LITERATURE REVIEW

ON

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

2IC421 – CONTROL SYSTEMS

ELECTRONICS &

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

NIRMA UNIVERSITY AHMEDABAD – 382481

MAY 2023

By: To:
Bhavsar Naishadh (22BEC509) Prof. Sneh Soni
Nawab Mohammadubay (22BEC510)
Pandya Krishna (22BEC511)
As air transport demand keeps growing more snappily than system capacity, scient and evocative operation of
system capacity becomes essential to the operation of the unborn global air traffic system. Although exploration in
the once two decades has made significant progress in applicable exploration fields , e.g. air traffic flow operation
and field capacity modelling, exploration loopholes in air traffic operation still live and links between divergent
exploration areas are needed to enhance the system performance of air traffic operation. Hence, the ideal of this
paper is to review totally current exploration in the literature about the issue of air traffic operation to prioritize
productive exploration areas. Papers about air traffic operation are bandied and distributed into two situations system
and field. The system position of air transport exploration includes two main motifs air traffic flow operation and
airspace exploration. On the field position, exploration motifs are field capacity, field installation application,
aircraft operations in the field terminal maneuvering area as well as aircraft ground operations exploration. Implicit
exploration interests to
concentrate on in the future are the integration between airspace capacity and field capacity, the establishment of
field information systems to use field capacity more, and the enhancement in flight schedule planning to ameliorate
the tractability of schedule perpetration.

INTRODUCTION

Major changes are anticipated in the Air Traffic Control( ATC) system in the near future as a result of the Single
European Sky ATC Research SESAR) and the Next Generation Air Transportation System( NextGen) programs.
Although an advanced position of Automation support will be demanded in these future operations, humans will still
have a central part as directors and decision- makers

(1) Since mortal air traffic controllers( ATCOs) will remain integral and critical system factors affecting overall
ATC performance and safety, the mortal capabilities and limitations need to be taken into account in the
early development stages of new generalities

(2) mortal- in- the- circle simulations give a realistic and reliable evaluation and evidence system, but bear
devoted installations, test subjects, and real-time trials, so can be precious and time-consuming

(3) A fairly affordable complement to these simulations can be presto-time computer simulations with
mortal air traffic control models, which can anticipate the benefits and implicit downsides associated to
proposed changes through analysis of various generality configurations, different automation tools, and
motorist places and arrears for a wide amount of script conditions. As an illustration, the prolusion of
Continuous Descent Approaches (CDAs) in congested airspaces is largely dependent on Air Traffic Control
(ATC) practices and automation. In fact, despite the environmental and provident benefits of CDAs, air
traffic service providers are reticent to apply CDAs since ATCOs are not suitable to properly anticipate the
changeable descent circle

(4) Consequently, ATC has to give larger original distance between arriving aircraft, which negatively affects
field capacity. Fast- time simulations would be desirable to trial with different sense of air traffic control
and ground automation to optimize these operations

This paper presents a review of the approaches and tools that are available in the literature to model mortal air traffic
controllers aimed at supporting the development of analogous tools. First, an extended type and comparison of the
characteristics, strengths and limitations of the applicable being mortal modeling fabrics is handed. Specifically, for
the complex air traffic control terrain, these models should reflect a mortal motorist suitable to engage in multiple
tasks and to decide how to allocate limited resources to negotiate the pending tasks. This complex modeling can take
different forms and can be classified attending to different criteria depending on the specific disquisition pretensions.
For case, the models may or may not make note of the low- position cognitive processes, depending on whether or
not the specific disquisition is concentrated on the farther cerebral and mortal- factor acquainted aspects of the
process. Next, near attention is paid to the two primary air traffic control tasks conflict discovery (CD) and conflict
resolution(CR), or original. For an appearance controller these tasks are rather appertained to as sequencing and
coupling, yet their structural basics are analogous as they make upon line anticipation, conflict decision and
resolution selection. various modeling ways to mortal conflict discovery and resolution are mooted and distributed,
and supplemented by Brand 2008 The Boeing Company. All flights reserved. precious obedience from previously
published trials. ultimately, the paper concludes with a discussion on the recommended approaches to mortal
performance models for ATC applicable to the assessment of new ATC generalities, specifically the prolusion of
continuous descent approaches.

HISTORY

Air Traffic Control in the United States began in the late 1920s, innovated by field workers using red and green
flags, and lights to gesture their instructions to aviators. The Air Commerce Act of May 20, 1926, was the first step
of the Civil government towards regulation of civil aeronautics. This legislation was pushed by the leaders of the
aeronautics assiduity, who were induced that the aeroplane couldn't reach its full marketable eventuality without
Federal action to define, ameliorate and maintain safety norms. The Air Commerce Act defined several tasks,
including issuing and administering air traffic rules, empowering aviators, certifying aircraft, establishing airways,
and operating and maintaining aids to state navigation. The first megacity to have a radio- equipped control palace
was Cleveland( 1930). The first three centers for ATC were established by an airline institute, encouraged by the
Civil government, between 1935 and 1936. Charts, blackboards, and internal computations were the first tools used
by early Air Traffic regulators to insure the safe separation of aircraft traveling between metropolises along
designated routes. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the Federal civil aeronautics liabilities from the
Department of Commerce to a new independent agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority. The legislation also
expanded the government’s part by giving the Authority the power to regulate airline fares and to determine the
routes that airlines would serve. The Authority was resolve in 1940, giving birth to the Civil Aeronautics
Administration (CAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board
(Hack) placed under the Department of Commerce. The CAA was responsible for ATC, birdman and aircraft
instrument, safety enforcement, and airway development. The Hack’s task was safety rulemaking, accident
disquisition, and profitable regulation of the airlines. The adding airspace traffic touched off by the growing traffic
in the 1940s, the preface of spurt airliners and a series of skyline collisions motivated passage of the Federal
Aviation Act of 1958, which generated a new agency Federal Aviation Agency. Indeed though a special commission
had formerly recommended the use of radar in 1947, it was not until the late 1950s that a mercenary radar system
was installed by the CAA .Federal Aviation Agency was given sole responsibility to develop and maintain a
common civil-military system of air navigation and ATC. The Act also transferred safety rulemaking from the Hack
to the Federal Aviation Agency. On April 1, 1967, the Federal Aviation Agency came one of several associations
within the Department of Transportation( DOT) and came the Federal Aviation Administration( FAA). In
themid-1970s, the FAA achieved a semi-automated ATC system grounded on a combination of radar and computer
technology. By automating certain functionalities of ATC, the system allowed regulators to concentrate more
efficiently on the vital task of aircraft separation, which is still not automated moment. The regulator graphical
display encompassed technology suitable to fantasize multitudinous aspects information about air craft identity,
altitude, and ground speed of aircraft carrying radar lights), while controlling the airspace. Despite its effectiveness,
this system wasn't suitable to keep up with the growth of traffic and adding traffic. The NAS Plan, created in January
by FAA aimed at chancing results to the traffic problem, defined more advanced systems for En-Route and Terminal
ATC, stream lined flight service stations, and bettered in ground-to-air surveillance and communication. Several
other situations of Automation were introduced until the events of September 11, 2001. Shortly later, Congress
created the Transportation Security Administration( TSA), whose top responsibility is civil aeronautics security.
Despite the negative impact of September 11 and the concurrent profitable recession, which made passenger demand
fall originally by further than 20, airspace traffic continues to be a problem. Recent studies have shown that the
overall impact of September 11 on air traffic traffic was just a two time detention in former estimates. In 40 times,
the detainments have increased by 50 in the United States. From 1995 to 1999, the average detention grew from 42
twinkles to 50 twinkles. Flight cancellations increased by 68 between 1995 and 1999. Annual traffic growth is
still2.3 and airlines have increased their flight times on 80 of all busy routes, up to 27 twinkles. Such a list of
intimidating figures could be extended nearly endlessly. It vehemently speaks for Automation and optimization of
the current ATC system, in order to satisfy the ever increasing quantum of traffic.
The Impact of Automation

Air traffic control is a large human – machine system. The future may bring intelligent knowledge- grounded
systems, expert systems, veritably accurate satellite- deduced nautical information, automated speech conflation and
speech recognition, touch-sensitive input bias, noble color — a whole panoply of technological advances which can
now be previsioned, if not enforced. numerous of these inventions indicate increased Automation of functions or
further computer backing for regulators. These changes, if well chosen and sensibly introduced, can produce
numerous benefits, but it's important to be apprehensive of some of their mortal factors consequences which may not
be so welcome, the forestallment of which should impact the particular forms which Automation takes. numerous of
the prospective benefits of progressive Automation may prove to be fugitive unless all its mortal factors counter
accusations are anticipated and allowed for. The extent to which active participation in routine tasks aids memory
and understanding has been constantly undervalued, so that when computer backing takes the form of the relief of
the homemade performance of routine tasks by their performance automatically, the regulator frequently finds it
necessary to introduce a new task, since positive action is now needed to recoup from the system information
formerly attained apropos during the performance of homemade functions. The regulator doesn't use this recaptured
information for any air traffic control purpose, but simply looks at it as a consolation to prop memory and
understanding of the current air traffic control situation. To cast the regulator in a part which requires the monitoring
of automated functions rather than active involvement in them is eventually tone- defeating. The regulator may no
longer be suitable to intermediate in extremities and be flexible in dealing with nonstandard circumstances. Without
active participation in the control circle, the conservation of knowledge of what's passing becomes inadequate to
perform indeed those residual functions adequately. This isn't to be demonstrated as a lack of fidelity or
professionalism among regulators, but it's a statement about the nature of mortal memory and understanding and the
incapability of humans to perform indefinitely routine tasks which are no way demanded but always redundant. To
give the regulator nothing but monitoring functions is thus to introduce recalcitrant mortal factors problems for
which no satisfactory result may be set up. A further unpleasant consequence of automated backing in air traffic
control originates in the fact that utmost aids are more suitable for individualities than for brigades, and discourses
between mortal and machine take the place of relations between people. Traditional forms of supervision and
backing may no longer be doable when the important of the work consists of underpasses across an interface
between regulator and machine. Some of the consequences of this may be unanticipated but can nonetheless be
prognosticate. For illustration, the development of professional morals, norms, and morality occurs as the individual
freshman to a profession absorbs from others what's anticipated from anyone who aspires to come a completely
competent and accepted member of that profession. How can the individual regulator ever hand or understand
similar morals if the openings for nearly cooperative cooperation are constantly elided by abecedarian changes in
system generalities and design? Precipitously introduced automated backing may thus baffle the full development of
professional morals and norms, which are a hallmark of class of a profession and a major driving force behind the
high norms of achievement of numerous individual air traffic controllers. However, it can be turned to advantage by
icing that the tasks that are designed bear sufficient commerce between people to foster the perpetuation of
professional morals, If this kind of consequence is provisioned flightly. In principle, numerous findings concerning
expert systems might be applicable to air traffic control. An expert system has as one ideal the objectification of
applicable mortal expert knowledge into a database containing other information about the performing system,
similar as tasted data, rules, and algorithms, so that the total is accessible to system druggies. Some of the
commonest mortal factors problems of expert systems have been reviewed( Hopkin, 1984). They include the
assumed knowledge formerly held by the druggies and the ways in which discourses between the system and
druggies with colourful chops and knowledge should be conducted. moxie may correspond of the interpretation of a
complex visual display; it can relate to the timing of an action, as well as the correct choice of action; it may include
adaptations in advance to take account of the anticipated responses of others. Experts may not agree among
themselves, and the problem arises of establishing the validity of expert systems without expedient to the identical
experts whose suspected fallibility has rendered the validity uncertain.

Early Automation

Numerous of the mortal factors problems associated with air traffic control forego the preface of Automation as we
now know it. The comprehensive proffers to apply mortal engineering to state traffic control, made by Fitts and his
associates in 1951, had a major influence on mortal factors. Their paper appertained to numerous generalities that
are still current however with different connotations- both mortal factors generalities, similar as the division of
responsibility between humans and machines, decision timber, information coding, and information inflow, and air
traffic control generalities, similar as the air traffic control palace and center, the approach regulator and en- route
regulator, and the flight plan. important of the vocabulary of air traffic control dates from its onsets when it reckoned
on spoken underpasses between aviators and regulators. Although air traffic control is now
among the pioneering operations of Automation, it was not always so. An authoritative review of Automation
(HMSO, 1956) scarcely indicated to aeronautics and no way mentioned air traffic control, but bandied considerably
economics and operation, the engineering diligence, process control, data processing, and large
human machine product systems. further unexpectedly, it also bandied counteraccusations of Automation for labor
relations; the comity of mortal and machine; and the goods of Automation on shift work, on women workers, on job
satisfaction, on criteria for payment for work, on brigades, and on openings for creation. Why were so numerous of
these mortal factors issues, honored as applicable in 1956, ignored later? Increases in Demand presumably the
vacuity and implicit benefits of Automation would alone be sufficient to insure consideration of
its connection to air traffic control- as to numerous other surrounds, from services to the entertainment assiduity. But
in numerous corridor of the world, Automation in air traffic control is treated as a necessity, rather than a implicit
boon, for another reason. Although current air traffic control systems may be remarkably safe and effective within
their design limits, numerous are handling traffic situations at or near their planned outside capacity and must evolve
to accommodate further air traffic. Although the factual size of the impending
increase in the demand for air traffic control services is debatable, and protrusions from perceptible trends in air
traffic are subject to gross deformation by factors beyond the influence of air traffic control, there's agreement that
the increase in demand will be substantial and will exceed the capacity of being systems. There are two broad
consequences. One is that the quality of nautical information, and of calculations grounded on that information, must
be enhanced so that further air raft can be controlled efficiently in the same airspace with no loss of safety. The other
is that each regulator must spend lower time dealing with each aircraft under control, again maintaining
effectiveness and safety. Both these consequences point towards further Automation. The appru- ent option of
adding the number of regulators becomes tone- defeating because of the redundant dispatches and liaison included.

Abstract

The National Air Traffic Control Contingency Plan was developed when it appeared that the Federal Aviation
Administration might face a public strike by its air traffic regulators. There were two introductory objects associated
with the plan: the uninterrupted operation of the air traffic control system and the continuance of
former high situations of safety. The contingency plan was developed over a 13- month period, published, and also
modified several times before the strike actually passed. The plan was grounded on the supposition that all air traffic
regulators might support a strike and thus the system would be operated only by good administrators and installation
staff labour force. Individual and system productivity was to be maximised by minimising the number of air traffic
control instructions to be issued to each aircraft. The plan incorporated air traffic procedures, a precedence stoner
system, a public airline and air weight schedule (no way enforced, but of strategic significance in gaining acceptance
of the total plan), operation collaboration and dispatches procedures, and security procedures. To insure stoner and
private traffic involvement to the maximum extent possible, a public briefing was
conducted in Washington and a draft of the plan was published in the Federal Register. The ATC Staff — Controller
and aviators The ATC staff includes the ATC regulators and eventually the aviators. In particular, the ATC regulators
are responsible for monitoring and controlling the air traffic in the airspace of their governance this is generally a
sector within the terminal, low- and/ or high( upper)- altitude airspace. The ATC regulators are generally organized
as brigades of two or three persons with precise division of tasks and liabilities. The ultimate actors — aviators —
share in the ATC processes by following, in addition to their own, instructions and guidance from the ATC
regulators. These instructions substantially relate to maintaining the allocated four- dimensional circles and
maintaining separation from other aircraft/traffic and the obstacles on the ground( in the vicinity of and at the
airfields). In the contemporary ATC systems, the ATC regulators use the workstations equipped with
synthetic radar defences and consoles with the information on the aircrafts breakouts, which are presently under
their governance, and those which are anticipated to be soon at the entry of their sector(s)(in the coming half an
hour). At the morning, the information about the aircraft/ flight grounded on the flight plan is passed to the ATC
unit through AFTN( Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network). The ATC registers the public information
about the flight, which generally contains the radar identification law, aircraft type, planned origin and destination
field, needed route and FLs along it, ground speed, type of the avionics onboard, etc. In total, in strip-grounded
system, each flight is described by 21 descriptors, each with its field on the strip. In strip-less- automated system, the
“ strip ” has digital form with the fields for 16 flight descriptors. Each aircraft/ flight is characterized by five
countries while being handled in a given ATC sectors as follows

(1)notified, (2)coordinated, (3)assumed, (4)transfer initiated, and (5)spare state.

In terms of time, the air line breakouts are planned 3–6 months in advance. The ATC capacity demanded to handle
them is planned per day and hours of the day. The running of breakouts in a given sector is planned 5 – 20 min in
advance, i.e., before they arrive, and the control breakouts in the sector is planned about 5 min in advance.
Eventually, the breakouts are navigated and guided through the sector in time windows lower than 5 min. It
should be mentioned that the contemporary ATC system are equipped with radar content( primary and secondary
radar) of the airspace in their governance. This enables the ATC regulator( s) to have two- dimensional picture of the
traffic situation in the sector. The following are information on the radar screen, related to the flight/ aircraft
identification sign/ law of the aircraft/ flight, its position in the given airspace/ sector, flying altitude, and the time at
the reporting points.

Conventional Control Ways

Airspace is divided by flight situations into upper, middle, lower, and controlled airspace. Controlled airspace
includes that girding airfields and airways, which define the corridors of movement between them with minimum
and maximum mound. The degree of control varies with the significance of the airway and may, for
private light aircraft, be represented only by ground markings. Airways are generally divided by 1,000- bottom
situations, with aircraft assigned specific operating situations according to direction and performance. typically all
similar movements are controlled by air traffic control centers. In upper airspace, above about 25,000
bases (7,500 meters), aviators may be allowed free route choices handed that flight tracks and biographies have been
agreed on in advance. In middle airspace, all aviators entering or crossing controlled airspace are obliged to accept
control, and announcement must thus be given to the control center in advance. There's a continuing trend toward
expanding areas taking positive control. Besides perpendicular lengths in airways, vertical separations are important,
generally taking the form of a minimal time interval of 10 twinkles between aircraft on the same track and elevation
with a side distance, generally, of 10 long hauls. The simplest form of flight control is called the visual flight rule, in
which aviators fly with visual ground reference and a “ see and be seen ” flight rule. In congested airspace all
aviators must observe the instrument flight rule; that is, they must depend basically on the information handed by the
aeroplane’s instruments for their safety. In poor visibility and at night, instrument flight rules always apply. At
airfields, in control zones, all movements are subject to authorization and instruction from air traffic control when
visibility is generally lower than five navigational long hauls or the pall ceiling is below 1,500 bases. Procedural
control starts with the aircraft’s captain entering meteorological vaticinators, together with a briefing officer’s rosters
of radio-frequency changes along the flight path and notice to birdmen. Flight plans are checked and possible exit
corridors from the flight path, in case of exigency, are determined. Flight plans are bear to control halls and approach
control centres. As the aircraft taxis out, under instructions from the ground regulator, the airman waits to be fitted
into the overall pattern of incoming and gregarious movements. Regulators allocate an gregarious track, which
enables aircraft separation to be maintained; this is determined from a check of the more lately used standard
departure concurrences. As the aircraft climbs to its original altitude, on an instructed title, the departure
regulator identifies the image produced by the aircraft on the radar screen before allowing any new take-offs or
levees. farther instructions clear the aircraft for its final rise to the en-route portion of the flight and the aviators ’
first reporting point marked by radio bias. Progress reports on the en-route portion of the flight are needed and
generally are tracked on radar. At a reporting point en-route, the entering control centre takes over the flight from the
departure centre, and all further reports and instructions are made to the new control centre. Descent instructions are
to arrange the incoming aircraft at separations of maybe five long hauls, in effect, on a slanting line. As the aircraft
closes in, speed adaptations or stretching of flight paths may be necessary to maintain separations of three
navigational long hauls over the field boundary. regulators determine the wharf sequences and mounding
instructions and may acclimate takeoffs to handle surges in the incoming breakouts. The final stage is initiated by
transfer of control to an approach regulator. Under radar surveillance the final directions are given for wharf. In the
wharf sequence, control passes to the control palace, where perfection radar is used to cover the wharf, and ground-
movement regulators issue dragging instruction What does the Air traffic control do The part of an air traffic
regulator is relatively complex. They ’re the person who works from the control palace, giving concurrence for
aircraft to take off and land safely in the field. The air traffic regulator works within a system, coordinating
patterns to insure aircraft keep a safe distance in the air and on the ground. The main thing of an air traffic regulator
is to insure the safety of aircraft, aviators, flight attendants, and of course, the airline passengers. An air traffic
regulator will communicate with aviators throughout their entire flight, relaying information back
and forth between incoming and gregarious breakouts. They use a large system of computers, radars, and visual
references during this communication. They must give aviators with an in- depth explanation about the rainfall and
should be prepared for any necessary flight path changes

When your descending aeroplane is 50 long hauls from the field, it's within airspace. An approach regulator directs
your airman to acclimate the aircraft's title, speed and altitude to line over and prepare to land along standard
approach corridors. Your airman also aligns your aeroplane with the runway. When you're 10 long hauls( 16km)
from the runway, the approach regulator passes your aeroplane off to the original regulator in the field palace.
The original regulator in the field palace checks the runways and the skies above the runways with binoculars and
face radar( original and ground regulators are the only regulators certified to use visual information in performing
their duties). When the original regulator determines that it's safe, he or she gives your airman concurrence to land.
The original regulator also updates rainfall conditions for your airman and monitors the distance between your
aeroplane and other wharf aircraft. Once you've landed, the original regulator directs your aeroplane to an exit
taxiway, tells your airman the new radio frequency for the ground regulator and passes your aeroplane off to the
ground regulator. The ground regulator watches the runways and taxiways and uses ground radar information to
insure that your dragging aircraft doesn't cross active runways or intrude with ground vehicles. He or she directs
your aeroplane to the applicable terminal gate. Ground labor force from the airline use hand signals to help your
airman in parking the aeroplane at the gate.
System Level
The operation of a field is influenced by the operation of the other airfields through aircraft reels, i.e. the nonstop
diary of aircraft among airfields in one day. The flow operation problem( FMP) occurs when the field capacity at
some airfields decreases due to tempestuous rainfall conditions or other causes and results in significant detainments
in aircraft gyration, i.e. detainments to inbound and outbound flights to and from those airfields. To help airborne
detainments due to the deficit of field capacity, aircraft may be assigned ground- holding detainments at origin
airfields rather. The procedure of assigning ground holds to aircraft is a part of the ATFM. The purpose of ATFM is
to allocate field capacity optimally to all druggies during the space of field capacity to minimize previsioned
negative impacts ,e.g. severe flight cancellation and flight detainments. The assignment of ground holds to departing
aircraft has been used as an functional strategy to minimize flight detainments as well as system costs due to
detainments. A thorough disquisition and definition of FMP and ATFM was given by Odoni( 1987), where it was
concluded that FMP is a problem which has stochastic and dynamic features and strategies of air traffic ̄flow
management should be delved by means of simulation ways. Air traffic flow operation problems were formerly
delved by using deterministic models at the early stage of the development of ATFM results.
BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION:-
1) It consists of various sensors like temperature sensor, visibility sensor, speed sensor
and accelerometer.
2) It gives information about the parameters in analog form and then using ADC
IC0808 it is converted in digital.
3) Then the output of ADC goes to the microprocessor Figure 3.2-Receiver and the
microprocessor is connected to the power supply , clock and reset circuit.
4) Microcontroller output is connected to the LCD in the plane circuit to display
parameters to pilot so he or she can find out the fault in which part is taking place.
5) Microprocessor output is also given to Zigbee module which transmits it to the
control room.
6) Receiver also has a Zigbee module. It receives signal sent by transmitter and this
module is connected to computer through USB connection.
7) This module has ultrasonic sensors which are connected to computer by RS232
serial interface. Ultrasonic sensor is used to detect any obstacle which is present on
runway to avoid accidents also the collision of planes.
Airspace Structure
The airspace is divided in different classes, which correspond to regions under
different regulations and use. An total bracket of airspace is available( see
bibliography) and is only compactly epitomized then. Class A airspace exists from
18,000 to 60,000 bases. All operations in this airspace must be under instrument
flight rules( IFR)( aviators must be rated to fly according to the rules governing the
procedures for conducting instrument flight) and are subject to air traffic control
concurrences and instructions. Class B airspace surrounds “ busy ” airfields in the
US. Each Class B area is collectively acclimatized and consists of a face area and
two or further girding layers( see Figure 3)( most Class B airspace would look like
an reversed marriage cutlet if viewed in profile). Again, aviators must admit an
ATC concurrence to enter class B airspace. Class C airspace generally surrounds “
lower ” airfields with an operating control palace, a radar approach control
installation, and a certain number of IFR operations. The area encompassed by this
airspace is demarcated by two circles with the inner circle extending 5 navigational
long hauls from the field starting at the face and extending up to 4000 bases above
field elevation. The external circle extends to 10 navigational long hauls from the
field and consists of a shelf from 1200 bases to 4000 bases above field elevation.
The rest of mercenary airspace is divided in farther orders( Classes D, E, G), not
applicable for the description in this chapter. Airspace also includes special use
airspace, which encompasses banned areas, confined areas, advising areas and
military operations area, which won't be detailed then. The National Airspace
System( NAS) is a large scale, concentrated, cold-blooded dynamic system its
control authority is presently organized crescively with a single Air Traffic Control
System Command Center( ATCSCC), in Herndon VA, supervising the overall
traffic inflow. This is supported by 22( 20 in the international US or CONUS) Air
Route Traffic Control Centers( ARTCCs, or simply, Centers) organized by
geographical region up to 60,000 bases. Each Center issub-divided into about 20
sectors, with at least one air traffic regulator responsible for each sector. Each
sector regulator may talk to 25- 30 aircraft at a given time( the outside allowed
number of aircraft per sector depends on the sector itself). The regulator is in charge
of precluding losses of separation between aircraft, keeping them separated by
further than 5 navigational long hauls horizontally, and 2000 bases vertically. In
general, the regulator has access to the aircraft’s flight plan and may revise the
altitude and give temporary heading assignments, amend the route, speed, or profile,
in order to essay to optimize the inflow and to keep aircraft separated, as well as to
give rainfall reports and winds. An illustration of the current control structure is
presented in Figure. There are about 17,000 regulators in the NAS structure, each
controlling a zone with rough periphery from 20 to 200 long hauls. There are about
19,000 wharf installations, with about 400 of these major airfields with ATC halls.
The acceptance rate of each field is generally 1 aircraft/ nanosecond per runway in
normal operations( if the runway is used for both take off and wharf); this capacity is
doubled if the runway is used for landing only. Within the Center airspace, the low
traffic viscosity region down from airfields is known as the en route airspace and
is under governance of the ARTCC. The high traffic viscosity regions around
civic airfields are delegated to Terminal Radar Approach Control( TRACON)
installations. The TRACONs generally control this airspace up to Air Traffic bases.
There are further than 150 TRACONS in the United States one may serve several
airfields. For illustration, the San Francisco Bay Area TRACON includes the San
Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose airfields along with lower fields at Moffett Field,
San Carlos, and Fremont. The regions of airspace directly around an field as well as
the runway and ground operations at the field are controlled by the familiar Air
Traffic Control Towers
Navigation and Surveillance
Surveillance is performed by ATC through the use of radar a primary radar system
which processes reflected signals from the aircraft skin, and a secondary radar system,
which triggers a transmitter in the aircraft to automatically emit an identification
signal. The range of the radars depends on the type of airspace being served in the En
Route airspace the long- range Air Route Surveillance Radar( ARSR) is used, while
in the TRACON the shorter range Automated Radar Terminal System( ARTS) is
used. The delicacy of the radars, and their slow( 12 second) update rates( 6 seconds
in TRACON, seconds in En Route airspace), contribute to the FAA norms for aircraft
separation, which are 5 navigational long hauls vertical separation, 1000 bases( 2000
bases above , 000 bases) perpendicular separation in the Center airspace, and 3
navigational long hauls vertical separation, 1000 bases perpendicular separation in
the TRACON. Each ATC installation is equipped with a computer system which
takes the radar signals as input and provides a veritably limited quantum of flight
data processing, including a rudimentary conflict alert function. This information is
displayed to regulators in two- confines on the black and green plan view displays(
PVDs). regulators issue directives to aviators using twoway voice( radio) channels.
ATC presently directs air traffic along predefined victor airways( low altitude<
18,000 bases) and jetways( high altitude), which are “ highways in the sky ”, or
straight line parts connecting a system of lights(non-directional lights( NDBs),
veritably high frequence omni- range receivers( VORs), and distance measuring
outfit( DME)). These lights are used by aviators( and autopilots) as nautical aids, to
modernize and correct the current position information handed by the inertial
navigation systems INS) on board each aircraft. New systems for navigation and
surveillance are presently in the process of instrument for use in the NAS. The
Global Positioning System( GPS) and its Wide Area and Original Area Augmentation
Systems( WAAS and LAAS) give 3D position information worldwide using signal
information from a constellation of 24 satellites. A single GPS receiver can determine
its position to an delicacy of a many measures, using signals from at least 4 out of
these 24 satellites; if this information is stoked with discriminational corrections
from another receiver( discriminational GPS or DGPS), this delicacy can be
increased to a many centimeters. numerous factors make the use of GPS in the
cockpit a desirable volition to the current ATC navigation styles the delicacy is
invariant from aircraft to aircraft whereas with the presently used INS, the delicacy
decreases in time due to detector drift rates; each GPS receiver acts like an
infinitesimal-accurate timepiece, therefore making it possible for numerous aircraft
to coordinate among each other over a communication link; a GPS receiver is much
cheaper than an INS system, and orders of magnitude cheaper than a VOR lamp.
Fueled by the success of GPS and its accruals, the EU started a European Satellite
Navigation system, called Galileo. Galileo will be erected around 30 satellites( 27
functional and 3 reserve craft), and will offer features analogous to the GPS. Away
from the apparent artificial benefits of such a system( assiduity will now give the
same type of outfit for GPS and Galileo), the arrival of such a system is also
veritably important for the ATC community, since it'll enable the use a spare
guidance system counting on both technologies. Automatic Dependent Surveillance(
Advertisements) is a communication protocol by which aircraft would transmit over
digital satellite communication their GPS position information, haste, as well as
information about their intended line, to the ground ATC. Advertisements- B( for
broadcast) is a protocol for broadcasting this information to neighboring aircraft. Its
major advantage over the current ATC surveillance styles is its capability to give
veritably accurate information for line vaticination, without counting on the radar
system. Two immediate benefits of such a communication link are a huge
enhancement in surveillance over oceanic airspace, which isn't covered by radar, and
the possibility of reducing the separation norms between aircraft in all airspace.
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System( TCAS) is an instrument integrated into
an aircraft cockpit, which consists of tackle and software furnishing the airman with
information about traffic in its direct vicinity. In case of a implicit forthcoming
collision with another aircraft, TCAS will sound an alarm and will give the airman
with an escape initiative to follow, coordinated with the other involved aircraft.
stoner Request Evaluation Tool( URET) is a tool which automatically predicts
forthcoming conflicts between the aircraft and notifies the Air Traffic regulators. It's
presently in use in six Centers in the US, and is in the process of being enforced in
14 Centers. URET also works as an premonitory, performing in lesser effectiveness
in airspace use, in particular regarding direct routing and restrictions at sector
boundaries. URET has also the eventuality of helping guidance of free through its
premonitory capability.
Communication and Procedures
Communication and Procedures
All IFR pilots must file a flight plan at least 30 minutes before pushing back from the
gate. The pilot reviews the weather along the intended route, maps the route and files
the plan. The flight plan includes: flight number (which includes the airline
identification), the aircraft type, the intended airspeed and cruising altitude, the route
of
flight (departure airport, Centers that will be crossed and destination airport). It also
includes additional information, such as waypoints, navaids, or fixes, which will be
used
by the aircraft to navigate through sectors of airspace. The flight plan also contains the
arrival, which is a set of closely spaced waypoints, navaids or fixes leading to an
airport. An example of arrivals into the Oakland airport (in California) is shown in
Figure 4, with corresponding infrastructure. The pilot transmits the desired flight plan
information to ATC, where a controller called a flight data person reviews the weather
and flight plan information and enters the flight plan into the FAA main, or “host”
computer. The computer generates a set of flight progress strips that are sent
electronically from sector controller to controller across the flight plan; these strips,
and flight plans, may be updated by each controller throughout the flight. The flight
progress strip contains all of the necessary data for tracking the aircraft. After the pilot
has filed the flight plan, ATC may modify the flight plan according to constraints of
the
NAS and other aircraft (information which is available to each controller from
conversations with the ARTCC and ATCSCC controllers), and issues a clearance to
the
pilot. After take-off, the control of the aircraft is passed through the Tower, TRACON,
and possibly several Center facilities until the destination TRACON is reached.
Each sector controller may talk to 25-30 aircraft at a given time. When an aircraft
crosses the boundary from one sector to the next, there is a “hand-off” in which the
communication is transferred from one controller to the next. Potential conflicts must
be
resolved before hand-off occurs. The controller directs the aircraft according to a set
of
simple control directives, voiced sequentially. One of the most important, and time
consuming, controller tasks is to prevent LOS, between aircraft.
Radio communications are a critical link in the ATC system. The most important
aspect
in pilot-controller communications is mutual understanding of the command and
response. Therefore, pilots acknowledge each radio communication with ATC by
using
the appropriate aircraft call sign; contacts are kept as brief as possible. For example, a
contact procedure is codified as follows: name of facility being called, full aircraft
identification as filed in the flight plan, and eventually, the request or type of message
to
follow. Each procedure is codified in a similar way. Each sector is handled by one key
controller and each controller has his own radio frequency over which the
communication with pilots in his sector takes place. As a flight progresses from one
sector to another, the pilot is requested to change to the appropriate frequency. The
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) phonetic alphabet is used by FAA
personnel when communications conditions are such that the information cannot be
readily received without their use. The grammar and phraseology used in the current
system is available and has been the focus of recent studies. In general, the commands
given to the aircraft by ATC are very precise and can be easily categorized in a
discrete
set of functions, parameterized by real numbers indicating speed, heading, or other
flight variables. This very procedural command environment facilitates the task of
modeling human ATC action, communication and aircraft behavior, as will be shown
in
this chapter. A sample command given by a human ATC to an aircraft might be:
“achieve flight level 290, turn to a heading of 130, reduce airspeed to 120 knots ...”.
In
addition, the procedures differ from TRACON to Center control: in the TRACON, the
controller is responsible for taking the aircraft from Climbout → En Route (the
control
actions must meet impromptu flow restrictions, hand-off to En Route control, clear to
join filed route); in the Center, the controller may revise the altitude and provide
temporary heading assignments, amend the route, speed, profile, and provide weather
reports and winds.In this way, the control is distributed, since it is applied locally in
each sector. There is loose coupling within the ATC hierarchy: the ATCSCC
controllers talk to the ARTCC controllers several times a day to provide updates and
receive feedback about the flow control in each Center/sector. In the case of bad
weather, airport closures, or other large disturbances, this feedback tightens, and the
directives and updates among the levels of the hierarchy become more frequent. Air
Traffic Control regulations and infrastructure in other parts of the world differ from
the US airspace. In particular, in Europe, unlike other large countries such as Russia or
China, the skies are not unified, despite a similar size infrastructure. Eurocontrol, a
European agency unifies the different national entities participating in ATC under a
single organization, but the different sovereign States remain responsible for their
airspace, which sometimes are of small geographical dimensions, leading to several
handover procedures for short flights. The European skies include 75 centers in charge
of En-Route traffic, with around 18,000 Air Traffic Controllers (13,000 for the 15
states of the EU). Even if regulations differ from airspace to airspace, a Regulatory
Committee and an accompanying Regulatory Unit have been created within
Eurocontrol to ensure that regulations are properly observed by member states. An
example of differences in standards with the US is vertical separation. Since January
2002, the Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) standards have provided six
additional flight levels between 29,000ft and 41,000ft in the airspace of 41 European
and North African countries, by reducing the separation minima from 2,000ft