, as in former case.
The structure may settle in case of partial liquefaction but it will sink in case of complete
liquefaction. Thus, as soon as liquefaction occurs, the consolidation shorts, followed by surface
settlement which results in closer packing of sand particles. During this process, pore pressure
starts dissipating & in the field, water flows only up words thereby reducing effective stresses &
causing liquefaction in layers that were not liquefied.
Liquefaction likely to occur under following soil conditions:
a) Sandy layer is within 15-20m of G.L. & is not subjected to high overburden pressure.
b) The layer consists of uniform medium size particles.
c) The layer is saturated.
d) The SPT value is below a certain level.
Factors affecting Liquefaction:
The following are the factors affecting liquefaction of soil.
A) Grain size distribution
Fine and uniform sand are believed to be more affected to liquefaction than coarse sand
because the permeability of coarse sand is more than that of the fine sand and hence pore
pressure developed during vibrations dissipates more easily thereby reducing the chance
of liquefaction in coarse sand.
Uniformly graded soil is more susceptible to liquefaction than well graded soil.
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B) Initial relative density

This is one of important factor controlling liquefaction. With the increase in initial relative
density, both settlement and pore pressure are considerably reduced during the vibration.
Under ideal stress condition, sands having less initial density will experience larger strain
and undergo greater settlement than those having higher initial density. The chances of
liquefaction & excessive settlement are therefore reduced with increased relative density.
C) Vibration characteristics
Liquefaction depends on the nature, magnitude and type of dynamic loading. Under shock
loading the whole stratum may be liquefied at once, while under steady state vibration, it
may start from top & proceed downwords. In general, horizontal vibration in dry sand leads
to larger liquefaction than vertical vibration. Also multidirectional vibrations created by an
earthquake are more severe than one directional loading / stress condition.
D) Location of drainage & dimension of deposits

Sands are generally more pervious than fine grained soils. However, if pervious deposits
has large dimension than drainage path increases & under rapid loading during an
earthquake. The deposits may behave as if it was undrained. Therefore, chances of
liquefaction increases in such case.
E) Magnitude & nature of super imposed load

To transfer initial effective stress to pore water, either intensity of vibrations or no. of
particular stress cycles must be more. Hence, large initial effective stress reduces the
possibility of liquefaction.
F) Method of soil formation

The liquefaction characteristics of saturated sand under cyclic loading is significantly
influenced by method of same preparation and soil structure.
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G) Period under sustained load

The age of soil also influence its liquefaction characteristics. The liquefaction resistance
offered by undisturbed soil was 75% more than that offered by fresh sample as indicated
by various experiments. This strength increase might be due to some form of concentration
or welding which may occur at contact point between sand particles & might be associated
with secondary compression of soil.
H) Trapped air
Trapped air reduces the possibility of liquefaction by dissipating a part of pore water
pressure by undergoing compression in water.
I) Previous strain history

Sand may be subjected to certain strain during previous earthquake. This may also
influence liquefaction characteristics.
4.1.6 Settlement
Soil settlement may be defined as vertical movement of soil due to compaction that may take place
due to vibrations taking place during an earthquake.
Generally loose soil is prone to settlement as it get compacted under vibrations. Settlement depends
on magnitude & duration of vibrations as well as on relative density of soil.
In order to ensure safety of structure on loose soil (if present), it is important to assess the degree
of vulnerability of a given loose sand deposit to settlement. However, prediction of settlement with
accuracy is difficult, but it has been observed that sands with relative density below 60% or soil
having standard penetration resistance below is are susceptible to significant settlement.
4.2 Design and planning aspects of structure to enhance earthquake

resistant
The various planning & design aspects of structure are as follows:
(a) Building plan: - It includes symmetry, regularity, separation of blocks, simplicity, enclosed
area, separate building for different functions etc. which have been explained in previous article.
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(b) Choice of site: - The choice of site for a building from seismic point of view is mainly
concerned with stability of ground. The following are main points:
1. Stability of slopes – Hill slopes liable to slide during an earthquake should be avoided
& only stable slope should be chosen to locate the building. It is preferable to have several blocks
on terrace than having one large block with footings at different elevations.
A site subjected to rock fall should be avoided.
2. Very loose sand / sensitive clay – These two types of soil are liable to be destroyed
during an earthquake by loosing their original structure & undergoing compaction . This would
result in large unequal settlement & damage to building,
In case of loose cohesion less soil, it may be possible to loose its shear strength due to saturation
i.e. liquefaction. Therefore, a site free from such defects & having sufficient bearing capacity
should be selected & its drainage conditions improved so that no water accumulates & saturates
the ground close to footing level.
(c) Structural design: - Ductility is most desirable quality for good earthquake performance and
can be incorporated to some extend in masonry construction by introducing steel reinforcement at
critical section.
(d) Fire resistance – It may be possible that due to snapping of electrical fittings short circuit may
take place and cracks may developed in gas pipes, thereby leading to fire. This fire hazards
sometimes may be even more serious than earthquake damage therefore, building should be
preferably constructed of fire resistant material.
4.3 The effects of architectural features of the building during an earthquake

The behavior of building during an earthquake depends on its overall shape, size and geometry.
Size of building, horizontal layout, vertical layout and adjacent building are the various
architectural features which affects the building.
In tall building with large height to base ratio, the horizontal movement of floor is very large. In
short but very long buildings, the damaging effect during an earthquake are more. Also in building
with large plan area, the horizontal seismic forces can be excessive to be carried by columns and
walls. Hence such type of buildings do not perform well during an earthquake.
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Buildings with simple geometry perform well in earthquake. Buildings with re-entrant corners like
U, V, H etc. in plan sustains significant damage. Many times, unequal distribution of columns /
walls may lead to twisting of building due to earthquake shaking.
The force developed at different floors level in a building should be brought down by shortest path.
In case of building with vertical setbacks, a sudden jump in earthquake forces at level of
discontinuity takes place. Buildings that have fewer columns / walls in particular storey or with
unusually tall storey tends to damage or collapse which is initiated in that storey.
Buildings with soft storey are much prone to damage. In some building, columns may not go upto
the ground but stop at an upper floor. Such building are liable to get severely damaged during an
earthquake.
When two buildings are too close to each other, may pound on each during strong motion.
Considering all the points stated above, we can say that architectural features affect the building
during earthquake.
4.4 Significance of the failure sequence

The desired sequence of failure in RC building during an earthquake is that the horizontal member
should fail prior to the vertical member. Hence the horizontal members such as slabs & beams
should fail first & then the columns should fail.
This sequence is desirable because beams and slabs do not fall down even after the severe damage
at plastic hinge positions, whereas columns if fails collapse rapidly under loading. The failure of
column means the collapse the collapse of entire building.
The significance of this sequence is that instead of rapid collapse of building, this failure sequence
post pones the complete collapse of structure. This will help in reducing the damage to human life
& also other living creatures. Also the failure of beam is generally flexural failure which is ductile
in nature. Whereas the failure of columns is shear failure which is brittle in nature.
4.5 Weak beam strong columns philosophy
The weak beam strong column philosophy ensures that a plastic hinge is formed in a beam rather
than column & columns remains elastic as far as possible. This can be achieved by making columns
stronger such that its strength becomes equal or greater than that of the beam.
Beams generally do not fall down even after severe damage at plastic hinge positions whereas
columns will rapidly collapse under vertical loading, once sufficient spalling has taken place. Also
due to yielding of column, the possibilities of storey sway increases.
Hence strong beam on light columns is not appropriate in earthquake prone region & thus weak
beam strong columns arrangement should be the choice as it postpones complete collapse of a
structure. The intended result is that columns form a stiff, unyielding spine over the height of
building where as inelastic action is limited largely to beam.
In order to facilitate this philosophy, mild steel may be used as longitudinal reinforcement for
beams and high strength steel for column. The reason for use of high strength steel is that strength
due to strain hardening can be utilized in the most advantageous manner.
The weak beam strong column philosophy is necessary for earthquake resistant design for
following reason:
1) It is expected that substantial damage can occur but complete collapse should be avoided.
2) Failure of beam means local failure whereas failure of column means global failure i.e.
collapse of entire building.
3) In weak column structure, plastic deformation is concentrated in a particular storey as
shown in fig. & hence a relatively large ductility factor is required.
4) In both shear & flexural failures of columns, degradations are greater than those in yielding
of beams.
4.6 Short column effect

The short column effect generally occurs in the building resting on the sloping ground. Also it
occurs in columns supporting mezzonine floor or loft slabs that are added in between two regular
floors.
Another situation in building when short column effect occurs is a wall of partial height built to
fit a window / ventilator over remaining height. The columns adjacent to this wall behaves as a
short column.
The performance of short column during an earthquake is poor, this is because a tail column &
short column of some cross section move horizontally by some amount. However, a short column
is stiffer than tall column & hence it attracts larger earthquake force. Since stiffness is resistance
to deformation, larger is stiffness. Larger is force required to deform it. If the short column is not
properly designed for such a large force, it can suffer significant damage. The damage in short
column is often in the form X-shaped cracking & is due to shear failure of column.
The short column effect is served when opening height is small in case of wall which is constructed
up to partial height.
Measures to avoid short column effect:
1) The short column effect can be avoided too much extent during architectural design stage
itself.
2) The column which are likely to sustain short column effect should be detailed as per IS
13920:1993 over a full height of column sustaining this effect.
3) The special confining reinforcement must extend beyond the short column into the column
vertically above and below by some distance. This distance depends on the diameter of
longitudinal bar.
4) In existing building with short columns, different retrofit solutions can be employed to
avoid damage in future earthquake.
5) Where walls of partial height are present, the simplest solution is to close the opening by
building a wall of full height. If this is not possible then the column should be strengthen
using one of well-established retrofit technique.
4.7 Soft storey

Soft storey is generally characterized by vertical discontinuity in stiffness. Any storey for which
lateral stiffness is less than 60% of that of storey immediately above or less than 70% of combined
stiffness of three stories above is classified as soft storey.
Soft storey may be at ground level or it may be an upper level also. When an individual storey is
made taller & more open in construction, it is called as soft storey. Soft storey is also known as
flexible storey.
During an earthquake, most of the energy is dissipated by the columns of soft stories. In this
process plastic hinges are formed at the ends of the columns, which transform soft storey into
mechanism & in such case collapse is unavoidable. Therefore, special construction should be taken
into account in analysis and design.
Measures to avoid soft storey effect:
1) The simplest way to make arrangements to increase lateral strength & stiffness of soft
storey.
2) The beams and columns of soft storey should be designed to withstand two and half time
storey shear & moments calculated for specified seismic loads.
3) In case a tall & relatively open ground floor is necessary, the following arrangements may
be provided to reduce soft storey effect
a) Some of open bays of building may be braced.
b) The building plan periphery may be kept open while the interior frames may be braced.
c) The number & stiffness of ground floor columns may be increased.
d) The ground floor columns may be made of shape of frustum of cone.
4.8 Factors affecting damage of building during an earthquake

The following are the factors affecting damage of building during an earthquake:-
1) Site conditions:
Structures built on solid rock & firm soil perform better than building on soft storey ground.
Buildings built on sites with open & even topography are usually less damaged in an
earthquake than buildings on strip shaped hill ridges, separated high hills, & steep slopes.
2) Building configuration:
A building with rectangular plan & elevation is inherently stronger than one that is L-
shaped or U-shaped. An irregularity in shape of building will result in twisting of it, thereby
increasing the damage.
3) Opening size:
Openings in walls of a building tends to weaken the walls & hence fewer the openings less
is the damage during the earthquake.
4) Rigidity distribution:
Rigidity of a building along the vertical direction should be distributed uniformly.
Therefore, changes in structural system of a building from one floor to next will increase
potential for damage & should be avoided. Columns & shear walls should run continuously
from foundation to roof, without interruptions or changes in material.
5) Ductility:
Ductility means ability of the building to bend, sway & deform by large amount without
collapse. Ductility reduces the potential of damage & hence it is one of major factor
affecting damage during an earthquake. In RCC structures, ductility can be increased by
addition of steel reinforcement.
6) Foundation:
Structurally strong to withstand earthquake, a building may also fail due to inadequate
design of footing. Tilting, cracking etc. results from soil liquefaction & differential
settlement of footing.
Very shallow foundations deteriorate because of weathering, particularly when exposed to
freezing & throwing in region of cold climate.
7) Construction quality:
Construction quality is one of the main factor affecting damage of building. Damage of
building may be due to poor quality of construction, substandard materials, poor
workmanship etc.
4.9 Earthquake resistance design principles

The following are general design principles to be adopted for earthquake resistance design of
buildings:
1. Lightness
Since earthquake forces are directly proportional to the mass of building, it should be as
light as possible, consistent with structural safety and functional requirement. Roofs and
upper storeys should be designed as light as possible.
2. Continuity of construction
The various units of building should be tied together in such a way that it acts as one unit.
Floor slabs should be continuous throughout as far as possible for parts of buildings.
Addition and alteration to the structure should be accompanied by provision of separation
between new & existing structures as far as possible, unless positive measures are taken to
establish continuity between existing and new construction.
3. Projecting & suspended parts
Projecting parts shall be avoided as far as possible. If the projecting part cannot be avoided,
they shall be properly reinforced and firmly tied to the main structure.
Ceiling plaster shall be preferably avoided however when it is unavoidable, the plaster shall
be as thin as possible. Suspended ceiling shall be avoided as far as possible where provided
they shall be light, adequately framed and secured.
4. Building configuration
The building shall be simple, rectangular in plan & symmetrical with respect to mass &
rigidity. If symmetry of structure is not possible, provision shall be made for torsional &
other effects due to earthquake forces. The length of building shall not preferably exceed
three times the width of building. Building having plans with shapes like L, H, T and Y
shall be preferably modified into rectangular plans.
5. Strength in various directions
Generally earthquake forces acts in two perpendicular direction. Hence it is necessary for
structure to have proper strength in both direction to withstand these forces in both
directions.
6. Foundation
The structure should be founded on firm foundation. It should not be founded on loose soil
susceptible to subsidence & liquefaction during an earthquake, resulting in differential
settlement.
7. Ductility
Ductility is the most desirable quality for good earthquake performance. Hence, the main
structural elements & their connection shall be designed to have a ductile failure. This will
enable structure to absorb energy during an earthquake to avoid sudden collapse of
structure.
8. Damage to non-structural elements
Suitable detailing shall be worked out to connect non-structural elements with structural
framing so that deformation of structure frame leads to min. damage of non-structural
elements.
9. Fire safety
Generally fire breaks out after earthquake cue to short-circuiting, leaks in gas pipes etc. It
could be sometimes more serious than earthquake. Therefore, building shall be constructed
to make it fire resistant.
4.10 Design philosophy

The earthquake load which a structure sustains result directly from the distortion induced in the
structure by motion of the ground on which it rests. Earthquake loads are inertia forces related to
the mass, stiffness & energy absorbing characteristics of the structure. During the life span,
building may be subjected to minor, moderate or strong shaking. The probability of strong
earthquake occurring within expected life of structure is very low. However, in order to make the
structure earthquake resistant, its main elements should be designed to have sufficient ductility.
Thereby, allowing structure to sway back & forth during major earthquake so that it withstands
the earthquake with some damage but without total collapse of the structure.
The structure should be designed so that damage is within acceptable limits. But since damage is
unavoidable, it should be allowed to occur at right place & right amount. For example, cracks
between column and masonry walls are acceptable but diagonal cracks in column are not accepted.
Based on this, earthquake design philosophy may be summarized as:
(i) Under minor but frequent shaking, main members of building that carry vertical &
horizontal forces should not be damaged.
(ii) Under moderate but occasional shaking, main members may sustain repairable damage,
while other parts of building may be damaged such that they may even have to be
replaced after earthquake.
(iii) Under strong but rare shaking, main members may sustain severe damage but the
building should not collapse.
(iv) The ductile behavior of building should be ensured.
Thus as per this philosophy, after minor shaking, building will be fully operational within a short
period of time, & repair cost will be small. After moderate shaking, building will be operational
once repair & strengthening of damaged member is completed. After strong earthquake, building
may become disfunctional but will stand so that people can be evacuated.
4.11 Behavior of RC building
When building is subjected to ground motion in an earthquake, it represents by vibrating. However

the motion of ground during an earthquake is random in nature & hence it can be resolved in three
mutually perpendicular directions. The horizontal shaking is generally predominant & hence
structure’s behavior under horizontal vibration/ shaking is quite important.
The RC building is made up of horizontal members & vertical members who are supported on
foundation resting on the ground. Now, as ground is displaced, the base of building also moves
suddenly with it, but roof has tendency to stay at its original position & hence upper part does not
respond instantaneously but lags behind. Now, since slab is connected to foundation through walls
and columns, it is dragged along with walls/columns. The building is set into vibrations & inertia
force is developed into it. This inertia force is directly proportional to the mass of the building.
Since most of building mass is concentrated at floor level. These forces travels downwards through
slabs, beams to columns and walls & then to the foundation. As inertia forces accumulate
downwards from top of the building, the columns and walls at lower storey experience higher
earthquake induced forces.
Floor slabs are horizontal plate like elements, when beam bends in vertical direction during an
earthquake, these thin slabs bends along with them & when beam move with column in horizontal
direction, the slab usually forces the beam to move together with it.
Between columns and slabs (beams), masonry walls are constructed. They are known as infill walls
and are not connected rigidly with surrounding RC columns and beams. When columns receive
horizontal forces at floor levels, they try to move in horizontal direction, but masonry wall resists
the movement. But since masonry walls are heavy in weight, they attract large horizontal forces.
However since masonry is brittle in nature, cracks are developed in them once ability to carry
horizontal load is exceeded.
In case of beam, under gravity loading condition, tension is at bottom of beam at centre and at the
top at supports. However, the level of bending moment due to earthquake loading depends on
severity of shaking & can exceed that due to gravity loading.
Thus under strong earthquake shaking, tension can be developed on either of top and bottom faces.
Hence steel reinforcement should be provided on either face of the beam to resist this force reversal
of bending moment. Also steel reinforcement should be provided on all faces of column.
Thus, for a RC building to remain safe during earthquake, columns should be stronger than beam
& foundation should be strong then columns. Further, the beam column connections should not
fail to ensure safe transfer of forces to column. This can be achieved by providing ductility to the
column & beam which in turn can be achieved by detailing the beam and column as per IS 13920-
1993.
4.12 Ductility
Ductility may be defined as capacity of building/structure to undergo large inelastic deformation
without significance loss of strength / stiffness. Ductility refers to ratio of displacement prior to
ultimate displacement or collapse to displacement at first yield.
It serves as a shock absorber in a building for it reduces the transmitted force to
acceptable/sustainable magnitude. Ductility is an importance characteristics as it reduces the effect
of response produced in structure by an earthquake. This vibration & resulting deflection is
reduced by energy that is absorbed by large inelastic deformation of a ductile structure. Ductility
is property of a material as a result of which it passers extra reserve capacity to resist the earthquake
overload. Hence steel and adequately reinforced concrete buildings tend to withstand earthquakes
much better than those constructed of brittle material.
Ductility in RCC building can be achieved by placing proper amount of steel at proper location
such that failure of member occurs by steel reaching its strength in tension before concrete reaches
its strength in compression. This is called as ductile failure. Another way of achieving ductility is
to make beam more ductile than columns i.e. weak beam and strong column phenomenon.
For a structure to be ductile, the following are the two requirements:
a) Any mode of failure should involve maximum possible redundancy.
b) Brittle type of failure such as overturning should be safeguard so that ductile failure occurs
first.
4.12.1 Determination / Assessment of Ductility
Ductility is generally measured in terms of ductility ratio or ductility factor, which is the ratio of
maximum deformation that a structure or element can undergo without significant loss of initial
yielding resistance to initial yield deformation.
The following are the different ways of assessing ductility (They are also known as types of
ductility):
1) Displacement ductility
It is defined as ratio of lateral deflection at end of post elastic range i.e. ultimate deflection
to lateral deflection at yield stage.
u
 (displacement ductility ) 
y
Where, u = lateral deflection at end of post elastic range
And y =lateral deflection at first yield
The displacement ductility should be in range of 3 to 5. Displacement ductility is essential
because a structure should be capable of deforming in a ductile manner when subjected to
lateral loads due to an earthquake.
2) Curvature ductility
It is defined as ratio of curvature at the end of post elastic range to the curvature at first
yield point of tension steel.
u
 (curvature ductility ) 
y
Where,  u = curvature at end of post elastic range.
And  y = curvature at first yield point of tension steel.
3) Rotational ductility
It is defined as ratio of rotation at the end of post elastic range to rotation at first yield point
of tension steel.
u
 (rotational ductility ) 
y
Where,  u = rotation at end of post elastic range
 y = rotation at first yield point of tension steel.
Thus, there are three methods of defining ductility / measuring ductility.
4.12.2 Significance of ductility
The following are the advantages / significance of ductility

1) If a structure is ductile, it can take care of overloading, load reversals, impact & secondary
stresses due to differential settlement of foundation.
2) If a structure is ductile, its occupant will have sufficient warning before collapse thus
reducing the loss of life in event of collapse.
3) A ductile joint i.e. properly designed ductile joint is capable of resisting forces and
deformations at the yielding of steel reinforcement. Therefore, these sections can reach
their respective moment capacities, which is one of the assumptions in design of RC
structures by limit state method.
4.12.3 Factors affecting the ductility
1) Ductility decreases with the increase in percentage of tension steel. Thus section should be
designed as under-reinforced.
2) Ductility increases with the increase in strength of concrete. However it decreases with the
increase in yield strength of steel, other properties being same.
3) With the increase of stirrups in specimen, ductility also increases. This is because by doing
so, shear strength exceeds the strength in flexure.
4) The lateral reinforcement tends to improve ductility by preventing shear failure, restraining
the compression steel against buckling.
5) Lower values of k & xu will have higher values of ductility and hence T-beams are more
ductile than that of rectangular beam.
6) With the increase in ultimate strain of concrete, ductility of structure increases.
7) Ductility reduces linearly upto point where compressive stress (bending) becomes equal to
axial compressive stress at balanced failure.
8) Ductility increases linearly with the increase in shear strength carried by the concrete for
small values of axial compressive stress.
4.13 Inelastic properties of material affecting earthquake resistant design

The following are the various inelastic properties of material which affects the earthquake resistant
design of structure:
1) Plasticity – Plasticity may be defined as increase in strain without significance increase in
stress. It is desirable property as it provides a convenient control on the load developed by
a member. Plasticity is predominant in mild steel however it reduces with increase in grade
of steel.
2) Strain hardening and strain softening – It may be defined as increase in stress with increase
in strain in the post yield field. It is desirable property as strength gain is available in plastic
region. Strain softening is opposite of strain hardening & involves minimum loss of
strength with increase in strain. It is also desirable property as there is decrease in stress
with increase in strain.
3) Stiffness degradation – This means decrease in stiffness with the increase in no. of cycles
in case of cyclic loading. As a result of this property, stiffness as measured by overall stress
to strain ratio of each hysteresis loop reduces with each successive loading cycle.
Stiffness degradation is undesirable property. Therefore, material should have minimum
stiffness degradation & max. no. of cycles of loading before failure.
4) Ductility – It may be defined as ratio of deformation at failure to deformation at yield point.
The deformation may be measure in terms of deflection, rotation and curvature. Ductility
is generally desirable property of structure because of gentle and less explosive onset of
failure than that occurring in brittle material. Ductility is particularly useful in seismic
problems because it is accompanied by an increase in strength in inelastic range.
Steel has best ductility property, while concrete can be made moderately ductile with
appropriate reinforcement.
5) Energy absorption – High energy absorption capacity is a desirable property of earthquake
resistant construction. Energy absorption is generally temporary absorption & permanent
absorption. During an earthquake, initially a substantial part of energy is stored temporarily
as elastic strain energy & kinetic energy. When the earthquake is strong, yield point is
exceeded in parts of structure & permanent energy absorption / dissipation in the form of
inelastic strain energy begins. Also during an earthquake, the energy is dissipated by
viscous damping which is of course the means by which elastic energy is dissipated once
the forcing ground motion ceases.
4.14 Ductile detailing

The design and construction of reinforced concrete buildings shall be governed by the provisions
of IS 456:2000, except as modified by provisions of IS 13920. For all the buildings, which are
more than 3 stories in height, the minimum grade of concrete shall be M20. Steel reinforcement
of grade Fe415 or less shall only be used. However, HYSD bars of grade Fe500 and Fe550 which
are thermo-mechanically treated having elongation more than 14.5% & conforming to other
requirements of IS 1786:1985 may also be used for reinforcement.
4.14.1 Ductile detailing of beams using IS 13920

GENERAL
The factored axial stress on the member under earthquake loading shall not exceed 0.1fck where
fck for characteristics strength of concrete. The member shall preferably have width-to depth ratio
of more than 0.3. The width of member shall not be less than 200mm. The depth (D) of member
shall preferably be not more than 1/4th of clear span.
LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
The top as well as bottom reinforcement shall consist of at least two bars throughout the member
0.24 Fck
length. The tension steel ratio, on any face, at any section, shall not be less than Pmin. 
Fy
where Fck and Fy are in MPa or N/mm2.
The maximum steel ratio on any face at any section, shall not exceed ρmax = 0.025.
The positive steel at a joint face must be at least equal to half the negative steel at that face. The
steel provided at each of the top and bottom face of the member at any section along its length
shall be at least equal to one-fourth of the maximum negative moment steel provided at the face
of either joint. It may be clarified that redistribution of moments permitted in IS 456 : 1978 (clause
36.1) will be used only for vertical load moments and not for lateral load moments.
Fig. Anchorage of beam bars in an external joints

In an external joint, both the top and the bottom bars of the beam shall be provided with anchorage
length, beyond the inner face of the column, equal to the development length in tension plus 10
times the bar diameter minus the allowance for 90 degree bend(s). In an internal joint, both face
bars of the beam shall be taken continuously through the column.
SPLICE
Lap splices of main bars should be done as far as possible in zones of low stress. These are neither
acceptable within the column zone, nor within zones of potential plastic hinge.
The longitudinal bars shall be spliced, only if hoops are provided over the entire splice length, at
a spacing not exceeding 150 mm. The lap length shall not be less than the bar development length
in tension.
Fig. Lap splice in a beam

Lap splices shall not be provided
(a) within a joint,
(b) within a distance of 2d from joint face, and
(c) within a quarter lengh of the member

Where flexural yielding may generally occur under the effect of earthquake forces. Not more than
50 percent of the bars shall be spliced at one section.
Welded splices and mechanical connections may also be used.
WEB REINFORCEMENT
Web reinforcement shall consist of vertical hoops. A vertical hoop is a closed stirrup having a 135°
hook with a 10 diameter extension (but not < 75 mm) at each end that is embedded in the confined
core. In compelling circumstances, it may also be made up of two pieces of reinforcement; a U-
stirrup with a 135° hook and a 10 diameter extension (but not < 75 mm) at each end, embedded in
the confined core and a crosstie. A crosstie is a bar having a 135° hook with a 10 diameter extension
(but not < 75 mm) at each end. The hooks shall engage peripheral longitudinal bars.
The minimum diameter of the bar forming a hoop shall be 6 mm. However, in beams with clear
span exceeding 5 m, the minimum bar diameter shall be 8 mm.
Fig. Beam web reinforcement

The shear force to be resisted by the vertical hoops shall be the maximum of:
a) Calculated factored shear force as per analysis, and
b) Shear force due to formation of plastic hinges at both ends of the beam plus the factored
gravity load on the span.
The contribution of bent up bars and inclined hoops to shear resistance of the section shall not be
considered.
The spacing of hoops over a length of 2d at either end of a beam shall not exceed
(a) d/4, and

(b) 8 times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar; however, it need not be less than
100 mm.
The first hoop shall be at a distance not exceeding 50 mm from the joint face. Vertical hoops at
the same spacing as above, shall also be provided over a length equal to 2d on either side of a
section where flexural yielding may occur under the effect of earthquake forces. Elsewhere, the
beam shall have vertical hoops at a spacing not exceeding d/2.
Fig. Beam reinforcement
4.14.2 Ductile detailing of columns using IS 13920

GENERAL
The frame members which have axial stress in excess of 0.1fck under the effect of the earthquake
forces shall take into account axial load & bending. The min. dimension of member shall be at
least 200mm. However columns of unsupported length exceeding 4m shall have shortest
dimension at least 300mm.
The ratio of shortest dimension and perpendicular dimension shall not be less than 0.4.
LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
Lap splices shall be provided only in the central half of the member length. It should be
proportioned as a tension splice. Hoops shall be provided over the entire splice length at spacing
not exceeding 150 mm centre to centre. Not more than 50 percent of the bars shall be spliced at
one section.
Any area of a column that extends more than 100 mm beyond the confined core due to architectural
requirements, shall be detailed in the following manner. In case the contribution of this area to
strength has been considered, then it will have the minimum longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement as per this code.
However, if this area has been treated as non-structural, the minimum reinforcement requirements
shall be governed by IS 456 : 1978 provisions.
Fig. Reinforcement requirement for column with more than 100mm projection beyond the core.
TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT
Transverse reinforcement for circular columns shall consist of spiral or circular hoops. In
rectangular columns, rectangular hoops may be used. A rectangular hoop is a closed stirrup, having
a 135° hook with a 10 diameter extension (but not < 75 mm) at each end that is embedded in the
confined core.
The parallel legs of rectangular hoop shall be spaced not more than 300 mm centre to centre. If the
length of any side of the hoop exceeds 300 mm, a crosstie shall be provided. Alternatively, a pair
of overlapping hoops may be provided within the column. The hooks shall engage peripheral
longitudinal bars.
The design shear force for columns shall be the maximum of:
a) Calculated factored shear force as per analysis, and

b) A factored shear force given by
 M bL  M ubR 
Vu  1.4  u 
 hst 
Where, M ubL & M ubR  Moments of resistance of opposite sides of the beams framing into
column from opposite faces.

hst =Storey height
Fig. Transverse reinforcement in column
Fig. Column and joint detailing
SPECIAL CONFINING REINFORCEMENT

Confinement of concrete i.e. special confinement is essential to provide adequate rotational
ductility in potential plastic hinge regions of columns. If confining reinforcement is provided in
compression zone through spirals & hoop ties, ductility of concrete is greatly improved. A square
hoop provides confinement of concrete along the diagonals of the tie.
However, spirals confine the concrete more effectively because the circular shape enables it to
provide a continuous confining pressure around the whole circumference.
The following are general guidelines for special confining reinforcement. This requirement shall
be met with, unless a larger amount of transverse reinforcement is required from shear strength
considerations.
(i) Special confining reinforcement shall be provided over a length lo from each joint face,
towards midspan, and on either side of any section, where flexural yielding may occur
under the effect of earthquake forces. The length ‘lo’ shall not be less than
(a) larger lateral dimension of the member at the section where yielding occurs,
(b) 1/6 of clear span of the member, and
(c) 450 mm.
(ii) When a column terminates into a footing or mat, special confining reinforcement shall
extend at least 300 mm into the footing or mat.
Fig. Provision of special confining reinforcement at footing

(iii) When the calculated point of contra-flexure, under the effect of gravity and earthquake
loads, is not within the middle half of the member clear height, special confining
reinforcement shall be provided over the full height of the column.
(iv) Columns supporting reactions from discontinued stiff members, such as walls, shall be
provided with special confining reinforcement over their full height. This
reinforcement shall also be placed above the discontinuity for at least the development
length of the largest longitudinal bar in the column. Where the column is supported on
a wall, this reinforcement shall be provided over the full height of the column; it shall
also be provided below the discontinuity for the same development length.
(v) Special confining reinforcement shall be provided over the full height of a column
which has significant variation in stiffness along its height.
(vi) The spacing of hoops used as special confining reinforcement shall not exceed 1/4 of
minimum member dimension but need not be less than 75 mm nor more than 100 mm.
(vii) The area of cross section, Ash, of the bar forming circular hoops or spiral, to be used
as special confining reinforcement, shall not be less than
Fck  Ag 
Ash  0.09SDk   1.0 
Fy  Ak 
Where, S  Pitch of spiral or spacing of hoops
Dk  Diameter of core measured to outside of spiral or hoop.
Fck  Characteristics strength of concrete.
Fy  Yield stress of steel
Ag  Gross c/s area of column
Ak  Area of concrete core.
(viii) The area of cross section, Ash, of the bar forming rectangular hoop, to be used as
special confining reinforcement shall not be less than
Fck  Ag 
Ash  0.09Sh   1.0 
Fy  Ak 
Where, h  longer dimension of rectangular confining hoop < 300mm.
Ak  Area of confined concrete core in rectangular hoop measured to its
outside dimension.

Unit 6 Earthquake resistant design and principles

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Unit 6 Earthquake resistant design and principles

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Unit 4 Earthquake Resistance Design and Principles

Part – II:- Earthquake Resistance Design Principles: Design philosophy, Behavior of

4.1 Conceptual design

Fig. 4.1 Symmetry

Fig. 4.2 Regularity

Fig. 4.3 Enclosed area

4.1.2 Load path

4.1.3 Stiffness and strength distribution

4.1.4 Different structural system

B) Initial relative density

D) Location of drainage & dimension of deposits

E) Magnitude & nature of super imposed load

F) Method of soil formation

G) Period under sustained load

I) Previous strain history

4.2 Design and planning aspects of structure to enhance earthquake

4.3 The effects of architectural features of the building during an earthquake

4.4 Significance of the failure sequence

4.6 Short column effect

4.7 Soft storey

4.8 Factors affecting damage of building during an earthquake

4.9 Earthquake resistance design principles

3. Projecting & suspended parts

4.10 Design philosophy

4.11 Behavior of RC building

When building is subjected to ground motion in an earthquake, it represents by vibrating. However

4.12.1 Determination / Assessment of Ductility

The following are the advantages / significance of ductility

4.13 Inelastic properties of material affecting earthquake resistant design

4.14 Ductile detailing

4.14.1 Ductile detailing of beams using IS 13920

where Fck and Fy are in MPa or N/mm2.

Fig. Anchorage of beam bars in an external joints

Fig. Lap splice in a beam

(c) within a quarter lengh of the member

Fig. Beam web reinforcement

(a) d/4, and

Fig. Beam reinforcement

4.14.2 Ductile detailing of columns using IS 13920

a) Calculated factored shear force as per analysis, and

column from opposite faces.

Fig. Transverse reinforcement in column

Fig. Column and joint detailing

SPECIAL CONFINING REINFORCEMENT

Fig. Provision of special confining reinforcement at footing

Fck  Characteristics strength of concrete.

Fy  Yield stress of steel

Ag  Gross c/s area of column

Ak  Area of concrete core.

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