CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction
The primary function of the structure system is to carry effectively and safely
all loads acting on the building and eventually to transmit them to the foundation. The
structural elements are designed to resist not only gravity forces but also
lateral forces of wind and earthquake loads. So, the engineer needs a throughout
grounding in the behavior of reinforced concrete members and structures. This
expectation is usually expressed by a specified load or demand and an acceptable
margin of safety that constitutes a performance goal for a structure. The line elements
in these structures under load may be subjected to one type of force such as axial
force or a combination of forces such as shear, moment, torsion, and axial force. A
structural frame is a three-dimensional structural system consisting of straight
members that are built monolithically and have rigid joints. All members of frame are
considered continuous in the three directions, and the columns participate with the
beams in resisting external loads.
Consideration of the behavior of reinforced concrete frames at and near the
ultimate load is necessary to determine the possible distributions of bending moment,
shear force, and axial force that could be used in design. It is possible to use a
distribution of moments and forces different from that given by linear elastic
structural analysis if the critical sections have sufficient ductility to allow
redistribution of actions to occur as the ultimate load is approached. Today all the
structural engineers have been emphasizing the seismic effect on high-rise reinforced
concrete building. Since high-rise building is essentially a vertical cantilever, the
structural elements are designed to resist both axial loads by gravity and traverse
loading by wind or earthquake.
Foundation is part of a structure which provides support to the structure and the
load coming from it. The design of foundation of the structure involves the following.
(a) Evaluation of the capacity of the soil to support the loads and
(b) Designing proper structural elements to transmit the proper structure load
into the soil.
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Piles are long and slender members made of timber, concrete or steel. They
are used to transmit loads through soil of low bearing capacity to deeper strata having
high bearing capacity. Pile foundation are used when the required bearing capacity of
shallow foundation cannot be obtained, settlement of shallow foundation is excessive
and shallow foundations are not economical. Piles are used -
(a) To carry vertical compression load from buildings, bridges and so on.
(b) To resist horizontal or inclined loads by retaining wall, bridge pier and so
on.
(c) To resist uplift forces in underground structure below water table.

2.2. Structural Systems

The UBC-97 recognizes seven major type of structural systems which are
capable of resisting lateral forces. In determining the base shear and design story drift
for the structural systems mentioned, UBC-97 provides corresponding height
limitations and the appropriate response modification coefficient (R). The systems
are-
(a) Bearing wall systems
(b) Building frame systems
(c) Moment resisting frame
(d) Dual systems
(e) Cantilevered column building systems
(f) Shear wall frame interaction systems and
(g) Undefined systems

2.2.1. Moment-Resisting Frame System

Moment-resisting frame is a structural system with an essentially complete
space frame providing support for gravity loads and provide resistances to lateral
loads primarily by flexural action of members. There are three types of moment
resisting frame and they are-

2.2.1.1. Intermediate moment resisting frame (IMRF)

A moment frame in which member and joint are capable of resisting forces by
flexural as well as along the axis of members. IMRF is appropriate in moderate
seismic risk areas (Zone 2).
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2.2.1.2. Ordinary moment resisting frame (OMRF)

A moment frame in which members and joints are capable of resisting forces
by flexural as well as along the axis of the members. OMRF is a moment resisting
frame not meeting special detailing requirements for ductile behavior. This frame is
appropriate in minimal seismic risk areas (Zone 0 and 1).

2.2.1.3. Special moment resisting frame (SMRF)

A moment frame in which member in which members and joints are capable
of resisting forces by flexural as well as along the axis of the members. SMRF is a
moment–resisting frame specially detailed to provide ductile behavior. This system is
appropriate in high seismic risk areas (Zone 3 and 4).

Gravity force

Lateral force

Figure 2.1. Moment-Resisting Frame

2.2.2. Dual Systems

Dual systems have essentially complete space frames that provide support for
gravity loads and shear walls or braced frames and moment resisting frames (SMRF
or IMRF) provide resistance to lateral load. Moment-resisting frames acting in
conjunction with shear walls must be able to resist at least 25% of the design base
shear independently. The two systems are designed to resist the total design base
shear in proportion to their relative rigidities considering the interaction of the dual
system at all levels. Dual system with concrete shear walls and concrete SMRF has
not height limit for seismic zones 3 and 4. It is shown in Figure 2.2.

Gravity force
 7

Lateral force

Figure. 2.2. Dual System

2.2.3. Shear Wall-Frame Interaction Systems

To resist lateral forces, shear wall-frame interaction systems primarily use a
combination of shear walls and moment frames. Building frames that are part of the
lateral-forces-resisting are required to be concrete frames. These systems are
restricted to seismic zones 0 and 1 (zones of low seismicity).

2.3. Loads Acting on the Structure

Load that act on the structures can be divided into three categories: dead load,
live load and environmental loads.

2.3.1. Dead Load

Dead loads are those that are constant in magnitude and fixed in location
through out of the life time of the structure. Usually the major part of the dead load is
the weight of the structure itself. This can be calculated with good accuracy from the
design configuration, dimension of the structure, and density of the materials. For
building floor fill, floor finish and plastered ceiling are usually included as dead load,
and allowance is made for suspended loads such as piping and lighting fixtures.

2.3.2. Live Load

Live loads consist chiefly of occupancy loads in building and traffic load on
bridges. They may be either fully or partially in place or not present at all, and may
also change in location. Their magnitude and distribution at any given time are
uncertain, and even their maximum intensities throughout the life time of the structure
 8

are not known with precision. The minimum live loads for which the floors and roof
of a building should be deigned are usually specified in the building code that governs
at the site of construction. Representative values of minimum live loads to be used in
a wide variety of buildings are found in minimum design loads for buildings and other
structures.

2.3.3. Environmental Load

Environmental loads consist mainly of snow loads, wind pressure and suction,
earthquake loads, soil pressure on subsurface portions of structures, loads from
possible pounding of rain water on flat surfaces, and forces caused by temperature
differentials. Like live loads, these loads at any given time are uncertain both in
magnitude and distribution which is often modified locally depending, for instance,
on local climatic or seismic conditions.

2.3.4. Wind Load

All structures are subjected to wind loads, but it is usually only those more
than 10 stories for which special consideration of wind is required.

On any typical building of plan and elevation, wind exerts pressure on the
wind wards side and suction on the leeward side, as well as either uplift or down ward
pressure on the roof .Since wind loadings are random in nature, they are assumed to
come from any horizontal direction for buildings that are not vary tall or slender, the
wind loading may be estimated by a static method. Dynamic methods are for
buildings of height greater than 400ft, or of a height greater than five times their
width, or those with structures that are sensitive to wind excited oscillations.

The wind pressure is obtained by the formula:

P = Ce Cq qs Iw

Where,

P = design wind pressure

Ce = combined height, exposure and gust factor coefficient.

Cq = pressure coefficient for the structure under consideration.

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qs = wind stagnation pressure at a standard height of 33 ft.

Iw = importance factor.

According to UBC-97, there exists three types of exposures and the

characteristics of these are as follows:

EXPOSURE B has terrain with building, forest of surface irregularities,

covering at least 20% of the ground level area extending 1 mile or more from the site.

EXPOSURE C has terrain that a flat and generally open, extending half mile
or more from the site in any full quadrant.

EXPOSURE D is the most severe exposure in areas with basic wind speeds of
80 mph or greater and has terrain that is flat and unobstructed facing large bodies of
water over 1 mile or more in width relative to any quadrant of the building site.
Exposure D extends in land from the shoreline ¼ miles or ten times the building
height, whichever is greater.

According to UBC 97, two methods may be used to obtain cq;

Method 1: (Normal Force Method)

This method shall be used for the design of gabled rigid frames and it can be
used for any structure. In this method a uniform wind pressure is assumed to act
normal to all exterior surfaces.

Method 2 :( Project Area Method)

This method may be used for any structures less than 200 ft in height except
those using gabled rigid frames. In this method horizontal wind forces shall be
assumed to act upon projected area of the structure.

Since the proposed buildings are below 400 ft and height to width ratio is less
than five, static approach is used to estimate the design wind pressure.

For proposed building, the required data in analysing for wind load are;

Exposure type = Type B

Basic wind velocity = 100 mph

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Effective height = 147 ft

Method = Normal force method

Important factor = 1.0

2.3.5. Earthquake Load

Earthquake loading is a result of the response of the building to the shaking of
the ground. An earthquake consists of horizontal and vertical ground motions with the
vertical motion usually having the much smaller magnitude. Because the horizontal
motion of the ground causes the most significant effect, it is that effect which is often
through of as earthquake load. When the ground under an object (structure) having
mass suddenly moves, the inertia of the mass tends to resist the movement.

To design the earthquake resistant structures, the effects of earthquake on

structure must be known. There are many effects in considering the building design
and other structures. They depend on many factors obtained from different codes. The
general philosophy of earthquake resistant design for building is based on the
principles that they should.

(a) Resist minor earthquake without damage.

(b) Resist moderate earthquake without structural damage but accepting the
probability of non-structural damage.

(c) Resist average earthquake with the probability of structural as well as non-
structural damage but without collapse.

Some adjustments are made to the above principles to recognize that certain
buildings with a vital function to perform in the event of an earthquake should be
stronger.

2.4. Three-Dimensional Frames Elements and Shell Elements for Superstructure

 11

Frame elements are beams, columns and beam-column connections (joints)

and shell elements are slabs and shear walls.
2.4.1. Beams
Beams are defined as flexural members and they transfer the load from floor
slabs to the supporting columns. In the design of flexural reinforcement of
intermediate moment resisting concrete frames beams, the factored moments for each
load combination are obtained by factoring the corresponding moments from all the
load combinations. Both the tension and compression reinforcements are calculated in
the flexural reinforcement design.
Compression reinforcement is added when design moment exceeds the
maximum moment capacity of a singly reinforced section. The addition of
compression reinforcements can be reduced by increasing the effective depth, the
width or the grade of concrete. For intermediate moment resisting frames, the shear
design of the beams is also based upon the probable and nominal moment capacities
of the members in addition to the factored load design. Under gravity loads, the top of
the beam is under compression while the bottom of the beam is under tension, leaving
the middle of the beam relatively stress-free. Rectangular beams fail in compression
when the concrete strains reach values of about 0.003 to 0.004.
Flexural members are defined as structural members that resist
earthquake forces but have a factored axial compressive load that does not exceed A g
f c /10, where Ag is the gross area of the cross section.

Transverse reinforcement is required (1) to confine the concrete, (2) to prevent

buckling of the compression bars in the hinging areas, (3) to provide adequate shear
strength and (4) to confine lap splices.
Transverse reinforcement is required throughout flexural members in frames
resisting earthquake-induced forces. According to ACI Sec.21.5.3, transverse
reinforcement in the form of hoops must be used over a length equal to twice the
member depth measured from the face of the supporting member toward mid-span, at
both ends of the flexural member, and over length equal to twice the member depth on
both sides of a section where flexural yielding is likely to occur in connection with
inelastic lateral displacements of the frame. The first hoop must be located not more
than 2 in. from the face of the supporting member and the maximum spacing of the
hoops must be the smallest of one-fourth of the effective depth, 8 times the diameter
 12

of the smallest longitudinal bar, 24 times the diameter of the hoop bars, or 12 in.
Figure 2.3 and Figure 2.4 show flexural and transverse reinforcement requirement for
beam in seismic zone 2B.
In the design of concrete beams with ETABS, the program calculates and
reports the required area of steel for flexure and shear based upon the design for major
direction flexure and shear only.
(a) Special Moment Resisting Frame
Flexural frame members shall satisfy the following conditions:
Factored axial compressive force ≤ Ag f c /10
(b) Intermediate Moment Resisting Frame
Factored axial compressive force ≤ Ag f c /10
The positive moment strength at the face of the joint shall be not less than one-
third the negative moment strength provided at that face of the joint.
Neither the negative nor the positive moment strength at any section along the
length of the beam shall be less than one-fifth the maximum moment strength
provided at the face of either joint.

ρmin= 3 '
fc /fy ≥ 200/fy
ρmax= 0.3643 1f’c/fy

M+ n.r
M- n.1

Figure 2.3. Flexural Reinforcement for Beams

Mn- or Mn+ (max Mn at either joint )/5
 13

d/4
8 × smallest longitudinal bar diameter
So<
24 × hoop bar diameter
< 2ʺ 12" Stirrups with
Hoops seismic hooks

2h S < d/2
Transverse reinforcement determined in
accordance with ACI Sec. 21.5.4 at both
ends
Figure 2.4. Transverse Reinforcement Requirement for Beams
(c) Ordinary Moment Resisting Frame
There are no similar requirements as for above frames.

2.4.2. Columns
Columns are defined as vertical compression members whose length exceeds
four times its least width. Columns may be divided into two broad categories: short
columns, for which the strength is governed by the strength of materials and the
geometry of the cross-section and slender columns, for which the strength may be
significantly reduced by lateral deflections. A column is said to be slender for its
cross-sectional dimensions are small compared with its length.
Columns are also defined as members with a factored axial compressive force
exceeding Ag fc' /10. Columns must provide sufficient strength so that they will not
yield prior to the beams. Lateral sway caused by column hinging may result in
excessive damage. Yielding of the columns prior to the beams could also result in
total collapse to the structure. If columns are not stronger than beams, there is
likelihood of inelastic action. In the worst case of weak columns, flexural yielding can
occur at both ends of all columns, resulting in a column failure mechanism that can
lead to collapse. For these reasons, columns are designed with 20% higher flexural
strength as compared to beams at the same joint.
General requirements for frame members subjected to bending and axial loads
are:
(a) Factored axial compressive force > Ag f c /10
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(b) Least cross-sectional dimension ≥ 12 in

(c) Ratio of the least cross-sectional dimension to the perpendicular dimension is
greater than or equal to 0.4.
The longitudinal reinforcement ratio shall not be less than 0.01 and shall
not exceed 0.08 for IMRF according to ACI Code 21.4.3.1. These limits are imposed
by ACI in order to control creep, reduce steel congestion and provide a flexural
capacity in excess of cracking moment. The transverse reinforcement requirements
for columns are shown in Figure. 2.5.
ACI Sec.21.3.5.specifies the use of minimum transverse reinforcement over
length lo from each joint face and on both sides of any section where flexural yielding
is likely because of inelastic lateral displacement of the frame. The length l o may not
be less than (a) the larger dimension of the column at the joint face or at the section
where flexural yielding is likely to occur, (b) one-sixth of the clear height of the
member or (c) 18 in.
In accordance with ACI Sec.21.3.5, the spacing of transverse reinforcement
(so) within lo may not exceed half of the smaller column dimension, 4 times the
diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar, 24 times the diameter of tie bar or 12in. For
region outside lo, the spacing of spiral or hoop requirement may not exceed two times
of so.

Figure 2.5. Transverse Reinforcement Requirement for Columns (Rectangular hoops)

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2.4.3. Slabs
A reinforced concrete slab is a broad, flat plate and usually horizontal with top
and bottom surfaces parallel or nearly so. In general, center to center distances should
be used in continuous slab analysis. If moment and shear coefficients are used,
computations should be based on clear spans. Since all the loads on the slab must be
transmitted to the two supporting beams, all the reinforcement should place at right
angles to these beams. The lateral distribution steel may be placed in the other
directions to control shrinkage and temperature cracking. The concrete protection
3
should be 4 inch below the bottom of the steel. In a typical slab, 1 inch below the
centre of the steel may be assumed. The lateral spacing of the bars, except for those
used only to control shrinkage and temperature cracks should not exceed three times
the thickness of 18 inches, whichever is less, according to ACI Code 7.6.5.
There are a number of different types of structural systems used for concrete
floors and roofs. Such systems may be classified as one-way or two- way slabs. When
the floor slab is principally supported in one direction (i.e. at each end) this is referred
to as one-way slab. Two-way slabs provide support in two perpendicular directions.
One-way slabs are normally designed with tensile steel ratio below the
maximum permissible value of 0.75ρb. Typical steel ratio ranges from about 0.004 to
0.008. According to ACI Code 13.3.1, the minimum reinforcement in each direction
for two-way slabs is required for shrinkage and temperature crack control. The slab
thickness should not be less than 3.5 inches and not less than the total parameter
divided by 180. For two-way systems, the spacing of flexural reinforcement at critical
sections must not exceed two times the slab thickness. Reinforcing steel for slabs is
primarily parallel to the slab surface. Straight bar reinforcement is generally used
although in continuous slabs bottom bars are sometimes bent up to provide for
negative reinforcement over the supports.

Lb
La
h
S

Simple supports on
two long edges only

Figure.2.6. Deflected Shaped of Uniformly Loaded One-way Slab

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Lb
La
S

Simple supports on
all four edges

Figure 2.7. Two-way Slab on Simple Edge Supports: Bending of Centre Strips of Slab

2.5. Pile Foundation for Substructure

Two types of pile are bearing piles and friction piles. When piles are installed
in a deep stratum of limited supporting ability and these piles develop their carrying
capacity by friction on the side of the pile, they are called friction plies. When a pile
pass through the poor material and its tip penetrates a small distance into a stratum of
good bearing capacity, it is called bearing pile. These is no pile that transmit the load
to surrounding soil by friction or by end bearing. The distinction only serves to
indicate either friction pile or bearing pile. Many times, the load carrying capacity of
piles results from a combination of point resistance and skin friction. For example, a
pile embedded in homogeneous clay will mostly transfer the load by end bearing and
can be considered as end bearing pile.
Pile foundations are usually placed in groups often with spacing of 3 to 4 B
where B is the pile diameter. Pile spacing should not be less than 2.5 B. Smaller
spacing is often not desirable because of the potential for piles intersection and a
reduction in load carrying capacity. A pile cap is necessary to spread vertical and
horizontal loads and any overturning moments to all of the piles in the group.

2.5.1. Classification of Piles

Some piles, such as timber, are best suited for low to medium loads, whereas
others, such as steel, may be cost effective for heavy loads. Most pile types are
available only in certain diameters. Highway shipping regulations and practical pile
driver heights generally limit the length of pile segments to about 60ft (80m). Some
 17

types of piles are easily spliced, whereas others are not. Piles are classified according
to their composition or method of installation.

2.5.2. Classification Based on Composition

(a) Timber piles may be suitable where good bearing stratum is available at a
relatively shallow depth. Nowadays, use of timber piles is restricted due to the
necessity for preservation of forests.
(b) Concrete piles are either precast or cast- in- situ. Precast piles may be of
various shapes but are normally suitable for short lengths. Cast- in - situ
concrete piles are used where relatively long and large diameter piles are
required to support heavy loads.
(c) Steel piles are usually of H sections or pipe sections. These piles may be used
where less disturbance from driving is desired.

2.5.3. Classification Based on Method of Installation.

(a) Driven piles may comprise of timber, steel or precast concrete. These piles are
driven by the impact of a hammer or by vibrations induced by a vibratory
hammer.
(b) Driven cast in situ piles are also a kind of driven pile. Steel casing is driven
into the ground with a shoe at the bottom. The hole is then filled with concrete
into the hole and the casing is gradually lifted as the concrete is poured.
(c) Bored piles are formed in pre-bored holes in the ground either using casing as
circulation of drilling fluid. Concrete is poured into the hole by displacing
fluid and gradually lifting the casing.

Bored piles may be of the following types-

(a) Small diameter bored piles present generally up to 2 ft diameter.
(b) Large diameter bored piles present generally greater than 2 ft diameter.
(c) Under-reamed piles reveal one or more bulbs of larger diameter than that of
the shaft.
Bored piles are commonly used as foundation to support heavily loaded
structures like high-rise buildings in the view of its low noise, low vibration and
flexibility of sizes to suit different loading conditions and subsoil conditions.

2.5.4. Action of Cohesive Soil around a Bored Piles

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Boring causes release of lateral stress on the wall of the bored hole. Softening
of the clay immediately adjacent to the soil surface occurs due to -
(a) absorption of moisture from the wet concrete,
(b) migration of the water from the clay away from the pile toward the bore
hole on excavation of the hole,
(c) water pour into the boring to facilitate operation of the cutting tool.

Meyerhof and Murdock (1953) measured 4-8% increase of water content in

stiff clay close to the interface of the soil with concrete. The installation of a bored
pile may cause disturbance in the clay just beneath the pile base. Softening of the
clay may occur by the action of boring tools.
This effect may result in increased settlement. The problems for construction
of bored piles are-
(a) caving of the borehole resulting in misalignment of the pile,
(b) aggregate separation within the pile,
(c) buckling of pile reinforcement.

2.5.5. Pile Groups

Piles are commonly used in groups with a foundation slab or pile cap cast over
the pile heads to distribute the load to the piles. Although the piles in a group are
generally identical, the group capacity is not necessarily the same as the capacity of
single pile multiplied by the number of piles in the group. Also, the settlement of pile
group may be different from the settlement of a single pile subjected to the same
average load per pile. This is because of interaction among piles which is known as
group action.

2.5.6. Pile Spacing

In case of a closely spaced group, the pressure bulb of individual piles overlap
and a much larger bulb is formed. This is likely to result in a larger settlement. Also,
due to overlapping of stresses, the capacity of individual piles may decrease and result
in a lower capacity of the group.
Shamsher Parkash and Sharma said that the spacing of piles should be range
from 3 to 4 B where B is the diameter of the pile. The spacing of piles in a group is to
be selected basically under consideration the factor that -
(a) the influence zones around individual piles do not overlap and
(b) each pile in the group is allowed to develop its full capacity.
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The important consideration for pile spacing are -

(a) The type of soil and the method of installation: Larger spacing may be
required for driven piles is saturated clay to minimize the effect of heaving.
(b) The minimum spacing: Should be such that with due tolerance for error in
layout and verticality, reasonable gap is maintained between adjacent piles.
(c) The efficiency of the group: The bearing should be such that the group
efficiency is close to unity, that is, each pile can develop its full capacity.
(d) The economy: The larger the group, the costlier in the cap.

2.5.7. Pile Caps

If the bearing capacity of the upper soil layers is insufficient for a spread
foundation, but firmer strata are available at greater depth, piles are used to transfer
the loads to these deeper strata. Piles are generally arranged in groups, one under each
column. The group is capped by a spread footing or cap that distributes the column
load to all piles in the group. These pile caps are in most ways very similar to footings
on soil, except for two features. For one, reactions on caps act as concentrated loads at
the individual piles, rather than as distributed pressures. For another, if the total of all
pile reactions in a group is divided by the area of the footing to obtain an equivalent
uniform pressure, it is found that this equivalent pressure is considering higher in pile
caps than for spread footings. This mean that moments, and shears are also
correspondingly larger, which requires greater footing depths than for a spread footing
of similar horizontal dimensions.
The cap is usually of reinforced concrete, poured on the ground. The pile cap
dowel bar
has a reaction that is a series of concentrated loads and the design considers the
column loads and moments any soil overlying thetemperature
cap (if it and
is below the ground
shrinkage steel
surface) and the weight of the cap. main steel
h
cover
pile head inset
pile head

edge distance

Figure 2.8. Typical Pile

 cap

20

Allowable bearing capacities of piles Ra are obtained from soil exploration,

pile-driving energy and test loadings. As in spread footings, the effective portion of Ra
available to resist the unfactored column loads is the allowable pile reaction less the
weight of footing, backfill, and surcharge per pile. That is
Re = Ra–Wf
where, Wf is the total weight of footing, fill and surcharge divided by number of piles.
The design of footing on piles is similar to that of single column footings. One
approach is to design the cap for the pile reactions calculated for the factored column
loads. For a concentrically loaded cluster this would give R u = (1.4D +1.7L)/n.
However, since the number of piles was taken as the next larger integral, determining
Ru in this manner can lead to a design where the strength of the cap is less than the
capacity of the pile group. It is therefore recommended that the pile reaction for
strength design be taken as
Ru = Re × average load factor
Where, the average load factor = (1.4D + 1.7L)/(D+L). In this manner, the cap
is designed to be capable of developing the full allowable capacity of the pile group.
Detail of the typical pile cap are shown in Figure.
As in single-column footings, the depth of the pile cap is usually governed by
shear. In this regard, both punching or two-way shear and flexural of one-way shear
need to be considered. The difference is that shears on caps area caused by
concentrated pile reactions rather than by distributed bearing pressures.
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The assumption that each pile in a group carries an equal load may be nearly
correct when the following criteria are all met:
(a) The pile cap is in constant with the ground.
(b) The piles are all vertical.
(c) Load is applied at the center of the pile group.
(d) The pile group is symmetrical and the cap is very thick (or rigid), usually
about 6 to 6.5 ft thick for plan dimensions of 6.5 to 10 ft and depending on
pile spacing.
The structural design of pile caps is only minimally addressed in the literature
but the following may be used as a guide:
(a) Bending moment are taken at the same sections as for reinforced concrete
footings.
(b) Pile caps must be reinforced for both positive and negative bending moments.
Reinforcement should be placed so there is a minimum cover of 3 in for
concrete adjacent to the soil. When piles extant into the cap only about 3 in,
the bottom cap reinforcement should be 3 in above the pile top to control
concrete cracking around the pile head.
(c) Pile caps should extent at least 6 in beyond the outside face of exterior piles
and preferably 10 in. When piles extent into the cap more than 3 in, the bottom
rebar should loop around the pile to avoid splitting a part of the cap from pile
head moments and shears.
(d) Some kind of tension shear connectors should be used on the pile heads if the
piles are subjected to tension forces.
(e) Pile cap shear is computed at critical sections.

2.5.8. Settlement of Pile Group

Besides bearing capacity, the allowable settlement is another controlling factor
in determining the allowable capacity of a pile foundation. The total settlement at the
top of a pile consists of immediate settlement and long-term settlement. The
immediate settlements occur during or shortly after the loads are applied. The long-
term settlement takes place during the period after the loads are applied which include
creep deformation and consolidation deformation of the soil under drained loading
conditions.
The settlement of a pile group may be different from the settlement of a single
pile subjected to the same average load per pile. If the stratum in which the piles are
embedded and all strata below if have sample bearing capacity, each pile of the pile
 22

group is capable of carrying essentially the same load as that carried by single pile. If
the compressible soil exit below the pile tips, the settlement of the pile group may be
much greater than the settlement observed in the single pile although the bearing
pressure may be smaller than the allowable value. The total stress in group may be
several times that under a single pile. The effective width of the group is several times
that of a single pile. If the group consisted of four piles, the vertical load was evenly
distributed among the four piles. And, if the groups consisted of nine piles, the
interior piles carried a large load than the corners (which carried the least) and the
sides (which were intermediate). If we denote, the pile as 100 percent efficient, then
the corners carry about 60 to 70 percent of the interior and the side piles about 80
percent.
St= Ss + Sp + Sps (Semiempirical Method)
St= B/100 + (Qua L) / (Ap Ep) (Empirical Method)

2.6. Seismic Design Criteria Selections

The seismic design process involves consideration of a number of structural
and site characteristics, including seismic zoning, occupancy , seismic importance
factors, building fundamental period, site geology and soil characteristics and soil
profile type, seismic source types, near-source factors, seismic ground response
coefficients, response modification factor, configuration, structural system and height.
Furthermore, the UBC-97 requires that all parts of the structure be designed with
adequate strength to withstand the lateral displacements induced by the design ground
motion considering the inelastic response of the structure and the inherent
redundancy, over strength and ductility of the lateral-force resisting system.

2.6.1. Seismic Zone Factor, Z

The seismic zone factor, Z, is the code estimate of the applicable site
dependent effective peak ground acceleration expressed as a function of the gravity
constant, g. The valves of Z range from 0.075 to 0.4 with the corresponding six
different seismic zones. The zone factor corresponds to ground motion values with a
recurrence interval of 475 years which gives a ten percent probability or of being
exceeded in fifty years period. These valves are based on historical records and
geological data and are also adjusted in order to provide consistent design criteria
within local jurisdictions. UBC–97 Table A-4, shows the values of seismic zone
factor.
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2.6.2. Seismic Importance Factor, I

The importance factor reflects the relative importance attached to a structure
remaining (standing and preferably functional) during and following an earthquake.
The seismic important factor is either 1.0 or 1.25, depending on how critical it is for
the structure to survive a major earthquake with minimal damage. From UBC Table
A-12, it is obvious that a higher importance factor, I equal to 1.25 is designated for
essential and hazardous facilities order to ensure that these facilities remain functional
and operational after a severe earthquake. The design base shear is increased
25 percent for these facilities. Increasing the design base shear increases the seismic
safety of a structure.

2.6.3. Soil Profile Types

The ground vibration caused by an earthquake tends to be greater on soft soil
than on hard soil or rock. As the vibration propagates through the material underlying
the structure, it may be either amplified or attenuated depending on the fundamental
period of the material. To account for this potential amplification, six different soil
types are classified in UBC-97 Table A-5 ranging from hard rock to soft soil. The
classification may be made by determining on site the average shear wave velocity in
the top 100 feet of material.
SA : Hard Rock (found east of the Rockies)

SB : Rock (found west of the Rockies; also the basis for the ground motion

acceleration represented by the seismic zone map)

SC : Very Dense Soil and Soft Rock

SD : Stiff Soil Profile ( this is the most commonly assigned soil profile type)

SE : Soft Soil Profile

SF : Poor Soil

2.6.4. Seismic Source Type

The maximum moment magnitude potential of a fault and its slip rate are used
to classify seismic source types. Three different source types are identified in
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UBC-97 Table A-6 ranging from the most active type A source to the least active type
C source.

2.6.5. Near-Source Factors, Na and Nv

In regions subjected to large magnitude earthquakes, such as those which
occur in seismic zone 4, locations close to the fault rupture may experience ground
acceleration up to twice that at a distance of 10 kilometers from the source. To
account for this, the UBC-97 introduces two near-source amplification factors. These
are Na, the acceleration-based factor for short period structures and N v, the velocity-
based factor for periods exceeding one second. These factors are applicable to seismic
source type A and seismic source type B, and have a value of unity for type C faults
regardless of distance. UBC-97 Table A-7 and Table A-8 show the values of near
source factors.

2.6.6. Seismic Response Coefficients, Ca and Cv

The ground response coefficients Ca and Cv are the parameters which reflect
the potential amplification of the ground vibration caused by different soil types. The
fundamental period of a structure determines which of the two coefficients C a or Cv
governs the seismic design of the structure. The acceleration-based coefficient C a
controls for shorter period up to approximately one second and the velocity-based
coefficient Cv controls for longer periods. UBC-97 Table A-9 and Table A-10 show
the values of the seismic response coefficients.

2.6.7. Response Modification Factor, R

The structure response modification factor R given in UBC-97 Table A-11 is
the ratio of the seismic base shear, which would develop in a linearly elastic system,
to the prescribed design base shear and is a measure of the ability of the system to
absorb energy and sustain cyclic inelastic deformations without collapse. In addition
to compensating for the energy dissipation capability, lateral force system redundancy
and increase in natural period and damping ratio, the response modification factor
allows for the provision of secondary lateral support systems and the observed
performance of specific material and structural system in past earthquakes. The value
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of R increases as the overall ductility of the structure and its energy dissipation
capacity increases and as the degree of redundancy increases.

2.7. Regular and Irregular Structure

In designing a structure, selection of the structure's basic plan, shape and
configuration is a critical step. The decision will influence the ability of a structure to
withstand earthquake ground shaking. While configuration cannot be presumed to be
the sole reason for building inadequacy, it is usually significant contributor. The
simpler the building is, the better its seismic performance will be.
Regular structures are structures having no significant physical discontinuities
in plan or vertical configuration or in their force resisting systems.
Irregular structures are structures having significant physical discontinuities in
configuration or in their lateral force resisting systems.
Two main types of structural irregularities are vertical structural irregularities
and plan structural irregularities. Five different vertical structural irregularities are
listed in UBC-97 Table 16-L. They are:
(a) Stiffness irregularity – soft storey
(b) Weight (mass) irregularity
(c) Vertical geometric irregularity
(d) In-plane discontinuity in vertical lateral force resisting element, and
(e) Discontinuity in capacity – weak storey.

Five different plan structural irregularities are listed in UBC-97 Table 16-M.
They are:
(a) Torsional irregularity
(b) Re-entrant corners
(c) Diaphragm discontinuity
(d) Out-of-plane offsets, and
(e) Nonparallel systems.

A structure that meets one of the five conditions of UBC-97 Tables 16-L and
16-M would normally be considered as irregular. So a regular structure must not
meet any one of irregularity conditions specified in UBC-97 to prove its pure
regularity.
2.8. Stability of Superstructure
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From the analysis result, the following items of stability checking for the
superstructure are made
(a) Story Drift
(b) Overturning Moment
(c) P-delta Effect
(d) Sliding

2.8.1. Story Drift

Story drift is the lateral displacement of one floor relative to the floor below.
The story drift ratio is the story drift divided by the height of the story. Displacement
are computed from static, elastic lateral analysis using the design seismic force of
UBC-97.

2.8.2. Overturning Moment

Every structure shall be designed to resist the overturning effect caused by
earthquake forces. Overturning effects on every element shall be carried down the
foundation.

2.8.3. P-Delta Effect

The column members in structural are loaded in compression by vertical live
and dead loads. Normally these loads are concentric with the base of the members.
The structure is acted upon by a lateral seismic load. This results in additional forces,
moment and displacement of frame member is referred to as P-Delta effect.

2.8.4. Sliding
For the stability of the structure, it is also necessary to resist the lateral earth
pressure together with dead load and live load. The resisting forces due to friction
shall be calculated by the following equations;
= 0.9  W

where, = resisting force due to friction

= friction coefficient

W = total dead weight

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The value for safety factor against sliding is 1.5 and the friction coefficient is
taken as 0.25 according to UBC-97.

2.9. Selection of Codes

General design requirements applicable to all structures are regulated by
codes. For designing lateral force-resisting frame, the UBC-97 is used. For designing
concrete structural elements, ACI 318-99 is used.
The procedure and limitations for the design of structure by UBC-97 are
determined considering seismic zoning, site characteristics, occupancy, configuration,
structural system and height of building. The major parameters are occupancy and
structural configuration.
ACI 318-99 code provides minimum requirements for design and construction
of structural concrete elements of any structure. ACI code also provides minimum
acceptable standards of design and constructions in the areas without legally adopted
building codes. The detailing requirements of ACI 318-99 are related to the type of
structural framing system, seismic risk level at the site, level of energy dissipation
assumed in computation of design seismic forces and occupancy of the structure.