EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Dr. Ramela B. Ramirez

Module 1

Part I Introduction to Earthquake Engineering

Definition of Terms

1. Base - the level at which the earthquake motions are considered to be imparted to

the structure or the level at which the structure as a dynamic vibrator is supported

2. Base shear - the total design lateral force or shear at the base of a structure

3. Bearing wall system - a structural system without a complete vertical load-

carrying space frame

4. Boundary element - an element at edges of openings or at perimeters of shear

walls or diaphragms

5. Braced frame - an essentially vertical truss system of the concentric or eccentric

type that is provided to resist lateral forces

6. Building frame system - an essentially complete space frame that provides

support for gravity loads

7. Collector - a member or element provided to transfer lateral forces from a

portion of a structure to vertical elements of the lateral-force-resisting system

8. Design seismic force - the minimum total strength design base shear, factored, and

distributed in accordance with section 208.5 of NSCP.

9. Diaphragm - a horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to transmit lateral

forces to the vertical-resisting elements.

10. Earthquake – vibrations of the earth surface caused by waves originating from a course of

disturbance in the earth mass. The shaking or trembling is caused by sudden release of

energy and is usually associated with faulting or breaking of rocks and continuing

adjustment of position results in aftershocks. It may be defined as a wave-like motion

generated by forces in constant turmoil under the surface layer of the earth, travelling

through the earth’s crust, causing sudden dislocations of segments of the crust, volcanic

eruptions, or even explosions created by humans.

11. Eccentrically braced frame - is a steel-braced frame designed in conformance

with section 528 of NSCP.

12. Essential facilities - those structures which are necessary for emergency

operations subsequent to a natural disaster

13. Horizontal bracing system - horizontal truss system that serves the same

function as a diaphragm

14. Later force resisting system - part of the structural system designed to resist the

design seismic force

15. Moment resisting frame - frame in which members and joints are capable of

resisting forces primarily by flexure

16. Overstrength - characteristic of structures where the actual strength is larger than

the design strength

17. P delta effect - secondary effect on shears, axial forces and moments of frame

members due to the action of the vertical loads induced by horizontal displacement of the

structure resulting from various loading.

18. Shear wall - a wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the plane of the

wall

19. Soft story - is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70 percent of the

stiffness of the story above.

20. Space frame - a three-dimensional structural system, without bearing walls,

composed of members interconnected so as to function as a complete self-contained unit

with or without the aid of horizontal diaphragms or floor-bracing systems.

21. Special moment resisting frame - is a moment resisting frame especially

detailed to provide ductile behavior

22. Story - the space between levels.

23. Strength - the capacity of an element or member to resist factored load

24. Structure - an assemblage of framing members designed to support gravity

loads and resist lateral forces. Classified as either building structures or nonbuilding

structures.

25. Vertical load-carrying frame - space frame designed to carry vertical gravity loads

26. Weak story - is one in which the story strength is less than 80 percent of the

story above

The aims of the principle of earthquake-resistant design of buildings :

 1. The building shall withstand with almost no damage moderate earthquake motions which

have a probability of occurring several times during the life of the building.

2. The building shall not collapse nor harm lives during severe earthquake motions which

have a probability of occurring less than once during the life of the building.

Rules to follow in order to satisfy the aims of the principle of earthquake-resistant design of

buildings :

1. The configuration of the building should be as simple as possible.

2. The members resisting horizontal forces should be arranged so that torsional deformation

is not produced.

3. The foundation should be generally be based on hard and uniform ground.

4. The structure of the building should be dynamically simple and definite.

5. The frame of the building structure should have adequate ductility in addition to the

required strength.

6. Deformations produced in building should be held to value which will not provide

obstacle to safety and use of the building.

Kinds of earthquake resistant design method of the buildings :

1. Static method – earthquake load is regarded as a static force

2. Dynamic method – the vibration of the building due to the earthquake ground motion is

calculated by dynamics
Lessons learned and relearned from earthquake damage

1. Unreinforced and unanchored brick masonry should not be used in areas of seismic

activity.

2. Structures must be able to resist torsional or rotational action introduced into the structure

by seismic ground motion.

3. Ductility of concrete is essential.

4. Where a concrete frame is designed to resist lateral forces and then a stiff but brittle

masonry filler wall is placed within this frame, a strong possibility arises that the concrete

columns will fail in shear when the weak masonry fails. These walls are referred to as

infilled walls.

5. The most rigid element in the structure will receive most of the lateral load.

6. Thorough construction review by structural designer is necessary to ensure that the

provisions of the plans and specifications are incorporated to the final construction.

7. Concrete outside the column cage of columns should be ignored in design of columns

that will be required to resist shear forces and the subsequent bending.

8. The nature of the soils and their behavior under seismic condition must be considered.

9. The effect of cumulative damage on structures from previous earthquakes and possible

after shocks must be analyzed.

10. Tanks storing liquids develop a rotational motion of the fluid within the tank. This

rotation of the liquid creates a rocking motion in the tanks and torsion in the supporting

structure. This should be considered in the design of both tanks and their supports.

11. Bridge spans tend to slide off their supports. Restrain of some kind are necessary.
12. There is no apparent correlation between the intensity of earthquakes damage and the

earthquake magnitude or size.

13. Buildings should be separated to prevent pounding against one another.

14. Walls must be well connected to floor and roof diaphragms to prevent them from falling

away from structure.

15. Wood frame structures are also subject to torsional mode and must be properly braced

with vertical diaphragms between the foundation and the first floor.

16. An abrupt change in stiffness of vertical elements will create problems.

The Philippines : While damage caused by earthquake has been decreasing owing to

the improvement of seismic codes, the following factors , which exclude defects due

to poor fabrication and erection, still must be counted as potential causes of damage.

1. Inadequate story shear strength caused by too few columns and walls.

2. Brittle shear failure of columns or beams.

3. Brittle shear failure of columns which have been shortened by the supporting effect of

non-structural elements.

4. Slip of anchored bars or shear failure of the joint block in beam-to-columns

connections.

5. Brittle failure of single or coupled shear walls, particularly shear walls with openings.

6. Torsion caused by the non-coincidence on the floor plan of the center of gravity and

center of stiffness.

7. Concentration of damage at a specific story because of unequal distribution of the

ratio of stiffness along the height.

 8. Separation of secondary members such as exterior walls because of poor connections.

Note : factors 1, 5, 6, and 7 are related to structural planning, while factors, 2, 3,

4, and 8 may be avoided by improving the detailing.

Dead and Live Loads

The Interior of the Earth

Barysphere - a.k.a. core , the densest central part of the earth. Composed of inner and

outer cores, with inner core in 1221 km radius composed mainly of nickel and iron, with density

of 16,000 kg / cubic meter ad behaves like a solid mass ; while the outer core surrounds the inner

core with thickness of 2259 km , composed of alloy of nickel, iron, and silica. The outer core

exists as a liquid of density 12,000 kg / cubic meter. The temperature at the core is about 2500

degree centigrade and the pressure is about 4 x 106 atm.

Asthenosphere - a.k.a. mantle , 2685 km thick, surrounding the core, composed of

hot, dense ultrasonic igneous rock in a plastic state with a density of 5000-6000 kg/m3.

Lithosphere - a.k.a. crust , the thinnest outer solid shell, 200 km thick with density of

1500 kg/m3 , temperature is about 25oC and pressure within is 1 atm.

The epicenter of most earthquakes are confined to the narrow belts that define the boundaries of

the plates. There are 12 major tectonic plates, 20 smaller ones, and many filler plates. The major

tectonic plates are the African, the Eurasian, the Indian, the Australian, the Arabian, the

Philippines, the North American, the South American, the Pacific, the Nazca, the Cocus and the

Antarctic plates. These plates move in different directions and at different speeds relative to each

other at a rate of 5 to 10 cm per year on the plastic mantle. This movement is called plate

tectonics. The causes of plate motion are attributed to convection currents, slab pull – the

subducting oceanic plate becomes colder and denser than the surrounding mantle and pulls the

rest of slab along, the ridge push – gravitational sliding of the lithosphere slab away from the

oceanic ridge raised by rising material in the asthenosphere.

Earthquakes are vibrations or oscillations on the ground surface caused by transient disturbance

of the elastic or gravitational equilibrium of the rocks at or beneath the surface of the earth. The

disturbance and the consequent movements give rise to elastic impulses or waves. Natural

earthquakes are classified as tectonic ( relative movement of plates ), plutonic ( deep -seated

changes ), or volcanic, on the basis of the source of the stresses that cause the movement.

Elastic Rebound Theory

It is first proposed by M.F. Reid in 1906, attributes the occurrence of tectonic

earthquakes to the gradual accumulation of strain in a given zone and the subsequent gradual

increase in the amount of elastic forces stores. The new formed oceanic plates push against the

continental plates resulting in continental drift. Where the plates collide, they may be locked in
place, that is, these may be prevented from moving because of the frictional resistance along the

plate boundaries. This causes building up of stresses along the plate edges until sudden slippage

due to elastic rebound or fracture of the rock occurs, resulting in sudden release of strain energy

that may cause the upper crust of the earth to fracture along a certain direction and form a fault.

This is the origin of an earthquake. The gradual accumulation and subsequent release of stress

and strain is described as elastic rebound. The elastic rebound theory postulates that the source of

earthquake is the sudden displacement of the ground on both sides of the fault, which is a result

of the rupturing of the crystal rock.

The upper parts of the earth’s crust and lithosphere are very strong and brittle. When this

rock is subjected to deformation, it actually bends slightly. However, it is able to withstand very

light stress with only slight bending or strain. The elastic rebound theory requires the strain to

build up rapidly up to the elastic limit of the rock. Beyond this point, the earth’s crust ruptures

due to the formation of a fault and the bent rock snaps back to regain its original shape, releasing

the stored energy in the form of rebounding and violent vibrations ( elastic waves ). These

vibrations shake the ground, the maximum shaking effect is felt along the fault. After the

earthquake, the process of strain build-up at this modified interface between the rocks starts all

over again. Most earthquakes occur along the boundaries of the tectonic plates and are called

interpolate earthquakes. The others occurring within the plate themselves, away from the plate

boundaries, are called intraplate earthquakes. In both types, slips are generated during the

earthquake at the fault along both horizontal and vertical directions, known as dip slip; and the

lateral direction, known as strike slip.

 The phenomenon of earthquakes caused by a sudden displacement along the sides of a

fault can be summarized as follows :

1. Strain that has accumulated in the fault for a long time reaches its maximum limit.

2. A slip occurs at the fault and causes a rebound.

3. A push and pull force initiates at the fault.

4. The situation is equivalent to two pairs of coupled forces acting suddenly.

5. This action causes radial wave propagation.

The moment of each couple is known as earthquake moment or seismic moment.

The elastic rebound theory implies that an earthquake relieves the accumulated stresses

along the portion of the fault on which rupture occurs. Further, this segment will not rupture

again until the stresses build up again which, of course, will take its own time. Therefore,

earthquakes can reoccur only after some period of time and that, perhaps, depends on the amount

of energy released in the earthquake.

The probability of occurrence of an earthquake is more likely along the fault where no

seismic activity has been observed for some time. By plotting fault movement and historical

earthquake activity along a fault, the gaps in seismic activity at certain locations along the fault

can be identified. These seismic gaps represent the most likely location along faults.
 Another opinion is that the vibrations of the strained mass generate seismic waves. The

energy stored in the rock before the earthquake is released in producing these waves and partly

dissipated as heat.

Plate Tectonic Theory

Studies related to continental drifts, volcanic eruptions, and ridges on ocean floors have

led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics. According to that, the earth’s crust

consists of a number of large rigid blocks called crustal plates. These plates bear the loads of

land masses, water bodies, or both and are in constant motion on the viscous mantle, overriding,

plunging beneath one another, colliding with each other, or brushing past one another. Some

segments of adjacent plates, however, remain immovable and locked together for years, only to

break free in great lurches ( faulting ) and produce seismic vibrations along boundaries, causing

destruction. Plate tectonics is responsible for features such as continental drift, in which the two

plates move away from each other, mountain formation in which the front plate is slower so that

the rear plate collides with it, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes. The plates may also move

side by side along the same direction or in opposite directions. The relative motion of crustal

plates gives rise to three kinds of plate boundaries or marginal zones. These types are described

as divergent ( constructive margin ), convergent ( destructive margin ), transform ( conservative

margin ) or parallel plate boundaries.

Zone of Divergence ( constructive margin )

 Zones of divergence are rift or spreading zones, that is , divergent boundaries in

continental regions. These are zones of tension in which the lithosphere splits, separates, and

moves apart as hot magma wells up through cracks, solidifies, and deposits new material onto

the edges of oceanic plates, forming oceanic ridges; hence the term constructive margin. This

process is also known as seafloor spreading. This seismicity ( occurrence of earthquakes ) is

associated with volcanic activity along the axes of ridges. A well known divergent boundary is

the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

The stretching caused by this process is not uniform all along the oceanic ridges. The

differential stretching is a result of the plates moving along a pole of rotation, with minimum

velocity at the poles and increasing towards the equator. Thus the oceanic ridges are offset by

many transform faults. Movement along these transform faults generates earthquakes that have

shallow foci ( 2 -8 km ). Because of this, the strain build-up at these boundaries is not enough to

cause earthquakes with magnitude greater than 6.

Zones of Convergence ( Destructive margin )

Zones of convergence are boundaries along which the edge of one plate overrides the

other. Plates are said to converge when two plates form opposite directions come together and

collide. Upon collision, the leading edge of the higher density plate may bend downwards,

causing it to descend beneath the other plate. The plunging plate enters the hot asthenosphere,

gets heated, melts, and assimilates completely within the material of the upper mantle forming

new magma. This process is known as subduction. The new magma rises to the surface and
erupts, forming a chain of volcanoes around the edges of the plate boundary areas, known as

subduction zones. These narrow plate boundary areas are associated with the creation of deep

ocean trenches and major earthquakes. When, upon collision, the two plates are pushed upwards

against each other, they form major mountain systems such as the Himalayas. Since one of the

plates is destroyed here, such a boundary is known as a destructive margin.

Subduction zones are the sites of the most widespread and intense earthquakes. Besides

volcanism and shallow-to-deep focus earthquakes, these boundaries also produce deep trenches,

basins, and folded mountain chains. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, it

slides beneath the continental plate forming a deep oceanic trench.

Although the surface characteristics of earthquakes associated with oceanic trenches and

island arcs are varied, a majority of such earthquakes appear to be confined to a narrow dipping

zone. Tensional earthquakes occur on the oceanic side of the trench, where normal faulting

occurs due to tensional stresses generated by the initial bending of the plate. Shallow earthquakes

are produced by dip-slip motion resulting in thrust faulting, as descending plates slide beneath

the overlying plates. This type of activity persists up to a depth of 100 km.

An intermediate depths, earthquakes are caused by extension or compression, depending

on the specific characteristics of the subduction zone. Extension and normal faulting result when

a descending slab that is denser than the surrounding mantle sinks due to its own weight.

Compression results when the mantle resists the downward motion of the descending plate. The
zone of deep earthquakes shows compression within the descending zone of the lithosphere,

indicating that the mantle material at that depth resists the movement of the descending plate.

Transform Zones ( Conservative Margin )

Transform zones are also known as transformed faults or fracture zones. In these zones,

the lithosphere plates slide past each other horizontally without any creation or destruction. The

edges of the two plates scrape each other closely, creating tension along the boundaries

associated with shallow focus seismic events, unaccompanied with volcanic activity. This

boundary is, thus, also called a parallel or transform fault boundary. The transform faults move

roughly parallel to the direction of the plate movement. Most transform faults are found on the

ocean floor.

Note : The theory of tectonics explains well the earthquakes along existing plate boundaries.

However , it does not explain mid-point earthquakes far distant from plate margins.

Causes of Volcanic Earthquakes

Volcanic earthquakes are a special feature of explosive eruption, small in energy and

seldom damaging. There is an emerging realization that volcanoes and earthquakes may have a

common origin in the deep movement of mantle materials. The coincidence of belts of major

earthquake activity with belts that include active volcanoes supports this idea. The most obvious

common cause of seismic and volcanic activity relates to plate interactions, in the process of
which fracture zones allow volcanic material to well up from the lower crust of the mantle.

These boundaries are also areas in which earthquakes would naturally occur due to plate

interactions in zones of convergence or divergence, or areas where two plates slide past one

another along the parallel boundaries.

Nature and Occurrence of Earthquakes

When there is a sudden localized disturbance in rocks, waves similar to those cause by a

stone thrown in a pool spread out through the earth. An earthquake generates a similar

disturbance. The maximum effect of an earthquake is felt near its source, diminishing with

distance from the source ( earthquakes shake the ground even hundreds of kilometers away ).

The vibrations felt in the bedrock are called shocks. Some earthquakes are preceded by smaller

foreshocks and larger earthquakes are always followed by aftershocks. Foreshocks are usually

interpreted as being caused by plastic deformation or small ruptures. Aftershocks are usually due

to fresh ruptures or readjustment of fracture rocks.

The point of generation of an earthquake is known as the focus, center, or hypocenter.

The point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus is known as epicenter. The depth of the

focus from the epicenter is known as the focal depth. The distance from the epicenter to any

point of interest is known as the focal distance or epicentral distance. Seismic destruction

propagates from the focus through a limited region of the surrounding earth’s body, which is

called the focal region. The line joining locations experiencing equal earthquake intensity is
known as isoseismal line and the line joining locations at which the shock arrives simultaneously

is known as homoseismal line.

The location of an earthquake’s focus is important because it indicates the depth at which

rupture and movement occur. Although movement of material within the earth occrs throughout

the mantle and core, earthquakes are concentrated in the upper 700 km only. Shallow-focus

earthquakes are most frequent and originate form up to a depth of 70 km and 300 km.

Earthquakes having a focal depth of more than 300 km is classified deep-focus earthquakes. The

maximum energy released by an earthquake progressively tends to become smaller as the focal

depth increases. Also , seismic energy from a source deeper than 70 km gets largely dissipated

by the time it reaches the surface. Therefore, the main consideration in the design of earthquake-

resistant structures is shallow-focus earthquakes. The focus of an earthquake is calculated from

the time that elapses between the arrival of three major types of seismic waves.

The movement caused by an earthquake at a given point of the ground surface may be

resolved into three translations, parallel to the three mutually perpendicular axes. There are also

three rotations about these axes, which, being small, may be neglected. The translations ( or

displacements ) are measured by seismographs.

Seismic Waves

The large strain energy released during an earthquake travels in the form of seismic

waves in all directions, with accompanying reflections from earth’s surface as well as reflections
and refractions as they traverse the earth’s interior. These waves can be classified as body waves

travelling through the interior of the earth, consisting of P waves ( primary, longitudinal, or

compressional waves ) and S waves ( secondary, transverse , or shear waves ) , and surface

waves resulting from interaction between body waves and surface layers of earth – consisting of

L waves ( love waves ) and Rayleigh waves. Body waves travel through the interior of elastic

media and surface waves bound to the free surfaces.

In P waves, the material particles oscillate back and forth in the direction of propagation

of the wave and cause alternate compression ( push ) and tension ( rarefaction of material ; pull )

of the medium. These waves cause a momentary volume change in the material through which

they pass without any concomitant momentary shape change in the amterial. P waves are similar

to sound waves and obey all the physical laws of science and acoustics. Since geological

materials are stifferin volumetric compression, the P waves are the afastest, followed in sequence

by S waves, L waves and Rayleigh waves. P waves can pass through solids and fluids.

The material particles in S waves oscillate at right angles to the direction of propagation

of the wave, and cause shearing deformations as they travel through a material. The direction of

particle movement can be used to divide S waves into 2 components, SV ( vertical plane

movement ) and SH ( Horizontal plane movement ). S waves do not change the instantaneous

volume of material through which they pass. However, the instantaneous shape of the material

gest distorted. The velocity of s waves is directly proportional to the shear strength of the

material through which they pass. S waves do not travel through liquids as fluids have no

shearing stiffness. In association with the effects of L waves, S waves cause maximum damage
to structures by rocking the surface in both horizontal and vertical directions. When P and S

waves reach the earth’s surface, most of their energy is reflected back. Some of this energy is

returned to the surface after being reflected from different layers of soil and rock. Shaking due to

earthquakes is more severe ( about twice as much ) at the earth’s surface than at substantial

depths.

L waves cause surface motion similar to that caused by S waves, but with no vertical

component. These are produced from the interaction of SH waves with a soft surficial layer and

have no vertical component of a particle motion. L waves are always dispersive, and are often

described as SH waves that are trapped in by multiple reflections within the surficial layers.

Rayleigh waves make a material particle oscillate in an elliptical path in the vertical plane

( with horizontal motion along the direction of energy transmission ). These are produced by the

interaction of P and SV waves with the surface of the earth. The velocity of Rayleigh waves

depends on Poisson’s ration of material through which they pass. Rayleigh waves are believed to

be the principal component of ground roll. Ground roll is a form of coherent linear noise which

propagates at the surface of earth , at low velocity and low frequency.

Effects of Earthquakes

Direct Effects

1. Seismic waves, especially surface waves, through surface rock layers and regolith

result in ground motion. Such motion can damage and sometimes, completely destroy
 buildings. If a structure, such as a building or a road, straddles a fault, then the ground

displacement that occurs during an earthquake will seriously damage or rip apart that

structure.

2. In regions consisting of hills and steep slopes, earthquake vibration may cause

landslides and mudslides and cliffs to collapse, which can damage buildings and lead

to loss of life.

3. Soil vibration can either shake a building off its foundation, modify its supports, or

cause its foundation to disintegrate.

4. Ground shaking may compound the problem in areas with very wet ground – infilled

land, near the coast, or in locations that have a high water table. This problem is

known as liquefaction. When an earthquake shakes wet sandy soil, the soil particles

may be jarred apart, allowing water to seep in between them. This greatly reduces the

friction between soil particles, which is responsible for the strength of soil. Wet

saturated soils lose their bearing capacity and become fluid due to the sudden

reduction in shear resistance caused by the temporary increase of pore fluid pressure.

The ground then behaves like quicksand. When this happens, buildings start to lean

and can just topple over or partially sink into the liquefied soil; the soil has no

strength to support them. However, as the soil consolidates after the earthquake,

further damage to buildings can occur as a result of further settlements and sand soil

eruptions ( water and sediment bursts from the pressure-charged liquefied sand.).

Liquefaction can also cause an increased lateral pressure on retaining walls, resulting

in their displacement. As a result of liquefaction, large masses of soil can be displaced

laterally, termed lateral spreading, with serious consequences. The displaced ground
 suffers cracks, rifting, and buckling. Lateral spreading disrupts the foundations of

buildings built across the fault, and causes bridges to buckle and service pipelines to

break.

5. Strong surface seismic waves make the ground heave and lurch and damage the

structure.

Indirect or consequential effects

1. If the epicenter of an earthquake is under the sea, one side of the ocean floor drops

suddenly, sliding under the other plate and, in doing so, creates a vertical fault. The

violent movement of the sea floor results in series of sea waves with extremely long time

periods. These waves are called tsunamis. These usually take place along the subduction

zone and are very common in the Pacific ocean. In open sea, a tsunami only develop into

breakers as they approach the shore and the undulating water touches the bottom. Near

shores, the energy of a tsunami gets concentrated in the vertical direction ( because of

shortening of wavelength due to reduction in velocity ). The breakers associated with

tsunamis can easily be over 15 m high in case of larger earthquakes, and their effects

correspondingly dramatic. Several such breakers may crash over the coast in succession;

between waves, the water may be pulled swiftly seaward, emptying a harbor or bay and,

perhaps, pulling unwary onlookers along. Tsunamis can travel very quickly – speeds of

1,000 km/h are not uncommon. The velocity of tsunami waves with large wavelengths

may be estimated using Vt equals square root of the product of g times h where g is the

acceleration due to gravity and h is the depth of the water.

 NOTE : ( a ) The first indication of a tsunami is generally a severe recession of the water,

which is shortly followed by a returning rush of water that floods inland a distance

depending on the height of the wave. This recession and return of water continues at

intervals as each wave of the usual series arrives at the coast. ( b ) The tsunamis are long

period waves that may travel long distances from their point of generation.

2. Since a tsunami occurs because of sudden displacement of a large body of water, this

displacement may be caused by

a. Undersea landslides whereby large amount of sediment is dislodged from the

seafloor, displacing a water column and potentially generating a localized tsunami

b. Surface land sliding into the ocean due to earthquake, resulting in local tsunami;

and

c. Volcanic eruptions in or near the ocean which may cause tsunami, but are not

usual.

3. Sieches, similar to small tsunamis, occur as a result of the sloshing of enclosed water in

reservoirs, lakes, and harbours shaken by earthquakes.

4. Earthquakes can cause fire by damaging gas lines and snapping electric wires.

5. Earthquakes can rupture dams and levees ( raised river embankments ) , causing floods,

resulting in damage to structures and considerable loss of life.