PHY 125 LECTURE NOTE

TOPIC: OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

BY

DR. S.A. BELLO

1. Introduction

The importance of the optical instruments is to produce an image that is larger in size than the

object. The actual size of an object is the one viewed by the eyes when not putting on any

glasses. The size of object is viewed based on the angle subtended by the object with the eye.

This angle is known as visual angle. The closer the object is to the eye the greater the visual

angle and the bigger the object.

Figure 1. Visual angles of two objects placed at different distance to the eye

The same object is viewed at different angles θ1 and θ2. Object 1 looks bigger than object 2

because θ1> θ2. When an optical instrument is now brought between the eye and the object, a

virtual magnified image of the object is produced.

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The magnifying power of on optical instrument is the ratio of the visual angle subtended by the

image at the eye to that subtended by the object at the eye.

The following are the examples of an optical instrument

1. Simple Microscope

2. Compound Microscope

3. Astronomical Telescope

4. Terrestrial Telescope

5. Galileo’s Telescope

2. Magnifying Glass or Simple Microscope (Hand Lens)

This is a device used to view a tiny object that cannot be seen with the naked eyes. It is made

up of a single biconvex lens. The short distance at which an object can be seen without straying

the eye, is called the least distance of vision, D and is equal to 25 cm.

Figure 2. Angle of distinct vision

𝐴𝐵
tan⁡(𝜃) = (2.1)
𝐷

Let now place a lense in such a way that an object is in between its principal focus f, and the

optic center C as shown in Figure 3.

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 A’

B’

Figure 3. Magnifying glass or simple microscope

𝐴′ 𝐵′
tan⁡(𝜃 ′ ) = (2.2)
𝐷

The magnifying power M, of the microscope is

𝑇ℎ𝑒⁡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒⁡𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑⁡𝑏𝑦⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑎𝑡⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝜃 ′
𝑀= =
𝑇ℎ𝑒⁡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒⁡𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑⁡𝑏𝑦⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡⁡𝑎𝑡⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝜃

Or

𝑇ℎ𝑒⁡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒⁡𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑⁡𝑏𝑦⁡𝑎𝑛⁡𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡⁡𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛⁡𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝜃′
𝑀= =
𝑇ℎ𝑒⁡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒⁡𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑⁡𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑⁡𝑒𝑦𝑒⁡𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡⁡𝑎𝑡⁡𝐷⁡ 𝜃

Since 𝜃 ′ and θ are very small,

𝐴′ 𝐵′⁄ 𝐴′ 𝐵′
𝐷
𝑀= 𝐴𝐵⁄ = (2.3)
𝐷 𝐴𝐵

Note: AB is the object height and 𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ is the image height. We

𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℎ 𝑣
Know that magnification, 𝑀 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡⁡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡⁡𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ⁡ ℎ 𝑖 = 𝑢
𝑜

where ℎ𝑖 and ℎ𝑜 are the image and object height respectively and 𝑣 and 𝑢 are the image and

object distance respectively.

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From equation (2.3), we have

𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑣
𝑀= =𝑢 (2.4)
𝐴𝐵

Hence,

𝐷
𝑀 =⁡𝑢 (2.5)

Note: 𝑣 = 𝐷

The lens formula is

1 1 1
𝑣
+𝑢=𝑓 (2.6)

From Fig. 3 and the lens sign rule convention, 𝑢 is positive (real object), 𝑣 is negative (virtual

image) and 𝑓 is positive (for converging lens).

Therefore,

1 1 1
+𝑢=𝑓 (2.7a)
−𝑣

1 1 1
=𝑓+𝑣 (2.7b)
𝑢

Multiply equation(7b) by 𝑣,

𝑣 𝑣
=𝑓+1 (2.7c)
𝑢

𝑣
We know that magnification, 𝑀 = ⁡ 𝑢

Therefore, equation (7c) becomes

𝑣
𝑀 =𝑓+1 (2.8)

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Equation (8) can be used to calculate the magnification of a given lens when moving the lens

and adjusting your eye so it focuses on the image at the eye’s near point. In this case, 𝑣 = D

(see Figure 3) if your eye is very near the magnifier. Then we have,

𝐷
𝑀= +1 (2.9)
𝑓

Equation (2.9) holds if the eye is placed directly at the lens.

When the eye is at distance a, to the lens, then,

𝑣 =𝐷−𝑎

Hence, equation (9) becomes

𝐷−𝑎
𝑀= +1 (2.10)
𝑓

Example 1

An 8 cm-focal-length converging lens is used as a “jeweler’s loupe,” which is a magnifying

glass. Estimate (a) the magnification when the eye is relaxed, and (b) the magnification if the

eye is focused at its near point D = 25 cm.

Solution

(a) The magnification when the eye is relaxed is given by

𝐷
𝑀= (2.11)
𝑓

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This means that the image will be at infinity and the object will be precisely at the focal point,

i.e. 𝑢 = 𝑓. Therefore,

𝐷 25⁡𝑐𝑚
𝑀= =⁡ ⁡ ≈ 3⁡
𝑓 8⁡𝑐𝑚

(b) The magnification when the eye is focused at its near point (D = 25 cm) and the lens is near

the eye, is

𝐷 8⁡𝑐𝑚
𝑀= + 1 =⁡ +1≈4
𝑓 25⁡𝑐𝑚

3. Compound Microscope

A compound microscope is made up of two lenses of short focal lengths fitted coaxially into

two different tubes. The one closer to the object is called the objective lens and the one nearer

to the eye is called the eye piece. Though the two lenses are of short focal length, the focal

length of eye piece is longer than that of the objective.

𝑢𝑒

𝑣𝑜

𝑣𝑒

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Figure 4. Compound microscope: (a) ray diagram, (b) photograph (illumination comes from

below, outlined in red, then up through the slide holding the sample or object)

From Fig. 4, 𝑢𝑜 , 𝑣𝑜 , 𝑓𝑜 are the objective lens object distance, image distance and focal lens of

the objective lens respectively. Similarly, 𝑢𝑒 , 𝑣𝑒 , 𝑓𝑒 are the eyepiece object distance, image

distance and focal lens of the eyepiece respectively.

The image I1 formed by the objective lens is real, quite far from the objective lens, and much

enlarged. The eyepiece is positioned so that this image is near the eyepiece focal point Fe.

The image is magnified by the eyepiece into a very large virtual image I2, which is seen by

the eye and inverted.

The overall magnification of a microscope is the product of the magnifications produced by

the two lenses. The image I1 formed by the objective lens is a factor 𝑚𝑜 greater than the

object itself. From Fig. 4a, we have

ℎ 𝑣 𝑙−𝑓𝑒
𝑚𝑜 = ℎ 𝑖 = 𝑢𝑜 = (3.1)
𝑜 𝑜 𝑢𝑜

where 𝑢𝑜 and 𝑣𝑜 are the object and image distance for the objective lens, 𝑙 is the distance

between the lenses (equal to the length of the barrel).

Here, we set 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑙 − ⁡ 𝑓𝑒 which is exact only if the eye is relaxed, so that the image I1 is at

the eyepiece focal point 𝑓𝑒 . The eyepiece acts like a simple magnifier. If we assume that the

eye is relaxed, the eyepiece angular magnification is Me (from Eq. 2.11)

𝐷
𝑀𝑒 = 𝑓 (3.2)
𝑒

Since the eyepiece enlarges the image formed by the objective, the overall angular

magnification M is the product of the magnification of the objective lens, 𝑚𝑜 , times the

angular magnification, Me, of the eyepiece lens (Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2):

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 𝐷 𝑙−𝑓𝑒
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑒 𝑚𝑜 = (𝑓 ) ( ) (3.3)
𝑒 𝑢𝑜

Equation (3.3) is used for calculating the microscope magnification.

Example 2

A compound microscope consists of an eyepiece of magnification 10 and an objective lens

of magnification 50, where the two lenses are 17.0 cm apart. Determine (a) the overall

magnification, (b) the focal length of each lens, and (c) the position of the object when the

final image is in focus with the eye relaxed. Assume a normal eye, so D = 25 cm.

Solution

(a) The overall magnification is the product of the eyepiece magnification and the objective

magnification, 10 × 50 = 500.

(b) The eyepiece focal length is (Eq. 3.2)

𝐷 25⁡𝑐𝑚
𝑓𝑒 = = = 2.5⁡𝑐𝑚
𝑀𝑒 10

and from equation (3.1),

𝑙−𝑓𝑒 (17.0⁡𝑐𝑚−2.5⁡𝑐𝑚)
𝑢𝑜 = = = 0.29 cm
𝑚𝑜 50

Then, from thin lens equation, the objective focal length is

1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
𝑓𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑢𝑜 𝑣𝑜 0.29⁡𝑐𝑚

and we know from Figure 4, that 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑙 − 𝑓𝑒 = 17.0⁡𝑐𝑚 − 2.5⁡𝑐𝑚 = 14.5⁡𝑐𝑚

Therefore,

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1 1 1 1 1
= 14.5 + 𝑢 = 𝑣 + 0.29⁡𝑐𝑚 = 3.52⁡𝑐𝑚−1;
𝑓𝑜 𝑜 𝑜

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So, 𝑓𝑜 = 3.52⁡𝑐𝑚−1 = 0.28⁡𝑐𝑚

(c) We already calculated 𝑢𝑜 = 0.29𝑐𝑚, which is very close to 𝑓𝑜 .

4. Telescope

A telescope is used to magnify objects that are very far away. In most cases, the object can be

considered to be at infinity.

4.1 Astronomical Telescope

It is used to view distant objects and heavily bodies. This telescope is made up of two convex

lenses combined together to reduce the chromatic and spherical aberrations. It consists of

objective and eyepiece just like the compound microscope. The objective lens is of large focal

length and large aperture while the eyepiece lens is of short focal length.

𝒖𝒆

𝑩𝟐
𝑩𝟏 E
O

𝒖𝒐

Figure 5. Ray diagram of an astronomical telescope

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 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒⁡𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑⁡𝑏𝑦⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙⁡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑎𝑡⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑒𝑦𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡(𝑀) =
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒⁡𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑⁡𝑏𝑦⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒⁡𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠⁡

tan⁡(𝜃′ )
𝑀= (4.1)
tan⁡(θ)

Therefore,

𝐼1 𝐵1
⁄𝐸𝐵 𝑂𝐵 𝑓
𝑀= 𝐼1 𝐵1
1
= 𝐸𝐵1 = 𝑢0 (4.2)
⁄𝑂𝐵 1 𝑒
1

where 𝑓0 = focal length of the objective lens

𝑢𝑒 is the distance of 𝐸𝐼1 from the eyepiece and is negative according to the thin lens sign

convention because it is a virtual image.

From the lens formula:

1 1 1
+𝑢=𝑓 (4.3a)
𝑣

ve is the image distance 𝐼2 𝐸 and is negative because it is a virtual image.

From Fig. 4 and thin lens sign convention rule

ue is negative (virtual object)
- ve is negative (virtual image produced)
fe is positive (converging lens)

Therefore, equation (4.3a) becomes

1 1 1
+ −𝑢 = 𝑓 (4.3b)
−𝑣𝑒 𝑒 𝑒

1 1 1 1 𝑓
= 𝑓 + 𝑣 = − 𝑓 (1 + 𝑣𝑒 ) (4.3c)
−𝑢𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒

Substitute equation (4.3c) into (4.2), we have

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 −𝑓0 𝑓
⁡𝑀 = (1 + 𝑣𝑒 ) (4.4)
𝑓𝑒 𝑒

If the final image is formed at minimum distance of vision D, i.e. 𝑣𝑒 = 𝐷⁡then equation (4.4)

becomes

−𝑓0 𝑓
M= (1 + 𝐷𝑒 ) (4.5)
𝑓𝑒

For relaxed eye, the final imagine should be at infinity i.e. 𝑣𝑒 = ∞ and so from equation (4.4)

−𝑓0
M= (4.6)
𝑓𝑒

At this position the telescope is in a normal adjustment.

Example 3

The largest optical refracting telescope in the world is located at the Yerkes Observatory in

Wisconsin, Fig. 6. It is referred to as a “40-inch” telescope, meaning that the diameter of the

objective is 40 in., or 102 cm. The objective lens has a focal length of 19 m, and the eyepiece

has a focal length of 10 cm. (a) Calculate the total magnifying power of this telescope. (b)

Estimate the length of the telescope.

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Figure 6. This large refracting telescope was built in 1897 and is housed at Yerkes Observatory

in Wisconsin. The objective lens is 102 cm (40 inches) in diameter, and the telescope tube is

about 19 m long.

Solution

(a) From Eq. 4.6 we find

−𝑓0 −19⁡𝑚
M= = = −190⁡
𝑓𝑒 0.10⁡𝑚

(b) For a relaxed eye, the image 𝐼1 is at the focal point of both the eyepiece and the objective

lenses. The distance between the two lenses is thus 𝑓0 + 𝑓𝑒 ≈ 19⁡𝑚, which is essentially the

length of the telescope.

4.2 Reflecting Telescopes

For an astronomical telescope to produce bright images of faint stars, the objective lens must

be large to allow in as much light as possible. Indeed, the diameter of the objective lens (and

hence its “light-gathering power”) is an important parameter for an astronomical telescope,

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which is why the largest ones are specified by giving the objective diameter (such as the 10-

meter Keck telescope in Hawaii).

The construction and grinding of large lenses is very difficult. Therefore, the largest telescopes

are reflecting telescopes which use a curved mirror as the objective, Fig. 7. A mirror has only

one surface to be ground and can be supported along its entire surface† (a large lens, supported

at its edges, would sag under its own weight). Often, the eyepiece lens or mirror (see Fig. 7) is

removed so that the real image formed by the objective mirror can be recorded directly on film

or on an electronic sensor.

Figure 7. A concave mirror can be used as the objective of an astronomical telescope.

Arrangement (a) is called the Newtonian focus, and (b) the Cassegrainian focus. Other

arrangements are also possible. (c) The 200-inch (mirror diameter) Hale telescope on Palomar

Mountain in California. (d) The 10-meter Keck telescope on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. The Keck

combines thirty-six 1.8-meter six-sided mirrors into the equivalent of a very large single

reflector, 10 m in diameter.

4.3. Terrestrial Telescope

A terrestrial telescope, for viewing objects on Earth, must provide an upright image—seeing

normal objects upside down would be difficult (much less important for viewing stars). Two

designs are shown in Fig. 8 and 9.

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4.3.1 Galilean Telescope

The Galilean type, which Galileo used for his great astronomical discoveries, has a diverging

lens as eyepiece which intercepts the converging rays from the objective lens before they reach

a focus, and acts to form a virtual upright image, Fig. 8. This design is still used in opera

glasses. The tube is reasonably short, but the field of view is small.

Figure 8. Galilean telescope

The prisms reflect the rays by total internal reflection and shorten the physical size of the

device, and they also act to produce an upright image. One prism reinverts the image in the

vertical plane, the other in the horizontal plane.

4.3.2 Spyglass Telescope

The second type of terrestrial telescope is shown in Fig. 9 and is often called a spyglass. This

type of telescope makes use of a third convex lens that acts to make the image upright as shown.

A spyglass must be quite long. The most practical design today is the prism binocular. The

objective and eyepiece are converging lenses

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 Figure 9. spyglass, or erector type telescope

Assignment

Two positive lenses, having focal lengths of +2 and +5 cm, are 14 cm apart. An object AB is

placed 3cm in front of the +2 cm lens. (a) What is the type of the optical instrument (b)

determine the position and magnification of the final image A'' B'' formed by this combination

of lenses.

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