1.

Stone Age

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Stone Age

categorised on the basis of the quality of the stone tools used

Palaeolithic - Old Stone Age

Before 10,000 BC
Shelter - caves, huts made of leaves
hunter-gatherers community
stone tools are made of hard rock called quartzite
hunted large animals
little info about their language and way of communication

Sites - mainly in hill slopes and river valleys; absent in alluvial plains

1. Soan valley and Potwar plateau in NW India

2. Shiwalik hills
3. Bhimbetaka Caves
4. Didwana - RJ
5. Belan valley - UP
6. Adamgarh Hills in Narmada Valley
7. Kurnool in AP (people knew about FIRE)
8. Attirampakkam near Chennai

Mesolithic - Middle Stone Age

10000 BC - 6000 BC
microliths were used - small stone tools < 5 cm in size
activities - hunted small animals, fishing
beginning of the use of bow and arrow, domestication of animals, primitive cultivation
animal bones found - dog, deer, boar, ostrich
earliest domesticated animals - dog, sheep, goat
earliest cultivated crops - wheat and barley

Sites -

1. Langhanj in GJ
2. Adamgarh in MP
3. Sarainahar Rai, Mahadaha - UP
4. RJ and BR

Neolithic - New Stone Age

6000 - 4000 BC
neolithic settlements of North India are older than that of South India
polished stone tools were used
agriculture, domestication of animals, manufacture of pottery (CGP) started
emergence of village and farming communities
mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts
quern and mortar were used
wheels were used to make pottery - storage and cooking
crops - wheat, barley, rice, millet
domestication of sheep, goat, cattle - widely prevalent
people wore clothes made of cotton and wool

Sites -

1. NW India -
1. Burzahom - Kashmir valley
2. Mehrgarh
2. Gangetic Plains -
1. Chirand - BR
2. Belan valley - UP
3. Koldihwa, Mahagara - R. Ganga
 3. NE - Daojali Hading - Meghalaya
4. South -

1. Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodedal - KA

2. Paiyampalli - TN
3. Utnur - AP

Mehrgarh Site -

one of the earliest Neolithic site

located in a fertile plain, near Bolan pass
people here learnt to grow Barley and wheat (no rice here)
animals bones have been found - deer, pig, sheep, goat
square houses have been found
Burial pits - dead were buried with goats
2. Metal Age: Copper, Bronze, Iron

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Metal Age -

Neolithic period --> Chalcolithic Age --> Bronze Age --> Iron Age

Chalcolithic Age - Stone Copper phase

Copper - first mental to be used

primarily rural communities
use of stone tools and microliths continued (sometime low-grade bronze was also used)
chalcolithic man - fond of ornaments
people didn't know writing
didn't know mixing tin with copper and thus didn't use bronze
Younger than Harappan Age

Sites -

1. SE Rajasthan -
Ahar and Gilund
lie in dry zones of Banas valley; Balathal
domesticated animals and practised agriculture
not acquainted with horse
2. West MP -
Malwa, Kayatha, Eran
3. West MH - Jorwe Culture
most extensive excavation done here
Jorwe (R. Pravara), Nevasa, Daimabad - Ahmadanagar distt
Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon - Pune distt
Daimabad and Inamgaon - largest sites, had almost reached urban stage
burial practice - north-south (south India - east west)

Characteristics -

knew spinning and weaving; spindle whorls have been found in Malwa
manufactured cloth (cotton was produced)
ate beef but didn't take pork on considerable scale
not acquainted with burnt bricks; houses were made of mud bricks and thatched houses
social inequalities existed
chiefs lived in rectangular houses; commoners lived in round huts
first to use painted pottery - Black and Red ware and Ochre Coloured Pottery
people found settlements in alluvial plains of mid-Ganga region
they knew terracotta art work

Limitations of Chalcolithic phase -

technologically, they were inferior to Harappans

didn't know writing; didn't use bronze
domesticated animals mainly for slaughtering and didn't milk them (thus low on nutrition)
plough-hoe have not been found at sites - thus black soil people didn't carry cultivation on
intensive scale

Bronze Age - (Copper + Tin)

Harappan civilisation belonged to this

major parts of India didn't witness bronze age as tin reserves were very small

Iron Age -

emerged around 1000 BC in Dharwar district of KA

iron - frequently mentioned in Vedas
iron age of South - related to Megalithic burials
shyama / krishna ayas
Iron is called in later Vedic Texts
3. Harappan Civilisation - Bronze Age

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Context -

Harappan culture is older than Chalcolithic culture but the former if far more developed
technologically
People involved in finding it - John Marshall (DG ASI), Daya Ram Sahni, Rakhal Das Banerji
John Marshall - first to use the term IVC

Evolution -

1. Pre-Harappan (c. 4000 BC) - nomads started living a settled agri life; Mehrgarh
2. Early Harappan (3500-2500 BC) - large villages emerged; rural to urban transition happened;
Amri and Kot Diji
3. Mature Harappan (2500 - 1900 BC) - great cities emerged but not many sites are there;
Kalibangan
4. Late Harappan (1900-1200 BC) - decline of IVC; Lothal

Sites -

Harappa - first site to be excavated in 1920s by British archaeologist Sir Mortimer Wheeler.
HR - Mittathal, Rakhigari, Banawali
RJ - Kalibangan
PB - Ropar
JK - Manda
GJ - Desalpur, Lothal (port city), Surkotada, Dholavira, Nageshwar, Rangpur
Outside India - Sotkakoh, Ganweriwala, Mohenjodaro (largest city), Chanhudaro, Kot Diji,
Amri Balakot, Suktagendor, Shortughai (Afghanistan)

Political organisation -

Harappans were more concerned with commerce over conquests

possibly ruled by a class of merchants
central authority could have existed

Town Planning -

very well planned; Mesopotamia- haphazard growth

grid system of streets
use of burnt bricks; Egypt and Mesopotamia - mainly used sun dried bricks
absence of stone buildings
Citadel in the west and lower town in the east
both citadel and lower town were physically separated (both were walled)
most houses had a separate bath area
Great Bath at Mohenjodaro - burnt bricks, coated with plaster, water-tight with a layer of tar
largest building in Mohenjodaro - granary; Harappa - six granaries
Dholavira - divided into three parts

Economy -

didn't use metal money but barter system

tax was collected in cereals; wages paid in grains
copper and bronze - used to make tools, weapons, ornaments, vessels
Copper came from Khetri and Oman; Gold - KA; Tin - Afghanistan, Iran;
Lothal - famous for semi-precious stones (bead making factory); fire-altars
imports - gold, copper, tin, semi-precious stone, garments, perfume, wool, leather products,
silver
exports - agri products, pottery, terracotta figures, ivory products
bronze tools are not very prolific; bronze contained small percentage of tin
precise system of weights (multiples of 16) was used - made of a stone called chert

Agriculture -

crops cultivated - wheat, barley, pulses, peas, sesame, linseed, mustard, millets
finds of the rice - relatively rare
traces of cotton have been found - cotton cultivation was done in Mehrgarh as well (Neolithic
site)
wooden plough was probably used - evidence of ploughed field at Kalibangan found
irrigation - traces of canal found at Shortughai (Afghanistan); water reservoir found at
Dholavira
Carts were used to transport agricultural goods (toy carts have been found)

Domestication of animals -
 animals reared - cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig
use of horse - not confirmed but traces found at Lothal, Surkotda, Mohenjodaro
rhinoceros and elephants - well known to Harappans
fishing and hunting continued
UPSC - there is no evidence of IVC people having been aware of horse

Society -

rulers were there, inequality existed

ornaments - gold and silver - worn by both men and women
wooden coffins to bury the dead
didn't believe in burying precious things with the dead
no clear evidence of Sati

Religion -

in contrast to Egypt and Mesopotamia, no temples have been found at any Harappan site
chief male deity - Pasupati
worshipped both male and female deities
trees and animals were also worshipped
amulets have been found - to ward off evil spirits
fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal

Art -

got lapis lazulistones for bead-making from Badakshan mines (Afghanistan)

bearded priest - found at Mohenjodaro
bronze dancing girl - Mohenjodaro
use of fire-baked earthrn clay called terracotta prevailed
potter's wheel was popular
pottery - mainly plain but at some places red and black painted
faience (type of artificial gum) - used to shape sand and powered quartz into objects
poor in artistic works made of stone

Harappan Script -

Harappans invented the art of writing (pictographically)

writing has been found on - seals, copper tools, jars, tablets, jewellery, bone rods
undeciphered; mostly written from right to left
most inscriptions are short but some are long as well
used Boustrophedon method - writing in reverse direction (right to left) in alternative
lines

Harappan seal -

made of a stone called steatite, sourced from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat
contains animal motifs - one horned animal, buffalo, rhino, goat, elephant, unicorn, humped
bull, crocodile, tiger
Pashupati seal - from Mohenjodaro site

Post Urban Harappan Culture -

primarily chalcolithic
it was a rural society
trade declined
pottery disappeared
little homogeneity in the sites but diversity prevailed
no system of measurements was used
there are signs of invasion by the new people
4. Early Vedic Period: 1500 - 1000 BC

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Aryans -

original home - Southern Russia to Central Asia

Harappan cities declined by 1500 BC
then Aryans - speakers of Indo-Aryan language Sanskrit - entered India
by 6th BC - occupied whole of North India - Aryavarta

Age of Rig Veda - c. 1500 BC

Rig Vedic Aryans were confined to Indus region only

term jana/vis (tribe) - appears multiple times
janapada (territory) - not even used once in Rig Veda
pre-dominantly pastoral people
well aware of rivers and forests
more acquainted with land routes because the word samudra in Rig Veda denotes
collection of water
horse chariots - played significant role but also used other animals

Tribal Polity -

no system of territorial administration but clan based ruling classes

king's post had become hereditary; sometime elected by Samiti
a vis
was divided into gramaor smaller tribal units
Jana (rajan) --> visu (vishyapati) --> grama (gramani) --> kul (kulapa/grahapati)
tribal conflicts - Aryans fought with pre-Aryans as well as amongst themselves
king did not maintain any standing army
no officer for administering justice but it was not ideal society as there were cases of
burglary
two popular bodies - sabha(elders) and samiti
(general assembly)
women could attend samiti
and vidhata assemblies
priests held imp position - Vasishtha, Vishvamitra

Economy -

chief occupation - cattle rearing; agriculture - secondary occupation

no officer for collection of taxes
main income of king - spoils of war
use of iron prevailed but on meagre scale
other profession - carpentry, spinning, glodsmiths, trade (no blacksmiths)
currency - barter system and nishka(gold coins of the age)
most imp form of wealth - cow
pottery used - painted grey ware (PGW)
ploughshare - gets mention in earliest Rig Veda

Society -

patriarchal society but women given equal opportunities for spiritual development
women poets - Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamundra
monogamy among masses but polygamy among elites
widow remarriage prevailed;
no child marriage; no sati
people owed their loyalty to their tribe / jana
Social divisions -

discrimination was based on colour but society was largely tribal and egalitarian
varna system was not rigid
dasas and dasyus - conquered by Aryans, were treated as slaves
the term shudras
appear towards the end of Rig Vedic age

Religion -

worshipped natural forces

Gods - Prithvi, Agni, Vayu, Varuna (god of water), Soma (god of plants), Indra (fort breaker)
female gods - Aditi, Ushas
people worshipped not for spiritual upliftment but for wealth and health
no temples and no idol worship but elaborate rituals were there
mode of worship - prayers and sacrifices / bali
practice of giving women slaves as gift to priests prevailed

Terms -
Gavishthi - means war in Rig Veda (search for cow)
Vrajapati - officer who enjoyed authority over large land
Dasyus - original inhabitants of the land
Trasadasyu - Aryan chief who overpowered dasyus
Gomat - a wealthy person
Gopa/Gopati - a raja
Duhitr - a daughter; one who milks
5. Later Vedic Period: 1000-600 BC

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Characteristics -

Texts - Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda

Aryans moved further eastward
Satapatha Brahmana refers to expansion of Aryans to Eastern Gangetic Plains
later Vedic texts refer to three-fold divisions of India -
1. Aryavarta
2. Madhyadesa
3. Dakshinapatha

Changes in Later Vedic Period -

tribal authority gave way to territorial authority

wars not only for cattle but for territory as well (Mahabharata - c.950 BC)
pastoralists of Rig Veda became agriculturalists
largely egalitarian tribal society broke into varna divided society

Polity -

large kingdoms emerged - Kuru and Panchala (earliest ones)

royal power increased
still no system of standing army
rituals performed - Rajasuya, Vajpeya , Asvamedha
(race of royal chariots)
kings started assuming titles - Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, Ekrat, Samrat
large number of officials became involved in administration
Rig Vedic assemblies ( Sabha, Samiti ) though continued but diminished in repo
Vidhata assembly - disappeared
women could no longer attend assemblies
rashtra
term ' ' - first appears in this period

Economy -

chief occupation - agriculture (people led a settled life)

collection of taxes became common ( Sangrihitri- officer for collection of taxes)
people were familiar with the sea and traded with Babylonians
merchants organised themselves into guilds (called ganas )
beginning of town culture - Hastinapur and Kaushambi (proto-towns)
material culture made great advance in people's lives
nishka, satamana (gold coin) and krishnala (silver coin) - medium of exchange

Technology -

use of iron emerged in Dharwar distt and this now reached Aryavarta
didn't know about burnt bricks

Agriculture -

gained knowledge of manure

agriculture was primitive - enough draught animals were not available due to practice of bali
wooden ploughshares were widely used (still no iron-ploughshare)

Society -

varna division of society emerged (but it didn't fare too far)

upanayana - investiture with sacred thread; shudras not allowed
Ashramas system not well established; only first three ashrams were mentioned not the
fourth one - Sanyasin
institution of gotra appeared; practice of exogamy began
gotra - means cow-pen: place where cattle belonging to the whole clan were kept
patriarchy continued - women stopped attending assemblies
child marriage - became common
Aitreya Brahmana - daughter described as a source of misery
goghna - a guest who was fed by sacrificing a cattle

Religion -

Indra and Agni - lost importance

imp Gods - Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu, Rudra (god of animals)
sacrifices became more imp over prayers
priesthood - became too imp
mode of worship - sacrifices became imp over prayers
signs of idolatry appears
Towards the end of Vedic period began a strong reaction against priestly domination when, c.600
BC, Upanishads were compiled.

Vedas -

1. Rig Veda - anthology of sacred hymns

2. Sama Veda - musical arrangement of Rig Veda hymns
3. Yajur Veda - prayers & sacrificial formulae
4. Atharva Veda - incantations and spells
6. Megaliths: 1000 BC

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Megaliths -

c. 1000 BC till Sangam Age

region - Deccan, South India, Central India, NE and Kashmir
types of burial pits - Dolmen, cairn, cromlekh, menhir, topikal

Sites -

1. KA - Hallur, Maski
2. TN - Adichchanallur, Kodumanal
3. AP - Nagarjunakonda
4. Inamgaon - on R. Ghod (tributary of Bhima)

Kodumanal excavation -

megalithic site in TN
on river Noyyal, tributary to Cauvery

Features -

inequality existed
sometimes multiple skeletons (family)
usage of iron existed (iron age of South India)
equipments found in burial pits -
pots (Black and Red Ware)
tools and weapons of iron
skeletons of horses (they knew horses)
gold ornaments
Inamgaon site -
head of the skeleton towards North
some burials within the houses
Agri was not developed
more hunting tools over agri tools
7. Age of Mahajanpadas

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Political Organisation -

Monarchies - concentrated in Gangetic plain

Republics - Himalayan foothills and NW India
Sakyas, Licchavis, Mallas - republics (decisions taken by majority vote in public assemblies)
Anguttara Nikaya - gives list of sixteen mahajanapadas -
Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya,
Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kambhoja
By 550 BC - only four kingdoms survived - Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, Magadha

Vatsa - Kausambi

on the banks of R. Yamuna

ruler - Udayana
a monarchy

Avanti - Ujjain and Mahishmati (R. Narmada)

ruler - Pradyota (married Vasavadatta, daughter of Udayana)

patrons of Buddhism
later Avanti was annexed by Magadha

Kosala - Ayodhaya / Shravasti

modern Awadh
ruler - Prasenjit (married daughter of Bimbisara)
later Kosala became part of Magadha
included Sakya clan (Buddha was Koslan)

Vajji - Vaishali

Lichchhavis lived in Vajis (mother of Mahavira was sister of Lichchhavi chief)

clans under Vajji - Lichchhavi, Jnatrikas, Videhans
system of govt - gana/sangha (not one but many rulers)
women, dasas, kammakaras - couldn't participate in assemblies

Magadha - Rajgir, Pataliputra

location - around R. Son, south of R. Ganga

imp dynasties - Haryankas--> Shisunagas --> Nandas

Bimbisara - Haryanka

marriage alliance with Kosala, Licchavis, Punjab

started the policy of conquest and aggression
defeated Brahmadatta (Anga ruler) and then annexed it
maintained peace with Avanti
contemporary of Mahavira and Gautama

Ajatshatru - Haryanka

fortified Pataliputra to serve as base against Vaishali

first a Jain follower and then embraced Buddhism (met Buddha)
patronised first Buddhist Council at Rajgir (483 BC)

Udayin - Haryanka

founded new capital Pataliputra - at the confluence of Ganga and Son

his successors were weak

Shaishunaga Dynasty -

first ruler Shishunaga won over Avanti

Kalasoka (Shishunaga's successor) conducted second Buddhist Council at Vaishali in 383 BC

Nandas -

Mahapadma Nanda - assumed Ekarat title (sole sovereign); acquired Kalinga

Alexander - came during reign of Dhana Nanda
Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela - mentions conquest of Kalinga by Nandas
Sangam work Ahananuru by Mamulanar - mentions wealth of Nandas
last Nanda ruler - Dhana Nanda
 oppressive way of tax collection developed
finally Chanakya and Chandra initiated a popular movement against Nandas

Features of the Age -

Painted Grey Ware pottery with geometric patterns

punch marked coins -
earliest to be minted and used
made of silver and copper
issued by kings, merchants, bankers, townspeople
tax levied on -
crops - fixed at 1/6th of the produce
crafts persons; herders; traders; hunters and gatherers

Changes in agriculture - c. 600 BC

increased use of iron ploughshares - (in parts of PB and RJ adopted iron ploughshare very
late)
paddy transplantation began
dasas, dasisand kammakaras (landless agri labourers) were employed to carry out
cultivation

Terminologies -
North India -

Grama Bhojaka - village headman:hereditary position, largest landowner, slaves did

cultivation for him, collected taxes, a judge and a policeman.
Gahapati - owner of household; small landowner;wealthy merchant; got land cultivated by
dasas/karmakars
Setthis/satthavas/vanik - successful merchants
mlechchhas - people those who didn't speak Sanskrit
South India -

Vellalar - large landowners

Uzhavar - ploughmen
Adimai - slaves
masattuvan - successful merchants
8. Mauryas

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Sources of Mauryan history -

Literary -

1. Kautilya's Arthasastra (first discovered by Shama Sastri in 1904)

2. Visakadatta's Mudrarakshasa (written during Gupta's)
3. Megasthenes' Indica (survived only in fragments)
4. Puranas and Buddhist Jatakas
5. Ceylonese Chronicles - Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa
6. Edicts of Ashoka

Mauryan Empire -

Capital - Pataliputra
first time pol unity achieved in India

Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BC)

founder; an autocrat
captured Pataliputra from Dhana Nanda
helped by Chanakya / Vishnu Gupta
Megasthenes - Greek ambassador, sent by Seleucus Nicator, came to Chandra's court
embraced Jainism in the end and abdicated throne in favour of his son Bindusara
went to Sravana Belgola with Bhadrabhahu and starved himself to death
Empire -
captured Gangetic valley, NW India upto Indus, region North of R. Narmada
defeated Seleucus (Alexander's General) and captured area west of the Indus

Bindusara (298 - 273 BC)

aka Amitragatha by Greeks

conquered Deccan upto Mysore (confirmed by Sangam texts)
received Deimachus as ambassador from Syrian king Antiochus I
supported Ajivikas, a religious sect

Ashoka (273 - 232 BC)

first acted as Gov of Ujjain

succession - disputed one, not easy
referred to as Devanampiya Piyadasi
Rock Edict XIII mentions Kalinga war in 261 BC
after war, Ashoka turned peaceful (Bherighosha to Dhammaghosha)
war did not make Ashoka extreme pacifist - did not discard his army, didn't return Kalinga
Empire -
Nepal and Kashmir became part of Mauryan Empire
Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras - remained outside Mauryan Empire

Edicts of Ashoka - (Achaemenian influence)

Ashoka was first king to issue inscriptions

issued generally on ancient highways
found on both rock edicts and pillar inscriptions
Brahmi script was deciphered by James Prinsep in 1838
earliest inscriptions - Prakrit language (most used)
inscriptions in NW used - Aramaic and Greek languages
scripts used - Brahmi (most used) and Kharoshti script in NW (aka Gandhari script)
most inscriptions refer to him as Devanampiya Piyadasi
Imp Pillar Inscriptions - Sanchi, Sarnath, Meerut, Allahabad, Lauriya Nanadangarh, Vaishali,
Rummindei (Lumbini), Sasharam, Kaushambi,
Imp Rock Edicts - Kandahar, Mansehra, Shahbazgarhi, Kalsi, Girnar, Sopara, Sannati,
Shishupalgarh (Kalinga), Jaugada,
Rock Edict XIII - details of Kalinga War
Pillar Edict VII - efforts to promote Dhamma
Bhabru-Bairat Edict - tells about Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism
Maski - first edict that contain the name Ashoka

Ashoka and Buddhism

after Kalinga Ashoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of monk - Upagupta
conversion was gradual not sudden
dhamma didn't involve worshipping of god or performing sacrifices
visited Lumbini, Bodh-Gaya, Sarnath, Shravasti, Kushinagar
 appointed Dharma Mahamatras to popularise Dhamma
sent a mission to SL to plant a branch of original Bodhi tree (Boddhivamsa )
sent missions to spread Buddhism in SL, West Asia, Central Asia, Syria, Egypt, Greece
convened Third Buddhist Council in 240 BC under Moggaliputta Tissa @ Pataliputra
tenets of Ashoka's dhamma - (given in Pillar Edict VII)
1. service to parents
2. no animal sacrifices; no festive gatherings
3. avoid meaningless rituals; no unnecessary pilgrimages
4. tolerance
Ashoka's Dhamma was a general code of conduct not a religion as such

However, Ashoka's policy failed to bring lasting change as his officers turned hostile after Ashoka.
Later Mauryas -

after Ashoka's death, empire got divided into western and eastern
Bactrian invasion led to collapse of western part
Brihatratha, the last Mauryan king, was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BC

Mauryan Administration - very well organised

four provincial capitals mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions - Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri, Tosali
(Kalinga) -
provincial governors - came royal family
district - under Rajukas (assisted by Yuktas)
Gopa - head of 15 villages
village admin under Gramani
Pativedakas - reporters
Antahpala - security of frontier forts

Central Govt -

Mantri Parishad - consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati, Yuvaraj - to assist the king
Amatyas - civil servants - to look after day to day administration
spies - to look on foreign enemies and amatyas
regular Census -
village officials to count the number of people, animals in each house
data to be cross checked by spies

Revenue Deptt -

Samharta - chief of Revenue deptt

Sannidhata - chief custodian of state treasury
currency - punch-marked coins made of silver (stamp of peacock, hill, crescent)
source - land, irrigation, customs, license fee from craftsmen, forests, fines
land revenue - 1/6th of the produce
Bali was not compulsory

Commerce Deptt - highly controlled economic activities

controlled prices of goods, weights and measures

Adyakshas - officers regulating economic activities
slaves - engaged in agri on large scale but Indian society was never a slave society
Important officers -
1. Akshapataladhyaksha - accountant-general
2. Sitadhyaksha - superintendent of agriculture
3. Navadhyaksha - superintendent of ports
4. Sulkadhyaksha - controller of customs/tolls
5. Pautavadhyaksha - superintendent of weights/measures

Army -

salaries paid in cash

Greek author Pliny give details of Mauryan Army
constituents - Navy, elephants...

Judicial -

separate civil and criminal courts

Dharmathikarin - chief justice of the SC at the capital
punishment - from fines to mutilation to death
Pradesika, Mahamatras, Rajukas - also acted in judicial capacity

Material Advancement -

material culture of Mauryans - iron use, writing, punch-marked coins, NBPW, burnt bricks,
ring wells
 material culture of Gangetic basin spread to peripheral areas
burnt bricks used on large scale

Architecture -

stone masonry used on wide scale

Mauryan artisans - began practice of making rock caves for monks to live in
pre-Mauryans monuments were made of wood and thus have not survived

Sculpture - Yakshi from Didarganj, Patna

life-size image of Yakshini

made of sandstone

Ashoka's structure -

use of stone started from Ashoka

Sanchi Stupa, MP - originally built with bricks but later enlarged
Dharmarajika stupa at Sarnath - to commemorate Buddha’s first sermon

Pillars -

Places - Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi, Sarnath

Ashokan Sarnath pillar with Lion capital (excavated by Friedrich Oscar Oertel)
Lauriya Nandangarh - Lion Capital
Rampurva - bull capital
Sankisa - elephant capital

Caves -

Caves at Barabar Hills near Bodh Gaya

by Ashoka and his grandson
for Ajivika sect (not for Buddhism)
includes following caves -
1. Lomas Rishi cave
2. Sudama cave
3. Karam Champar cave
4. Visva Zopri

Ring Wells -

first appeared under Mauryas in Gangetic basin

supplied water for domestic use
with ring wells, it was no longer imperative to find settlements near the river
usually found in individual houses

Decline of Mauryan Empire -

1. Ashoka's pro Buddhist policies instigated Brahmins

2. weak successors of Ashoka
3. partition of empire into Western and Eastern
4. financial crisis
5. oppressive rule in some provinces (mainly Taxila)
6. neglect of NW frontier

Megasthene's Indika -
survives only in fragments
gives an accurate geographical description of India
talks of monsoon and bajra cultivation
Megasthenes divided India into seven castes
no system of jail but mentions amputation of limbs and death penalty
Praises Indians -
they are simple and frugal
like ornaments
"Indian dislike mobs and consequently they observe good order"
9. Buddhism

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Gautam Buddha - Tathagata 563 -483 BC

father - Suddhodhana, chief of Sakya clan (Sakyas were under Koshala mahajanpada)
mother - Maya Devi, princess from Koshala dynasty
foster mother - Prajapati Gautami (first Bhikkuni)
wife - Yashodhara; child - Rahula
teacher for meditation - Alarakalama
horse - Kantaka; charioteer's name - Chana
imp disciples - Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa, Upali
places visited - Benares, Rajgir, Sravasti, Vaishali, Nalanda, Pataliputra
Mahajanpadas that embraced Buddhism - Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi
Important events -
1. Birth - Lumbini (very near to Sakya capital Kapilavastu)
2. Enlightenment - Uruvella (Bodha Gaya) on the banks of river Niranjana/Phalgu
3. Dhammachakra Parivartan - first sermon at Deer Park (Mrigadavan) in Sarnath
to five disciples - Kodanna, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama and Assaji
4. Mahaparinirvana (death of Buddha) - Kushinagar (capital of Mallas)
Buddhist symbols -
1. Lotus - Birth
2. Horse - Mahabhinishkramana (renunciation) : Horse
3. Bodhi Tree - Nirvana (enlightenment)
4. Wheel - Dharmachakra Parivartan
5. Empty seat - Meditation of Buddha
6. Stupa - Mahaparinibbana (death)
Important Terms -
1. Mahabishkramana - Siddharth leaving home at 29
2. Nirvana - freedom from cycle of birth and death
3. Theris - respected women who had attained liberation
4. Theras - old respected teachers
5. Shalabhanjika - people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-
Buddhist beliefs; it is represented by lady holding the branch of a tree
6. Kutagarashala - halting place where philosophical discussions among various religions
were held
Important Monasteries -
1. Tawang Monastery - AR: Largest Monastery in India.
2. Tabo Monastery - Spiti valley (Oldest Monastery in India)
3. Key - largest in Spiti Valley
4. Lhalung - Spiti Valley
5. Dhankar Gompa - Lahaul Valley, HP
6. Gandhola - Lahaul Valley, HP
7. Kardang - Lahaul Valley, HP
8. Rangdum Monastery - Suru valley, Ladakh
9. Tsulglagkhang Monastery - McLeod Ganj, HP
10. Rumtek - Sikkim's largest monastery
11. Namdroling/Bylakuppe Monastery - Karnataka

Buddhism -
Causes of the rise of Buddhism and Jainism -

1. increased complexity of Brahminism

2. Upanishads were too philosophical in nature
3. rigidity of varna system
4. resentment of Vaishyas and Kshatriyas

Tenets -

preached a middle path as the way to achieve nirvana

not much discussion on God, soul, rebirth ...
believed inKshanikwad - only this moment is real
did not recognize the existence of God (Jainism did recognize the God)
critical of varna system
forbade killing of animals as part of religious sacrifices
lately women were allowed in sangha (separate branches for men and women)
used Pali language - the language of commons
Ashoka embraced Buddhism and popularised it in Central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka

Four Noble Truths or Arya Satyas are -

1. world is full of suffering

2. cause of suffering is desire
3. suffering can be removed if desires are conquered
 4. this can be done by following Eight-fold Path

Ashtangika Marg -

1. Right observation
2. Right determination
3. Right speech
4. Right conduct
5. Right livelihood
6. Right exercise
7. Right memory
8. Right meditation

Causes of decline of Buddhism in India -

from 1st AD monks started idol worship and accepted offering from devotees
Pushyamitra Shunga persecuted Buddhists
revival of Brahamanism and rise of Bhakti Movement
later monks were cut off from the masses - gave up Pali and took to Sanskrit
Monks started living easy life and became corrupt
monasteries were looted by Turkish invaders
by 12th AD Buddhism practically became extinct in India

Contribution to Indian Culture -

1. concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution

2. stupas, chaityas, viharas
3. promoted education through universities - Taxila, Nalanda, Vikramasila (by Dharampala, Pala
King)
4. spread usage of Pali
5. internationalised Indian culture

Hinayana Buddhism -

The Lesser Vehicle

Hinayanas called themselves as Theravadins - those who follow the path of theras
used Pali language
believes in the original teachings of Buddha
Buddha was a human being who attained nirvana through enlightenment and self-effort
gives great importance to self-effort in achieving nirvana
no idol worship, no temples, no prayers, no rituals...
lost its popularity in India but popular in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos.
divided into two - Vibheshika and Sautantrika
concept of Arhat is central to it -
an Arhat is one who has completely extinguished birth and death
this is the highest stage of spiritual achievement, the goal of all meditation and
practice.
is not reborn in any realm

Mahayana Buddhism -

aka The Great Vehicle

emerged around 1st AD (Fourth Buddhist Council)
Kanishka - famous patron
deification of Buddha
idol worship became important
concept of Boddhisattava is central to it
predominantly used Sanskrit language
two philosophical schools -
1. Madhyamika founded by Nagarjuna
2. Yogachara founded by Maitreyanatha, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu
imp texts - Mahavastu, Divyavadana
very popular in China, Japan, Singapore, Korea, Vietnam and many parts of India

Boddhisattava -

a person who has accumulated merit through his own efforts but used this not to attain
nirvana and thereby abandon the world, but to help others.
he does not free himself until he has helped each and every other being to free themselves.
The Bodhisattva willingly gets reborn in order to fulfill his vow.
the term is also used to refer to Gautama Buddha in his previous lives
Eight imp Boddhisattavas are -

1. Avalokiteshvara/Padampani - embodies the compassion of all Buddhas

2. Maitreya - future Buddha; honoured by Theravadins; accepted by all schools
 3. Vajrapani - guardian and advisor of Buddha
4. Manjushri - supreme wisdom
5. Amitabha - celestial Buddha / Buddha of paradise
6. Kshitigarbha
7. Sadaparibhuta
8. Akasagarbha
9. Mahasthamaprapta

Vajrayana Buddhism - Tibetan form

emerged from Mahayana Buddhism

came into existence under the patronage of the Palas in eastern India
salvation is attained by acquiring magical powers
rituals/mantras are very important for enlightenment
Taras - chief divinities of Vajrayana
it incorporated Tantric ideas into Buddhism
popular in Bengal, Bihar and Tibet.

Buddhist Literature -

none of the Buddha's speeches were written down during his lifetime
early text in Pali language and compiled by 2nd BC in Sri Lanka (not in India)
later texts in Sanskrit
early Pali lit can be divided into -
Buddha - sayings and teachings of Buddha
Dhamma - philosophical exposition
Sangha - rules to be observed by bhikkus

Tripitaka - Pali Canon - final version of Tripitakas were completed at Third Council
Sutta Pitaka -

10,000 suttas or teachings of Buddha and his close companions

it is made up of five books or nikayas -
1. Digha Nikaya - the long discourses
contains social contract theory of the Early Republican states - Shakya,
Lichchhavi
mentions about occupations
2. Majjhima Nikàya - middle length discourses
3. Samyutta Nikaya - the Connected discourses
4. Anguttara Nikàya - the Numbered discourses
5. Khuddaka Nikàya - the Miscellaneous discourses
there are fifteen books in the Khuddaka Nikàya, the most important being the
Dhammapada, the Udana, the Itivuttaka, the Sutta Nipata, the
Theragatha, the Therigatha, and the Jataka etc.
Jataka- tales of previous births of Buddha in poems; throws light on socio-
economic conditions ranging from 5th to 2nd BC
Sutta Nipata - earliest Buddhist text in Pali
Therigatha - collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis

Vinay Pitaka -

Book of Discipline; contains monastic rules for monks and nuns

Its three books are Suttavibhanga, Khandaka and Parivara.

Abhidhamma Pitaka - deals with the philosophy and doctrines of Buddhism

Other texts -

Mahavastu (in Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit) - details the miracles & earlier lives of Buddha.
Divyavadana - deals with Mauryan and Sunga History.
Asokavadana - deals with the legends of Asoka.
Lalitavistara - sanskrit text that deals with biography of Buddha
Buddha Charita - Ashvaghosa (in Sanskrit)
Dipavamsa - oldest historical record of Sri Lanka
Mahavamsa - Pali language - deals about the Kings of Sri Lanka
Bodhi Vamsa - by Upatissa describes the arrival of branch of Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka (sent by
Ashoka)
Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification) - Theravāda compendium of meditation practices and
doctrine, written by Buddhaghosa
Milinda Panha - “Questions of Milinda” - contains the dialogue of Indo-Greek king Meander
and Buddhist monk Nagasena.
Buddhist Councils - total six (last 1954) -
Serial/Time Place Chairperson Patron Remarks

to maintain the
Sattapani cave Ajatshatru purity of
First - 483 BC Mahakassapa
at Rajgriha (Haryanka) Buddha's
teachings

to discuss
monastic
practices
Second - 383 King Kalasoka
Vaishali Sabakami (whether
BC (Shishunaga)
monks be
allowed to
handle money)

Moggaliputta Ashoka Tripitakas were

Third - 240 BC Pataliputra
Tissa (Mauryan) completed

Mahayana
Kundalvana, Kanishka Buddhism
Fourth - 72 AD Vasumitra
Kashmir (Kushan) came into
existence

Stupas -

tradition of Stupas existed before Buddha as well

contains relics of the passed one
imp Buddhist Stupas - Bharut, Sanchi, Sarnath, Amravati and Nalanda Stupa
Stupas built by Ashoka - Sanchi, Bharut (MP), Dhamek Stupa

Sanchi - MP

UNESCO WHS
1818 - General Taylor rediscovered the site
John Marhsall (Director, ASI) studied it elaborately
amongst various small stupas, there are three main stupas -
1. Stupa-1 (oldest stupa)
2. Stupa-2
3. Stupa-3

Stupa-1, Sanchi -

originally a small brick structure built by Ashoka in 3rd BC

it was later expanded and was covered with stone, vedika and the torana
oldest stone structure of India
unique thing - has upper and lower pradakshinapatha path
the mound is plain and has no carving on it
there are four toranas; Eastern torana is intricately carved
toranas depict - life of Buddha and the Jataka tales
Buddha is shown symbolically as an empty throne
sculptures are small in dimension but intricately carved
shalbhanjika - sculpture of a woman standing near a tree and grasping a branch
the motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their
own pre-Buddhist
Bhilsa Topes - earliest work on Sanchi, published by Alexander Cunningham

Dhamek Stupa - Sarnath, UP

built by Ashoka
later rebuilt in the Gupta period
it mark the spot where the Buddha gave the first sermon to his first five Brahmin disciples

Ramabhar Stupa - Kushinagar, UP

aka Muktabandhan Stupa

built by Malla Kings
Nagarjundakonda Stupa - AP

built by Ikshavakus rulers

Mahayana Buddhism
now submerged in Nagarjunakonda reservoir on Krishna

Buddhist Caves -

Barabar caves (the oldest rock cut caves)

Bhoja caves (oldest caves in Deccan)
others - Karle chaitya, Nasik, Kanheri

Peace Pagoda -

aka Shanti Stupa

its a Buddhist Stupa to inspire peace
MOST peace pagodas are built under the guidance of Nichidatsu Fujii, a Japanese Buddhist
monk
Fujii was greatly inspired from Gandhiji
famous PPs are - Hiroshima, Nagasaki
India - Darjeeling, Leh, Lumbini, Vaishali, Delhi
Vishwa Shanti Stupa at Rajgir, BR
built in 1969, recently completed 50 years
highest Shanti Stupa
made of spotless while marble

Shraman Tradition -

a Heterodox school

Shraman means seeker

began around 600 BC in India when new philosophical groups, who believed in a more
austere path to spiritual freedom, rejected the authority of the Brahmins/Vedic knowledge
both Jainism and Buddhism are part of Shraman tradition
also includes Ajivikas

Samsara - the cycle of death and re-birth to which life in the material world is bound
10. Jainism

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Mahavira: 540 - 468 BC

father - Siddharta, elected head of Jnatrika clan (under Vajji mahajanapada)

mother - Trishla, sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka
Spouse - Yashoda; gave birth to a daughter
Birth - Kundagram, Vaishali [now in Muzaffarpur, BR)
Death/Nirvan - Pavapuri near Rajagriha (Nalanda district, BR)
wandered for 12 years before attaining Kaivalya at 42
Kaivalya / Kevala Gnana - conquering misery and happiness
-
Tirthankara great teachers of Jainism
1st - Rishabhdeva
23rd - Parshavanath (born in Benaras, belonged to royalty)
24th - Mahavira

Jainism -

don't kill anyone as every thing has a soul

Mahavir - a person is born in higher/lower varna as the consequence of the sins/virtues in
the previous birth.
Thus, Jainism believes in the transmigration of the soul and the theory of Karma
did not condemn the varna system the way Buddhism did
did recognise the existence of God but placed them lower than Jina (the conqueror)
monastic existence is necessary for salvation
prohibited war and agriculture for its followers
liberation from worldly bonds can be attained through Triratna -
1. right faith
2. right knowledge
3. right conduct
Five Great Vows - aka Mahavratas (followed by Jain Monks and Nuns)
1. Ahimsa: Non-injury to a living being
2. Satya: Do not speak a lie
3. Asteya: Do not steal; don't take anything no willingly offered
4. Aparigraha: Do not acquire property; observe detachment
5. Brahmacharya: Observe continence
Anuvrata (followed by Jain laypersons)
1. non-violence
2. no falsehood
3. no stealing
4. content with one's own wife
5. limit one's possession

Different Sects -

Parshavnath - cover the upper and lower portions of their bodies

Mahavira - discard clothes altogether and thus lead a more austere life

Cause of division - famine in Magadha --> a group led by Bhadrabahu (with Chandragupta
Maurya) moved to South India.

Digambars (Bhadrabahu's) Shwetambars (Sthulbhadra's)

sky clad / naked - more austere white clad - less austere

believe in all five vows believe only four vows except brahmacharya

Lord Mahavira was unmarried Lord was married and had a daughter

women cannot achieve Kaivalya without

women can also achieve Kaivalya and Tirthankara
being reborn as a man because they
Mallinath was a female
cannot live naked

clothes increase dependency and desire

nothing in the scriptures prohibits clothes
for material possessions

do not believe in 12 Angas believe in 12 Angas

Text - Prakrit Suttapahuda of Mool-sutra - Uttaradhyayana Sutra (Prakrit) and

Kundakunda Kalpasutra
 Sub-sect: Tarapantha; Bisapantha Sub-sect: Murtipujaka; Terapanthi, Sthanakvasi
Spread of Jainism -

Mahavira organised Sangha to spread his teachings

mainly spread in South and West India (Shwetambars)
Patrons - Chandragupta Maurya, Karavela of Kalinga, Gangas, Kadambas, Chalukyas,
Rashtrakutas...

Jain Councils -

1. First Council - 3rd BC

At Pataliputra under Sthulabhadra
2. Second Council - 512 AD
At Valabhi under Devardhi Kshmasramana.
final compilation of Twelve Angas
compilation was done by Gandharas under Indrabhuti Gautama
these 12 Angas are collectively known as Agama Literature
earliest Angas written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit

Jaina Literature - aka Jain Agamas

early Jainas adopted Prakrit and discarded Sanskrit

from Prakrit grew Shaurseni, out of which grew Marathi
in Medieval times - Jains used Sanskrit and wrote many texts in it.
they wrote extensively in Kannada and thus supported its growth

Important works -

1. Uttaradhyayana Sutta
2. Niryuktis (commentary on Angas) - Bhadrabahu
3. Kavirajamarga (Kannada) - Amoghavarsha I (Digambar)
4. Mahapurana and Parsvabudhya - Jinasena (Digambar and teacher of Amoghavarsha I)
5. Uttara Purana and Adi Purana - Gunbhadra
6. Amogavritti - Sakatayana

Gommateshwara Statue -

Jain shrine at Sravan Belgola, KA

dedicated to Lord Bahubali - son of 1st Tirthankar Rishabhdeva
(not a Tirthankara)
world's tallest monolithic free-standing statue made of granite
commissioned by Ganga rulers of Mysore

Terminologies -

1. Shrut-Kevlis: Jain monks who had knowledge of minimum ten Puranas. They wrote many
texts
2. Anekatavada: Jain doctrine about metaphysical truth; ultimate reality is very complex and
has multiple aspects
3. Sallekhana/Santhara: voluntarily fasting to death
4. Samavasarana: an assembly hall for imparting wisdom gained after Kaivalya by Jina.
5. Utsarpini - rising era in which human morale improves
6. Avasarpini - declining era of human virtues / morals
11. Post Mauryan India

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Post Mauryan Age -

After Mauryas, NW India was captured by foreign invaders

Kalinga declared its independence in East
North -
Shungas replaced Mauryans
After Shungas came Kanvas
South -
Satavahanas declared their independence
After Satavahanas came Vakatakas

Shungas -

founder - Pushyamitra Shunga -

assassinated the last Mauryan King Brihtratha
staunch follower of Brahmanism
performed two asvamedha yagyas
evidence suggest - he patronised Buddhist art
under him, stupas at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated
last Shunga ruler - Devabhuti - killed by Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of Kanvas

Importance -

defended Gangetic valley from foreign invasions

revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice
promoted Vaishnavism and Sanskrit language
it was proto form of golden age of Guptas

Satavahanas -

appeared in North MH not in AP; Kotilingala (TS) - first capital

Empire - part of Western and Central India
aka Andhras
lasted for 450 years
founder - Simuka
King Hala wrote Gathasaptasati Sattasai
/ (Prakrit)
official language - Prakrit
shows matrilineal signs but succession was patrilineal.
Gautamiputra Satakarni (106 - 130 AD) - greatest ruler
Nashik and Nanaghad inscriptions talk about him
called himself -Eka brahman
empire - whole of Deccan; KA: won over Nagapana, ruler of Malwa
Vashishtaputra Pulamayi -
issued coins with image of ships
repaired Amaravati stupa

Administration -

attributed divinity to the kings

admin similar to Mauryas
gaulmika - head of military
Ahara - district
Kataka and Skandhavaras - military camps
coercion played a key role as they wanted to restore social order

Economy -

remarkable progress
guilds were organised by merchants, craft-persons
Karshapanas (silver coins) and lead coins - used for trade
didn't issue gold coins but used gold as bullion
issued lead coins -
in large numbers
lead came from Deccan and Rome
were devoid of any artistic merit
Ptolemy mentions following ports -
west coast - Kalyani
east coast - Gandakasela, Ganjam

Religion -
 first to make land grants to monks and brahmans
patronised - Brahmanism, Buddhism

Society -

admitted Shakas into the society as Kshatriyas

Satavahanas - not in confirmity with the Dharamshastras (Brahman became the rulers)
matrilineal social structure but overall patriarchy prevailed (male heirs)

Architecture -

Chaityas and viharas were built

Amravati stupa was built under the patronage of Satavahanas
Nagarjunakonda stupa - under Ikshvakus, successors of Satavahanas in Eastern Deccan

After Satavahanas, Vakatakas became powerful in central and western India.

Post-Mauryan India -
The age of Shakas, Kushans, Satavahanas, Sangam Age - was commercially most flourishing period
in Ancient India.
Crafts -

Mathura - emerged as great centre of commerce

Shataka - special cloth made at Mathura
Shrenis -
guilds formed by merchants and crafts persons
provided training, procured raw material, distributed products
served as banks, supported religious institutions

Foreign Trade -

India - Roman trade increased - mainly carried by sea route

monsoon (discovered in 1st AD) helped ships to sail
imp ports - Bharuch, Sopara (west coast) and Arikamedu, Tamralipti (east coast)
major foreign trade was carried in luxury goods
Imports - wine, gold and silver coins, pottery, lead for making coins (Satavahanas)
exports - spices, iron goods, pearls, ivory, precious stones
Chinese silk was also exported from Indian ports since Parthians rule in Afghanistan
disturbed the Silk route
Pliny in Naturalis Historia mentions that Rome was being drained of gold in trade with
India
finally, Rome prohibited trade with India by 3rd AD

Economy -

Greeks - issued gold coins on small scale

Kushanas - issued gold and copper coins in large numbers
Shakas - issued silver coins in large numbers
Satavahanas - issued lead coins in large numbers
in post-Mauryan age, money penetrated deeply into the lives of common people
Shakas and Kushans used Uttarapath -
Taxila --> Punjab --> Mathura --> Ujjain --> Bharuch

Urbanisation -

towns prospered due to increased trade

Ujjain - most imp town - en route from north to south
12. Persian and Greek Invasions

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Persian Invasions - for about 200 years

Cyrus the Great -

founder of Achaemenian / First Persian /Ancient Iranian Empire

first conqueror to enter into India c. 530 BC
captured Gandhara region
all Indian tribes to the west of Indus submitted to him

Darius I - annexed Punjab and Sindh in 518 BC

Xerxes and Darius III - tried to hold on to Indus valley till Alexander
Consequences -

increased Indo-Iranian commerce

introduction of Kharoshti script (Iranian writing from right to left)
Ashoka's edicts had high Iranian influence
India continued to be a part of Iranian empire till Alexander's invasion

Alexander - Greeks

conquered whole of Persia by defeating Darius III (Battle of Arbela)

Invasion - 326 BC

causes -
Alexander's desire to conquer the whole world, which the Greeks thought ended in
India
Herodotus' mention of India's wealth
geographical curiosity of Alexander
route - Khyber Pass
NW India - disunited -
Ambhi of Taxila
ruler of Abhisara
Porus (between Jhelum and Chenab)
Ambhi readily submitted
Porus fought but lost in the Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum)
Alexander reinstated Porus on his throne
came till Beas but finally returned -
soldiers refused to fight
Alexander knew of Nanda's power (Dhana Nanda)

Finally, on his way back, Alexander fell ill and died in 323 BC in Babylon
Consequences -

first contact between India and Ancient Europe

trade and art
encouraged pol unification of North India
13. Central Asian Contacts

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Bactrian Greeks - Indo-Greeks

Demetrius invaded Afghanistan and PB and occupied them

He sent two of his commanders -
Appolodotus - conquered uptill Ujjain
Menander - captured Mathura and tried for Pataliputra but stopped by Vasumitra
(Shunga dynasty)
Menander 165 - 145 BC
aka Milinda
Milinda Panho (Pali work) - by Nagasena
made Sialkot his capital
Greek words - Periplus
- sailing around; Erythraean
- Red Sea

Effects -

issued gold coins but on small scale (properly shaped)

great improvement over punch-marked coins
issued earliest coins bearing the names and images of rulers
Gandhara Art developed
introduced use of curtain in theatres

Shakas -

Indo-Scythians; 100 BC
founder - Maues
controlled much larger territory than Greeks
issued silver coins
divided into two groups -
Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila
Western Satraps ruling from MH
Azes I / Rudradaman I (son of Maues) - most famous ruler
great lover of Sanskrit - issued first long inscription in Sanskrit (all earlier long in
Prakrit)
Girnar rock inscription (Sanskrit) - rebuilt Sudarshana Lake as artificial lake
faced resistance from Vikramaditya of Ujjain c 57 BC
founded Vikram Samvat - 57 BC
called as melchchhas / barbarians by Brahmins

Parthians - 1st AD

ruled over very small part of India

Gondophernes - most famous ruler

Kushanas -

largest territory vis-a-vis above three

they were a branch of Yuchi tribe, originally from Central Asian Steppes
founder - Kujula Kadphises
route of invasion - Bactria --> Kabul --> Gandhara region
last important ruler - Vasudeva

Initiatives -

first to issue gold coins on large scale (high purity)

Kushanas considered themselves devaputra - inspired by Chinese rulers
controlled Silk route and thus good toll collection
introduced satrap system

Kanishka (78 - 120 AD)

most famous Kushana

founder of Saka Era in 78 AD - GOI's official calendar
his coins exhibit Buddha, Greek and Hindu gods
his statue has been found installed in a shrine
Headless Kanishka - Mathura school of Sculpture
Empire - Peshawar and Mathura (capitals)
Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east
Kashmir to Malwa
Kanishka and Buddhism -

held Fourth Buddhist Council in 72 AD under Vasumitra

Mahayana Buddhism came into vogue (books - Mahavastu, Divyavadana)
sent missionaries to Central Asia and China to spread Buddhism
patronised Buddhist scholars - Vasumitra, Ashvagosha ( Buddhacharita, Saundarnanda ),
Nagarjuna (Mahayana Buddhist)
patronised Charaka - Charaka Samhita in Sanskrit (herbs used in medicines)
Vatsyayana wrote Kamasutra in this period

After Kushans, it was only under Mughals that India, Kabul and Qandhar came under one rule.

Impact of GSPK -

started construction of brick walls

Sakas and Kushans - used hoe stirrups made of rope
riding horses became more imp and chariots became less important
SK introduced turban, trousers, heavy long coat...
Devaputra
strengthened the idea of divine origin of kingship ( )
less centralisation of power

Chronology - GSPK
Territory - KSGP
14. Sangam Age

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Timeline - 300 BC to 300 AD

Polity -

Sangam Age was ruled by - Chola, Cheras, Pandyas

Muvendar - Tamil word meaning three chiefs of CCP
hereditary monarch
royal emblems - Tiger (Cholas), bow (Cheras) and Carp (Pandyas)
CCP had two centres of power - one inland and one on the coast.
Ashokan inscriptions - make mention of CCP
Megasthenes - mentions Pandyas

Economy -

they didn't collect regular taxes

sources of revenue - land revenue (major), war booty, trade
occupation - agri (chief), weaving cotton and silk
internal and external trade - at its peak
internal trade - mostly based on barter system
external trade -
between South India and Greeks
imp ports - Puhar (Kaveripattinam), Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu, Marakkanam
Roman traders were present in Tamil country
main exports - cotton fabrics, spices, ivory products, pearls and precious stones
main imports - gold, horses, sweet wine
with declining trade with Romans, CCP also declined

Sangam Society -

intense trade led to increased inequality

Theenperyam - Great Assembly of Govt Officers
Muchchangam - sangam
Arasaar - ruling class
Anthanars - played imp role in religion
Vanigars - traders
Vellalar - large landowners
Uzhavar - ordinary ploughmen
Kadaisiyar / adimai - landless labourers
Enadi - title given to captains in Army
Virarkal - stones raised in honour of heroic warriors
Murugan (Tamil God) - chief deity

Five fold division of land -

Sangam Word Land Type Chief Deity Chief Occupation

hunting and honey

Kurinji hilly tracks Murugan
collection

cattle rearing and

Mullai pastoral Mayon (Vishnu)
dairy

Marudam agricultural Indira agriculture

fishing and salt

Neydal coastal Varunan
manufacturing

Palai desert Korravai robbery

Women -

women poets - Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, Kakkaipadiniyar

Tippayadal
practice of Sati - prevalent in high society ( )
life of widow - miserable
but love marriage was common

Fine Arts -

bards - Panar and Viraliyar - famous for folk songs

Koothu - most popular entertainment of people
Kanigaiyar - famous for dancing
End of Sangam Age -

by 3rd AD Kalabhras occupied Tamil country

little info about Kalabhras
300 to 550 AD - Dark Period of Tamil History

Cholas -

Capitals - first Uraiyur and then Puhar (Kaveripattinam)

maintained very efficient navy
Karikala - famous king
won Battle of Venni
constructed irrigation tanks

Arikamedu -

ancient Roman trade centre under Cholas

presently in Puducherry UT (east coast)
Imports -
Amphorae - pottery from Mediterranean region - to store wine/oil
Arretine Ware - stamped red-glazed pottery from Italy

Cheras -

ruled over modern Kerala

Capital - Vanji
Ports - Tondi, Musiri
Pugalur inscription - talks about Chera rulers
Cheran Senguttuvan - most famous ruler
belonged to 2nd AD
his younger bro Elango Adigal - author of Silappathigaram
famous for expedition to Himalayas
introduced Pattini cult or worship of Kannagi

Pandyas -

ruled over Southern Tamil Nadu

Capital - Madurai
Maduraikkanji - by Mangudi Maruthanar details socio-economic conditions of Pandyas
port - Korkai
Pandyan rule declined due to invasion of Kalabhras
15. Gupta Empire

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Sources -

Literary -
Puranas
Vishakhadatta's Devichandraguptam and Mudraraksasa
Fa Hien's account
Inscriptions -
Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription - details Chandragupta I
Prayaga Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar Inscription) - talks of reign of Samudragupta
Coins issued by Guptas

Political History -

founder - Maharaja Sri Gupta

not as large as Mauryan empire
Gupta coins - mainly found in UP, which was more imp to them

Chandragupta I (320 - 330 AD)

Maharajadhiraja
first to use the title
founder of Gupta Era which starts from 320 AD
married a Lichchavi princess (Kshatriya)
Mehrauli Inscription talks extensively about him

Samudragupta (330 - 380 AD)

greatest of the Guptas; Chakravartin

aka Indian Napoleon due to his military achievements
Harisena - posts held -
court poet
imp work - Brihatkathakosa
Maha-danda-nayaka - chief judicial officer
Kumaramatya - an imp minister
Sandhi vigrahika - external affairs minister
Prayaga Prashasti gives a detailed account of his reign -
it is engraved on an Ashokan pillar
composed in classical Sanskrit (Nagari script) by his court poet Harisena as Kavya
calls Samudragupta as Kaviraja - a poet and a musician
describes him equal to gods
API talks about three stages of Samudragupta's expedition -
1. against upper Gangetic valley rulers - their states were annexed by Samudragupta
2. against rest of the North Indian rulers - annexed their kingdoms
3. against 12 South Indian rulers - defeated all the rulers and gave them back their
kingdoms
performedasvamedha yagya and issued gold and silver coins with 'restorer of the
asvamedha '
issued coins depicting him playing veena
issued eight types of gold coins
patronised - Harisena (court poet), Vasubandu (Buddhist scholar)
ardent follower of Vaishnavism
Empire -
upper Gangetic valley
southwestern part of Bengal
in South - tributary states
Sakas (west) and Kushanas (NW) - under his sphere of influence
Pallavas - acknowledged his suzerainty

Chandragupta II (380 - 415 AD)

gave his daughter, Prabhavati Gupta, in marriage to Vakataka prince Rudrasena II

Vakatakas held an imp position in Deccan, which helped him to fight Shakas
greatest military expedition -
defeated Shaka satraps of Western India under Rudrasimha III
territories in west Malwa and Kathiawar peninsula were annexed
after his victory over Shakas, Chandragupta -
performed asvamedha yagya
assumed the titleSakari - destroyer of Shakas
called himselfVikramaditya
gained access to western port - Bharuch, Sopara, Cambay
 controlled trade with western countries and thus got rich
Ujjain - emerged as alternative capital of Guptas
empire -
North - Chandra crossed Sindhu and conquered Bactria defeating Kushanas
West - upto Gujarat and Kathiawar
East - upto eastern Bengal
South - upto Narmada river
Fa Hien visited under his reign
contributed to great cultural progress - Navratnas at his court
issued gold coins

Successors of Chandragupta II -

Kumargupta I - laid foundation of Nalanda; performed asvamedha yagya

Skandagupta - faced Hun invasion; but saved the empire by defeating Huns
Lately - Huns invaded and succeeded

Hunas -

excellent horsemanship
used stirrups made of iron (Shakas and Kushanas - used stirrups of rope)

Hunas' power was short-lived. After Hunas, came Yashodharman.

Gupta Administration -

Empire --> Bhuktis (Uparikas) --> Vishyas (Vishyapatis)

king was assisted by Council of Minister
Sandhi vigraha - ministry of war and peace / external affairs
Kumaramatyas Ayuktas -
and officials of the provinces
Nagara Sreshtis - head of city administration and chief banker
Gramikas - village heads
sarthavaha - leader of the merchant caravans
Prathama-Kulika - chief craftsman
however, Gupta bureaucracy was not as elaborate as that of Mauryas -
much of the admin was managed by feudatories
Guptas didn't regulate the economic activities
Fa Hien -
Gutpas were mild and benevolent empire
large freedom to people
punishments were not severe
no spy system
roads were safe for travellers (Huan Tsang mentions being robbed)
negligible crimes
overall, more liberal administration than Mauryas

Judicial System -

far more developed

several law books were compiled
for the first time, civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated

Economy -

issued good number of silver coins and largest number of gold coins called dinaras
agrahara - land granted to Brahmana (exempted from tax and had right to collect dues)
bali was made compulsory
gold coins were not as pure as that of Kushanas'
decline in long distance trade
a class of priestly landlords emerged because of land grants by the kings

Society -

vishti - forced labour by villagers to serve royal army and officials

gramakutumbinas - peasants living in the village
caste system became rigid - foreigners were inducted into Indian society
practice of untouchability had begun
shudras - were allowed to listen to religious texts
Nobility spoke Sanskrit; commoners - Prakrit
Fa Hien mentions - Chandalas living in the peripheral areas (Huan Tsang also mentions
Chandalas)
position of women - both improved and deteriorated -
were allowed to listen to Puranas
first Sati incident - 510 AD

Religion -
 Bhakti movement started emerging
Brahmanism reigned supreme. It got divided into two branches -
Vaishnavism
Shaivism
most Gupta kings - Vaishnavites
Puranas were composed
neglect of Buddhism and Jainism, still -
Great Jain Council at Valabhi was held during this period
Jain Canon of Shwetambhars was written
Samudragupta patronised Vasubandhu
Fa Hien mentions - decline of Buddhism in Gangetic valley

Gupta Period: Bright phase in the history of classical literature.

Changes in Sanskrit language - the court language of Guptas

developed an ornate style, which was different from the old simple Sanskrit
laid greater emphasis on verse (rhythmic) than on prose (non-rhythmic)
Nagari script evolved from Brahmi script
Best of Sanskrit lit belong to Gupta period
Samudragupta - a great poet - patronized number of scholars - Harisena
Chandragupta II - Navratnas at his court -
1. Kalidasa
2. Amarasimha
3. Varahamihira
4. Dhanvantari
5. Ghatakarpara
6. Kshapanaka
7. Shanku
8. Vararuchi
9. Vetala-Bhatta

Kalidasa's work -

1. Abhijnanashakuntalam - Sanskrit drama - love story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala;

translated by William Jones in English in 1784 (Asiatic Society of Bengal)
2. Malavikagnimitra - play
3. Vikramorvasiya - play -
4. Raghuvamsa - epic
5. Kumarasambhava - epic
6. Ritusamhara - lyric
7. Meghaduta - lyric

Varahamihira's work -

Brihat Samhita - Moon rotates around Earth, which rotates around the Sun.
1.
Pancha Siddhantika - deals with astronomy, weather, animals, marriage, omens...
2.
Brihadjataka - astrology
3.

Amarshimha - Amarakosha

Other important authors of Gupta period -

1. Vishakhadatta -
1. Mudrarakshasa (drama) - contains machinations of Chanakya against Chandragupta's
enemies
2. Devichandraguptam (drama)
2. Sudraka - poet
Mrichchakatika - rich in humour deals with affair of poor brahman with beautiful
daughter of a noble
3. Bharavi wrote Kritarjuniya - story of conflict between Arjuna and Shiva
4. Dandin wrote Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita
5. Subhandhu - Vasavadatta
6. Vishnusharma - Panchatantra stories
7. 13 Bhasa-natakachakram by Bhasa belong to this period. Examples -
Balacharitam, Pratima-natakam, Abhisheka-natakam,
8. Vyasa - Puranas and Mahabharata
9. Valmiki - Ramayana
10. Vagbhata - last of the medical trio (Charaka in 1st CE and Sushruta in 4th CE) -
Ashtangasamgraha - summary of the eight branches of medicine
11. Aryabhatta (belonged to Pataliputra) - Aryabhatiyam -
deals with mathematics and astronomy
explains solar and lunar eclipses
first to declare that day and night were caused by rotation of the earth on its tilted
axis
found a way of calculating circumference of a circle
Varahamihira and Brahmagupta rejected these views
Puranas -
composed during Gupta period
contain stories of Vishnu, Shiva, Parvati...
written in simple Sanskrit verse
meant to be heard by everybody, including women and shudras
Imp amongst 18 Puranas are -

1. Bhagavata
2. Vishnu
3. Vayu
4. Matsya...

Nalanda Mahavihara -

established by Kumargupta I in 450 AD (successor of Chandragupta II)

majorly a Mahayana Buddhist varsity but also taught all three Buddhist doctrines -
Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana
patronised by Harsha and others
Dharmapala - head of the varsity
profs were called pandits
medium of instruction - Sanskrit
admission through entrance test (difficult)
residential university with free education and free boarding
revenue - derived from villages endowed to it
strict discipline was maintained
Xuan Zang - lived here for some years
monks were allowed to take small sculptures and illustrated manuscripts from here

Gupta Architecture - no great development

both Nagara and Dravidian styles evolved during this period

most buildings of this period have been lost due to foreign invasions
Examples - Temple at Deogarh near Jhansi
Bhitargaon Temple - oldest terracota temple in India; made entirely of bricks; first to have
shikara
Sculptures -

Buddha statue unearthed at Sarnath - unique piece of Gupta art

Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandgupta
Standing Buddha at Mathura - reveals a little Greek style
Copper statue of Buddha, found at Sultanganj, now in Birmingham museum
Mehrauli Iron Pillar - by Chandragupta I

Paintings -

Bagh caves painting

mural paintings of Ajanta caves

Fa Hien -

during Chandragupta II reign - stayed in Pataliputra for three years

came via land - Khotan, Kashgar, Gandhara, Punjab
returned by sea via Ceylon and Java
places visited - Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Pataliputra,
Kashi, Bodh Gaya

Account -

Buddhism -
flourishing in NW India
declining in Gangetic valley
refers to Gangetic valley as land of Brahmanism
Kapilavastu and Kushinagar - not well maintained
he didn't mention the name of Chandragupta II in his memoirs
not interested in pol affairs
primary interest - Buddhism

Tantrism - circa 400 CE

religious and philosophical movement
in medieval India, Tantrism was a common element of all major religions including Hinduism,
Jainism, Buddhism
features -
it mainly emerged due to land grant to brahmins and thus thus tribal elements
assimilated into brahmincal society
focuses on ritual aspect that uses physical effort to access the super-natural
open to both gender and no caste discrimination
emphasise on Goddesses
it ignored the Vedas
16. Harsha

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Sources -

Harshcharita - by Banabhatta
Xuan Zang's account
Priyadarshika, Ratnavali, Nagananda
Inscriptions - Madhuben, Sonpat, Banskhera, Aihole

Family -

belonged to Pushyabhuti dynasty - feudatories of the Guptas

Pushyabhutis called themselves Vardhanas
first imp king - Prabhakaravardhana

Harshavardhan (606 - 647 AD)

first capital - Thanesar

made Kanauj his capital - fortification was easy due to elevated land
Pataliputra lost importance due to declining trade
expeditions -
defeated ruler of Valabhi
fought Pulakesin II (Western Chalukya) but got defeated
Nepal accepted his overlordship
won Kalinga
Kashmir, Sindh, Valabhi, Kamarupa - acknowledged Harsha's sovereignty
both Xuan Zang and Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II mentions defeat of Harsha at R.
Narmada

Harsha and Buddhism -

first a Shavia - then Hinayana Buddhist and under Xuan Zang got converted to Mahayana
Buddhism
built chaityas and viharas
once every five years, Harsha convened a gathering of all religions and showered gifts on
scholars. E.g. Allahabad Conference (Zang attended)
Kanauj Assembly -
organised by Harsha to honour Xuan Zang
invited representatives of all religions
Xuan Zang talked about Mahayana Buddhism
violence broke out but Harsha was saved

Administration -

on the lines of Gupta administration

Harsha started the system of giving land grants to officials (Satavanas to monks and
brahmans)
Xuan Zang's account -
king was just and punctual
light taxation
forced labour was rare
1/6th of the produce - collected as tax
cruel punishments continued (Gupta - light punishment)
good maintenance of public records ( nilopitu - archives of Harsha's period)
law and order not well maintained (Zang was robbed)

Society -

Zang called shudras as agriculturalists

dowry became common
Sati practice prevailed

Economy -

trade decline - lesser number of coins

rise of self-sufficient village economy
issued fewer coins as officials were paid via land grants

Art -

mostly toed Gupta line

many stories were added to Nalanda

Literature - Harsha
 great patron of learning
Banabhatta - court poet of Harsha. Important works -
Harshacharita
Kadambari - Bana died before completing it and thus completed by Banabhatta's son
Bhushanabhatta,
Barthrihari - poet, philosopher and grammarian
Matanga Divakara - imp author
Harsha's authored three plays -
1.Ratnavali - a Sanskrit drama about the princess named Ratnavali, and a king named
Udayana.
2.Priyadarshika -
3.Nagananda - Sanskrit story of how prince Jimutavahana gives up his own body to
stop a sacrifice of serpents to the divine Garuda.

Important inscriptions -

1. Madhuben plate inscription

2. Sonpat inscription -
3. Banskhera inscription - contains signature of Harsha
4. Aihole inscription (issued by Pulakesin II, composed by Ravikirti) - mentions defeat of Harsha
by Chalukyan King Pulakesin II at R. Narmada

Xuan Zang -

came and returned by land

during Harsha's time; stayed for 15 years (Fa Hien - 9 years)
his account much richer than Fa Hien's
calls shudras as agriculturalists
takes note of Chandalas
Pataliputra - in the state of decline with a small population
Places visited -
Nalanda, Assam, Kanchipuram, Vatapi
Vatapi during Chalukyan King Pulakesin II
Description -
Buddhism in decline in Western Deccan

I-Qing -

came after 50 years of Xuan's return

stayed at Nalanda
17. Pallavas: 575-897 AD

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Pallavas -
Background -

After Sangam Age, Kalabhra ruled for 250 years - Dark Phase of Tamil History
Thereafter came Pallavas
Pallavas were finally annexed by Imperial Cholas in beginning of 10th AD

Political History -

First line Pallava rulers (250 - 350 AD) : issued charters in Prakrit
Second line Pallava rulers (350 - 550 AD) : charters in Sanskrit
Third line Pallava rulers (575-897 AD onward): charters in Sanskrit and Tamil
Simhavishnu - first ruler - destroyed Kalabhras
other rulers - Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I, Narasimhavarman II

Mahendravarman I (600-630 AD)

Pallava - Chalukya conflict began during his reign -

bone of contention - Raichur doab (Krishna-Tungabhadra doab)
Pulakesin II defeated him and captured northern part of the Pallava kingdom
title - Chettakari (builder of temples), Vichitrachitta, Chitrakarpauli
great builder of cave temples
authored Sanskrit work - Mattavilasa Prahasanam
other talents - painting, music

Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD)

aka Mamalla (great wrestler) - founded Mamallapuram

Battle of Manimanglam - defeated Pulakesin II
title - Vatapikonda (after capturing Vatapi)
Huan Tsang visited Kanchipuram - calls it a beautiful city; Ghatika is a great centre of
learning
monolithic rathas erected under his reign

Narasimhavarman II (695-722 AD) - aka Rajasimha

evinced more interest in art and architecture

build many temples -
Shore Temple at Mamallapuram
Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram
Sanskrit scholar Dandin - adorned his court

Pallava rule lasted till the end of 9th AD. Thereafter it was annexed by Chola King Aditya I.

Administration -

Kottams
State -->
Devadhana - land grants to temples
Brahmadeya - land grants to Brahmans
State provided irrigation facilities
revenue - land tax (main); tax on traders and artisans
Devadhana and Brahmadeya - exempted from tax
three types of village assemblies -
Ur - assembly of small peasants
Sabha - assembly of Brahman land owners; looked after land records, irrigation,
temples, making roads...
Nagaram - assemble of traders and merchants

Society -

caste system became rigid; priests became landlords

Bhakti Movement originated in this period
Shiva Nayanars and Vaishnava Alwars composed their hymns in Tamil
decline of Buddhism, Jainism
agrarian economy expanded because of land grants

Architecture

Dravidian style began with Pallava rule (beginning of Dravida)

introduced rock-cut cave temples
developed in four stages -
Stage 1 - Rock cut cave temples -

Mahendravarman I introduced rock-cut temples - Mandagapattu rock-cut temple

Stage 2 - monolithic rathas and mandapas

Narasimhavarma I introduced it
Panchapanadava rathas
five rathas - at Mamallapuram / Mahabalipuram / Seven Pagodas

Stage 3 - structural temples

Narasimhavarman II / Rajasimha introduced it

built using soft sand rocks
Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchi
Shore Temple at Mamallapuram / Mahabalipuram

Stage 4 - structural temples built by later Pallavas

Vaikundaperumal temple - Kanchipuram

Mukhtheeswara temple - Kanchipuram
Matagenswara temple - Kanchipuram

Literature: Tamil and Sanskrit

Kanchipuram (capital of Pallavas) - great centre of learning

Ghatika at Kanchi - popular CoE
Huan Tsang visited Kanchi during the reign of Narasimhavarman I and found many
Jain temples
Tamil Lit also developed -
Nayanmars composed Tevaram, Tirumurais
Alwars composed Nalayradivyaprabandam
Nandikkalambagam - unknown author

Important works -

1. Mattavilasa Prahasanam - a Sanskrit play written by Mahendravarman I

Important scholars of the time -

1. Dinganaga - Buddhist writer came to study at Kanchi

2. Dharampala - head of Nalanda came belonged to Kanchi
3. Bharavi - great Sanskrit scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu
4. Dandin - in the court of Narasimhavarman II
5. Perundevanar (patronised by Nadivarman II) translated Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in
Tamil

Others -

Sittannavasal paintings - belong to this period

Dakshinachitra - an instruction manual for painters
Eripatti - land - revenue from which was used for maintenance of village tank
Ghatikas - Centre of Excellence; colleges generally attached to the temples
Maagadha - People who memorized chronicles, dynastic histories and epic tales
18. Chalukyas

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

The Three Chalukyas -

There were three distinct but related Chalukya dynasties -

1. Badami Chalukyas - 543-755 AD

earliest Chalukyas with their capital at Badami in KA.
declined after the death of Pulakesin II in 642 AD.
2. Eastern Chalukyas - 7th-12th AD
emerged after the death of Pulakesin II in Eastern Deccan with capital at Vengi.
Vengi - in Rayalaseema in Andhra
3. Western Chalukyas - 10th-12th AD
Descendants of the Badami Chalukyas
emerged in the late 10th century and ruled from Kalyani (modern-day
Basavakanlyan).

Chalukyas of Badami: 543-755 AD

Political History -

Capital - Aryapur / Aihole and then Vatapi / Badami

founder - Pulakeshin I

Pulakesin II (608-642 AD)

greatest ruler
defeated Mahendravarman I and annexed northern part of Pallava kingdom
Narasimhavarman I defeated Pulakesin II at Manimanglam
Huan Tsang - praised him as a good and authoritative king
defeated Harsha on banks of R. Narmada - Aihole inscription

Kirtivarman II -

last ruler of Chalukyas

got defeated by Dantidurga, founder of Rashtrakutas

Administration -

highly centralised unlike that of Pallavas, Cholas and Rashtrakutas

village autonomy - absent
great maritime power

Religion -

they were Brahmanical Hindus but were tolerant

Pulakesin I performed asvamedha yagya
Huan Tsang - Buddhism in decline in western Deccan but Jainism on path of progress

Literature -
Pulakesin II -

patronised Ravikirti, a Jaina (Court Poet)

issued Aihole inscription (composed by Ravikirti) - 634 CE
mentions Pulakesin II defeating Harsha at R. Narmada
in Sanskrit language and Kannada script

Architecture -

developed vesara style (combination of Nagara+Dravidian), reached peak under

Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas
structural temples - Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal
cave temples - Ajanta, Ellora, Nasik and Aihole
paintings - at Badami cave temple and Ajanta caves

Ravan Phadi Cave - Aihole, KA

distinctive sculptural style

most imp sculpture - Nataraja
Saptamatrikas (seven female deities) are present

Chalukyan temples may be divided into stages -

Stage 1 - Temples at Aihole and Badami -
Aihole - in KA, on banks of river Malprabha

earliest development of structural temple architecture

features -
garbha griha (sanctum sanctorum)
a mandapa (sanctum)
an enclosed sabha mandapa (assembly hall)
an antechamber
a pradakshina pratha (circumambulation path)
flat or sloping roofs and resemble thatched cottages.
cave temple - Ravan Phadi
Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya
Huchimalligudi temple
Jain temple at Meguti Hill
Lad Khan Temple - influence of the wooden roofed temples of The Hills
oldest temple - large Nandi inside the temple, stones places over one another without
any binding material

Badami - KA; on Malprabha river

1. Four rock-cut temples

2. Muktheeswara temple
3. Melagutti Sivalaya temple

Stage 2 - Temples of Pattadakal (on Malprabha) in KA

UNESCO WHS; includes Jain (1) and Hindu (9) temples

hallmark - incorporation of several styles
both in northern style and Dravidian style
Northern style - Papanatha temple (influence of Odisha and Rajasthani style)
Dravidian style -
Sangamesvara temple
Virupaksha temple - very elaborate
built by Queen of Vikramadiyta II (733-744) - Loka Mahadevi
built on the model of Kailasanatha temple of Kanchi

Eastern Chalukyas - 7th-12th AD

started out as governors of the Chalukyas of Badami

capitals - Vengi, Rajahmundry
founder - Kubja Vishnuvardhana (brother of Pulakeshin II)

Literature -
Nannaiah -

lived at the East Chalukyan court

revived the Telugu language
work - Andhra Mahabharatam -
Telugu version of Mahabharata
written by Kavitrayam, consisting of Nannaiah, Thikkana and Yerrapragada

Western Chalukyas - 10th-12th AD

capital - Kalyani (KA)

aka Later Chalukya
arose after fall of Rashtrakutas
Basavanna was contemporary to Kalyanis

Literature -

Vijnaneshwara - prominent jurist in the court of Western Chalukyas

wrote Mitakshara in 11th A.D.
there are two schools of law that govern the law of succession of the Hindu Family
-
1. Mitakshara gives theory of "inheritance by birth"
2. Dayabhaga by Jimutavahana
19. Rashtrakutas: 755-975 AD

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Political History -

they were of Kannada origin; capital - Malkhed/Manyakheta

originally - samantas of Chalukyas of Karnataka but later declared themselves independent
founder - Dantidurga
performed ritual - hiranya-garbha - re-birth of sacrificer as a Kshatriya
defeated Kirtivarman II and captured Chalukyan kingdom
defeated Gurjaras and captured Malwa
Krishna I - defeated Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and Gangas
Govinda III - annexed some North Indian kingdoms
Amoghavarsha I - lost control over Malwa; built Rashtrakuta capital Malkhed
Krishna III - built Krishneswara Temple at Rameswaram; after his death, Rashtrakutas
declined
maintained their navy

Administration -

Empire --> rashtras (rashtrapati) --> vishayas (vishayapatis) --> bhuktis (bhogapatis)
village assemblies played a critical role

Other -

Vaishnavism and Shaivism flourished

Rashtrakutas patronised Jainism
trade with Arabs flourished

Literature -

mother tongue - Kannada

this era was practically the end of classical Prakrit
 Svayambhu (Apabrahsa poet) lived at Rashtrakuta's court

Kannada Literature -

saw its beginning under Rashtrakutas

Kavirajamarga of Amoghavarsha I - first poetic work in Kannada
Pampa - great Kannada poet - wrote Vikramasenavijaya
Ponna - Santipurana
Sanskrit Literature -

Trivikrama wrote Nalachampu

Halayudha wrote Kavirahasya
Viracharya wrote Ganitasaram, work on Maths
Amoghavarsha I wrote - Prashnottara Ratnamalika
Jain Literature -

Amoghavarsha I (a Jain) patronised many Jain scholars

he wrote Kavirajamarga
in Kannada
his teacher Jinasena composed Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva
Gunabhadra wrote Adipurana,
life stories of various Jain saints
Sakatayana wrote Amogavritti,
a grammar work

Architecture -

main architecture found at Ellora and Elephanta

Kailasanath Temple, Ellora -

one of the largest rock-cut monolithic temples in the world

construction under Krishna I
mainly Dravidian type - gopura, sabha griha (hall), Nandi mandap, garba griha (sanctum)...
four main parts - entrance gateway, intermediate shrine for Nandi, mandapa surrounding the
courtyard, main shrine
high plinth - 25 feet high
three-tiered sikhara
resembling the sikharaof Mamallapuram rathas
sculpture of Goddess Durga slaying the Buffalo demon
sculpture of Ravana trying to lift Mount Kailasa

Elephanta - UNESCO WHS

earlier a Buddhist temple

on an island near Mumbai
earlier name - Sripuri
Portuguese named it Elephanta
highest sculptural art - similar to Ellora's
at the entrance sculpture of dwara-palakas
depiction of Shiva in various forms - Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanareesvara, Somaskanda
famous for Trimurthi - represent Shiva as creator, preserver and destroyer
20. Imperial Cholas: 9th to 12th AD

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Political History -

after Sangam period, Cholas became feudatories of Pallavas in Uraiyur (Kaveri delta)
9th AD - Vijayalaya established an empire with capital at Tanjore (Kaveri delta)
aka Imperial Cholas because of their influence in Sri Lanka and Malay peninsula
capitals of Cholas - Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram and Kanchi
possessed strong navy

Rulers -

founder - Vijayalaya
Aditya I defeated Pallavas and captured Kanchi

Rajaraja I (985-1014 AD)

most powerful Chola ruler - Chola power at peak

devout follower of Shaivism
completed the construction of Rajarajeswara Temple / Brihadishwra Temple at Tanjore in
1010
helped in the construction of Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam
warfare -
defeated Western Chalukyas and captured Raichur Doab
led a naval expedition against Maldives and conquered it
captured northern parts of Sri Lanka

Rajendra I (1014-1044 AD)

son of Rajaraja I
brought whole of Sri Lanka under Cholas
led a successful expedition in North India - crossed river Ganga
to commemorate his North Indian victory, Rajendra I -
assumed the title Gangaikondan
founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram
constructed Rajesvaram temple in Gangaikondacholapuram
excavated a large irrigation tank
Empire -
northern boundary - Tungabhadra river
included Pandya, Kerala, Mysore, Sri Lanka, Maldives
titles - Mudikondan, Kadaram Kondan, Pandita Cholan, Gangaikondan

Rajendra III - last Chola king and then the empire was absorbed in Pandya Empire.

Administration -
 very well organised by Rajaraja I
central officials -perundanam sirudanam
and
Empire-->mandalams (royal princes)--> valanadus (periyanattar) --> nadus (nattar)
town was called nagaram nagarattar
under
ur - settlements of peasants
nadu - group of villages
sabha - gathering of adult men in Brahman villages (agraharas)

Village life -

pulaiyas - untouchables
velan - a peasant
muvendavelan, araiyar - title given by Chola king to a rich landowner
nagarams - association of traders (occasionally performed administrative functions)
categories of land -
vellanvagai - land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors
brahmadeya - land gifted to Brahmans
shalabhoga - land for maintenance of school
devadana, tirunamattukkani - land gifted to temples
pallichchhandam - land donated to Jaina institutions

Village Assemblies -
sabha - assembly of prominent brahman landholders
variyapperumakkal - term for assembly members
sabhas held good autonomy
each village was divided into 30 wards
qualification to become a ward member -
land ownership (at least 1/4thveli )
own residence
30-70 age group
knowledge of Vedas
disqualification criteria -
member since three years
failed to submit accounts
committed sins
who have stolen the property of others
Kudavolai system (lottery system) - followed to choose ward member
no of ward members - varied from village to village
increasing feudalism restricted village autonomy

Military Administration -

Kadagams - cantonments
Kaikkolaperumpadai - royal troops
Velaikkarar - part of Kaikkolaperumpadai to defend the king
Bay of Bengal - Chola Lake for sometime

Revenue -

puravuvarithinaikkalam - land revenue deptt

ur nattam - residential portion of the village
temple land and ur nattam - exempted from taxation
vetti - tax collected in the form of forced labour; aka Muttaiyal
kadamai - land revenue
other sources of revenue - tolls and customs on goods, professional taxes, duties on
marriages...
during difficult times - remission of taxes

Economy -

silk-weaving flourished at Kanchi

agriculture and industry flourished
mental work increased
peruvazhis - trunk roads were built
external trade with China, Sumatra, Java, Arabia
Arabian horses were imported in good number

Society -

caste system was prevalent but cooperation prevailed among various castes
two major categories of castes -Valangai and Idangai
castes
position of women failed to improve
Sati practice prevailed among royal families
devadasi system emerged during this period
Literature - Tamil lit reached it peak
Imp works -

1. Sivakasintamani - by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi

2. Kalingattupparani by Jayankondar describes Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I
3. Moovarula by Ottakuthar depicts life of three Chola rulers
4. Nalavenba by Pugalendi
5. two master-pieces of this age -
1. Tamil Ramayana by Kamban
2. Periyapuranam Tiruttontarpuranam
or by Sekkizhar (one of the 12 volumes of
Tirumurai)
6. works on Tamil Grammar -
1. Kalladam by Kalladanar
2. Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar
3. Nannul by Pavanandhi
4. Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra

Architecture -

capitals - Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram and Kanchi

built number of Shiva and Vishnu temples which helped Bhakti Movement to flourish
long inscriptions on the temple walls - good source of history

Thanjavur -

a temple town on the banks of river Kaveri (perennial river)

established by Rajaraja I
architect - Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan

Temples - Dravidian style

Dravidian style reached its zenith in South under Cholas

features - vimana, garbhagriha, mandap (pillared hall), gopurams
Cholas placed images of king/queens in the temple along with the deity's
built many stories above garbhgriha - Vimana

Early Chola Temples -

1. Narthamalai and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district

2. Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district

Later Chola Temples -

1. Shiva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram by Rajendra I

2. Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram, Tanjore distt
3. Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam

Brihadiswara Temple, Tanjore - UNESCO WHS

aka Rajarajeshwara temple

completed by Rajaraja I
dedicated to Shiva
Location - on South bank of river Kaveri in Thanjavur, TN
had the tallest shikhara amongst temples of its time
first temple to have two large gopurams
Charupallam - village of the incline

Important Temples built by Chola Kings - all are UNESCO WHS

1. Brihadeeswara Temple @ Thanjavur - Rajaraja I

2. Brihadeeswara Temple @ Gangaikondacholapuram - Rajendra I
3. Airavateswara Temple @ Darasuram - Rajaraja Chola II

Sculptures -

bronze statue of Natraja or dancing Shiva

sthapatis - term for sculptors
Lost Wax / cire-perdue was technique used to make sculptures
Kalyansundara Murthi -
depicts marriage of Shiva-Parvati
Chola period
not the object of popular worship
21. Schools of Indian Philosophy

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Indian Philosophy -
Four Purusharthas - artha, dharma, kama, moksha (four goals of human life)
Moksha -

main subject of Indian philosophy;

it means deliverance from the cycle of birth and death

Six Schools / Shad Darshan developed by the beginning of CE - orthodox schools

1. Samkhya -

oldest philosphy and founded by Kapila

did not recognise existence of God - atheistic.
early Sankhya philosophy -
rational and scientific
presence of divine agency is not essential for the creation of the world.
Prakrti is the ultimate cause of the world
Later view -
emerged by 4th AD
nature and spiritual element together create the world
Salvation - through acquisition of real knowledge
real knowledge can be acquired through perception, inference, hearing

2. Yoga -

The word ‘Yoga’ literally means ‘union’, i.e., spiritual union of the individual soul with the
Universal Soul
yoga gets mentioned in Rig Veda, Satapatha Brahmana, Mundaka and Katha Upanishads and
Bhagvad Gita
founder - Patanjali; the aim is to attain Kaivalya
Patanjali wrote Yogsutras after the above mentioned texts
Kaivalya means - Absolute independence and eternal and free life of Purusa, free from
Prakrti
Salvation - through meditation
Yoga accepts the existence of God;
God is only one of the many objects on which Yogis can concentrate their mind. Thus God in
Yoga has only practical importance.
Patanjali himself did not consider God as necessary to solve the problems of the world.
Thus, God of Yoga is not the creator, preserver or destroyer of this world.
advocates control over the body, the senses and the mind. It prescribes Ashtanga Yoga to
achieve that control.
Yoga is the practical path of realisation of the theoretical ideals of Samkhya Philosophy.
The Samkhya Philosophy emphasises the attainment of knowledge by means of study,
concentration and meditation. The Yoga presents a practical path for the realisation of the
self.
Yoga admits all the three pramanas accepted by Samkhya, i.e, perception, inference and
scripture. The Sadhana of Yoga is necessary for the study of Samkhya Philosophy. Thus
Yoga system of Patanjali, is a complement of Samkhya.

3. Nyaya -

founder - Gotama
lays stress on importance of logic
God is the ultimate cause of creation, maintenance and destruction of the world.
God doesn't create the world out of nothing, but out of eternal atoms, space, time, ether,
minds and souls.
four sources of true knowledge -
1. Perception
2. inference
3. comparison
4. testimony
Salvation - through acquisition of knowledge

4. Vaishesika -

founded by Kanada
gives imp to discussion of material element or dravya
propounds atomic theory
Earth, water, fire, air, sky - combines to form new objects
 Vaishesika philosophy is pluralistic and realistic but not materialistic since it admits spiritual
substances
school marks the beginning of physics in India
it also believes in salvation

5. Purva Mimansa - aka karma Mimamsa

founder - Jaimini wrote Jaiminiya sutra to pen down the principles of this school
imp commentators - Sabaraswami, Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara Misra
literal meaning of Mimamsa - art of reasoning and interpretation
it gives a methodology to interpret complicated vedic rituals
it also provides a philosophical justification of the rituals
believes in the authority of the Vedas
objective of this school - to attain salvation
salvation - dependent on performance of rituals

6. Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa -

founder - Vyasa
Vedanta philosophy is traces to the Upanishads
it is monistic theory, in other words, it says that there is only one reality, Brahman.
other than Brahma, everything else is unreal ( maya )
the self or atma is identical with brahma
salvation - by acquiring the knowledge of self
theory of karma can be linked to Vedanta philosophy.
imp works -
1. Brahmasutra - by Badarayana
2. Shankara's commentary
3. Rammanuja's commentary

Materialist view of life -

The six orthodox schools promoted the idealistic view of life. All prescribed path of salvation.
The faint beginning of materialist ideas can be seen in Ajivikas (Bindusara supported it)
Main materialist school developed in the period of expanding economy - 500 BC-300 AD

Lokayata -

main proponent - Carvaka, who accepted Bṛhaspati as his teacher

Carvaka wrote Barhaspatya Sutras (didn't survive)
main materialistic philosophy of India
Lokayata - means ideas derived from the common people
it advocates the acquisition of pleasure and wealth
it gives imp to immediate world and neglects the other world
Carvaka opposed spiritual salvation - Brahmans manufactured rituals for dakshina
it accepted the existence of only those things which could be experienced by human senses
did not believe in god
makes man the centre of all activities (humanistic view)

Ajivika Sect - heterodox school

founded by Makkhali Goshala (a contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira)

had atheistic philosophy
everything is pre-determined by fate; sorrow exist in the world but we can overcome it
they wore no clothes and lived as ascetic monks in organised groups
used to go through extreme austerities to overcome sorrow
no caste discrimination
Bindusara and Ashoka supported it; Barbara caves donated by Ashoka
Buddhist and Jain scriptures are critical of Ajivika sects
Miscellaneous

Notebook: 2. Ancient India

Carbon Dating -

C14 - radioactive isotope of carbon

present in all living beings
when object is living - C14 is decayed as well as absorbed from food and air
when object dies - C14 decays at uniform rate
by measuring the loss of C14 content, the age of object can be determined
half-life of C14 - 5568 years
C14 content in 11,136 years - one-fourth of the original
half-life - period during which one-hlaf of the radioactive content in an object disappears.

Empires -

Kalinga - bet Mahanadi and Godavari

Maharashtra - bet Tapi and Bhima
Karnataka - bet Bhima and Tugabhadra
Tamil - bet Krishna and Kaveri

Pottery -

Coarse Grey Pottery - Neolithic Period

Black and Red Ware, Ochre Coloured Pottery - Chalolithic Period (first to use painted pottery)
Painted Grey Ware - Rig Vedic Age
Northern Black Polished Ware - Mauryans

Transformation from Ancient to Medieval India -

1. Main cause of change - practice of land grants. Reasons -

500 BC to 600 AD - trade thrived

kings had enough cash to pay officers in cash; till Gupta period - all officers were paid
in cash
but after 600 AD - trade declined
Satavahanas started system of land grants to Brahmans, monks (devadhana,
bramhadeya)
Harsha - started the practice of land grants of officials
beneficiaries were granted land free of taxes; expected to maintain law and order;
collect tax in their land

Thus, the authority of the king got heavily eroded with this system of land grants.

2. Decline of trade post-Gupta period reduced the significance of towns and led merchants and
nagaram
artisans to settle down in villages - villages
3. Declining internal trade led to reduced interaction among the people and there emerged
regional cultural units - Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu.
4. From 7th AD - regional language emerged - Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam
5. Emergence of regional architecture - Northern, Dravidian, Vesara...

And thus emerged a class of powerful landlords reflecting feudal setup of polity.

Serial No. Town Geography

1. Madurai R. Vaigai

2. Thanjavur Cauvery delta

3. Aihole R. Malprabha

4. Pattadakal R. Malprabha

5. Badami R. Malprabha

6. Hampi R. Tungabhadra
7. Tiruchirapalli on banks of R. Cauvery and R. Kollidam

8. riverine island between Cauvery and Kollidam; it has

Srirangam Island
Sri Ranganathswamy Temple (tallest gopuram)