Chapter 5

Measurements and
Calculations

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 5.1 Scientific Notation
Objective:
To show how very large or very small numbers
can be expressed as the product of a number
between 1 and 10 and a power of 10.

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 Scientific Measurements
In science we have two types of observations:

Qualitative: observations of color, odor,

appearance, ect.

Quantitative: observations of measurement.

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 Scientific Measurements
Scientific measurements must always be represented
as a number and a unit.
If units are not included mistakes can be easily made.
During a lab, if units are not included, or improperly
included, it could result in drastically different results
or even danger to yourself and your classmates.

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 Scientific Notation
In science we often make measurements that are very
large or small. To make things easier to write we use
scientific notation.
Numbers such as 93,000,000 or 0.000054 can become
tedious to rewrite when making long calculations.
Also you run the risk of losing track of zeros causing
miscalculations. Therefore, we have devised a better,
easier system.

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 Scientific Notation
When using scientific notation for very large numbers:
1. Move the decimal to the left until there is only
one digit between 1 and 10.
2. Count the number of places you move the
decimal and make this the power of 10.
3. Rewrite your number as a decimal times 10 to the
power of x.

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 Scientific Notation
EXAMPLE: 930
1. Move the decimal to make the number
between 1 and 10.
930 => 9.30
2. Multiply by 10 raised to a power of 2,
because the decimal was moved 2 places.
9.3x 102

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 Scientific Notation
When a very small number is involved, the decimal
must be moved to the right instead of the left, in this
case we make the power of 10 a negative number.

0.0000093 => move the decimal 6 places to the right.

9.3 x 10-6

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 Scientific Notation
EXAMPLES:
Convert to scientific notation:
1. 8,000
2. 75,600,000,000
3. 0.000000546
4. 0.0004876

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 Scientific Notation
Multiplication and Division of Scientific Notation:
When multiplying 2 numbers with exponents, you must
add the exponents.
EXAMPLE: (3.2 x 104)(2.8 x 103)=
(3.2 x 2.8) x 104+3= 9.0 x 107
When dividing you subtract the exponents.
EXAMPLE: 6.4 x 103 = 6.4/8.3 x 103-5
8.3 x 105
=0.77 x 10-2 = 7.7 x 10-3

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 Scientific Notation

Addition and subtraction of scientific notation

requires that the 2 numbers are raised to
the same power of 10
EXAMPLE:
1.31 x 105 + 4.2 x 104 =
13.1 x 104 + 4.2 x 104 =(13.1 + 4.2) x 104
= 17.3 x 104 = 1.73 x 105

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 5.2 Units
Objective: To learn the English, metric, and SI
systems of measurements.
The units part of a measurement tells us what
scale or standard is being used to represent
the results of the measurement.
The need for common units is necessary so that
scientists may have a universal language.

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 Units
The English system of units is the system used in the United
States and includes inches, feet, miles.
The metric system is used internationally and is known as the
International System or SI Units. Below are some basic SI
Units.
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K

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 Units
Below are the prefixes used for the metric system.

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5.3 Measurements of Length, Volume,
and Mass
Objective: To use the metric system to measure
length, volume, and mass.

To measure the length or distance, we

commonly use a ruler. The unit used for
length is the meter.

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Measurements

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 Measurements
Volume is the amount of 3-
dimensional space occupied by a
substance.
If you have a cube that is 1m x 1m x
1m, the volume of this cube would
be 1m3 or 1 cubic meter.
If the cube was divided into 1000
cubes, the volume of 1 cube
would be 1 dm3 or 1 Liter (L).
Each liter contains 1000 cm3.
1 cm3 = 1 mL.
1000 mL = 1 L

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 Measurements
What this instrument is
called?
Graduated cylinder
What would you measure
with this?
Liquid volume

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 Measurements
When measuring mass we use the unit,
kilogram.
The base unit for this would be the gram,
however, this is a small unit, so the kilogram is
the standard SI unit.
In this class we will be measuring in grams.
What type of instrument is used to measure
mass?

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 5.4 Uncertainty in Measurement
Objectives:
To learn how uncertainty in a measurement
arises.
To learn to indicate a measurement’s
uncertainty by using significant figures.

20
 Uncertainty
Whenever a measurement is made with
instruments such as a ruler, graduated cylinder
or thermometer some estimation must be
made.
If you and your group must measure the length of
a pin, you may get results such as the following:
2.84 cm, 2.85 cm, 2.86 cm, 2.85 cm, 2.86 cm
Why aren’t these results all exactly the same?

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 Uncertainty
If we look at fig. a we
see that the pin is
between 2.8 and 2.9
cm.
So if we enlarge that
distance and break
the space between
2.8 and 2.9 into 10
even pieces, we can
see that it lands on
precisely 5.
This means that the
distance is 2.85.
You must always
estimate a digit
beyond the marked
reading.

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 Uncertainty
So if we look back at your group’s readings we see
that the first 2 digits are all the same, it is the
estimated third digit is where things vary.
2.84 cm, 2.85 cm, 2.86 cm, 2.85 cm, 2.86 cm
The third digit is called an uncertain number.
When making a measurement you must always
record the certain digits (those marked) plus
the first uncertain number.

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 Uncertainty
Any measurement always has some degree of
uncertainty.
The uncertainty of a measurement depends of
the measuring device.
The ruler has uncertainty that occurs in the
hundredths place.
A beaker would have uncertainty that occurs in
the 10s or ones place.

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 Uncertainty
The numbers recorded in a measurement are
called significant figures.
The number of significant figures is determined by
the uncertainty of the measuring device.
With the ruler for measuring the pin, the
uncertainty fell in the hundredths place.
The uncertainty is usually assumed to be + 1
unless otherwise indicated.

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 5.5 Significant Figures
Objective:
To learn to determine the number of significant
figures in a calculated result.

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 Significant Figures
Chemistry requires doing many types of calculations.
With each calculation we must consider what
happens when arithmetic is done wit numbers that
contain uncertainties.
Mathematicians have kindly studied the statistical
background for how uncertainty accumulates and
have come up with some rules for uncertainty.

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 Significant Figures
When we are using our calculators, we get an answer
with as many as 10 numbers after the decimal,
however, we only multiplied 10.345 x 8.98.
So are all of those numbers in our answer really
significant?
The following rules explain how to determine what
numbers are significant and necessary to include in
our answer.

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 Significant Figures
Rules for Counting Significant Figures:
1. Nonzero integers. Nonzero integers always count as
significant figures.
For example, the number 1457 has four nonzero integers,
all of which count as significant figures.
2. Zeros. There are three classes of zeros.
a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all of the nonzero
digits. They never count as significant figures.
For example, in the number 0.0025, the 3 zeros simply indicate
the position of the decimal point. The number only has 2
significant figures, the 2 and the 5.
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 Significant Figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures cont.:

2. b. Captive zeros are zeros that fall between the
nonzero digits. They always count as significant
figures.
For example, the number 1.008 has 4 significant
figures.
c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the
number. They are significant only if the number is
written with a decimal point. The number one
hundred written as 100 has only one significant
figure, but written as 100. has 3 significant
figures.
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 Significant Figures
Rules for Counting Significant Figures cont.:
3. Exact numbers. Often calculations involve numbers
that were not obtained using measuring devices but
were determined by counting: 10 experiments, 3
apples, 8 molecules. Such numbers are called exact
numbers. They can be assumed to have an
unlimited number of significant figures. Exact
numbers can also arise from definitions.
For example, 1 inch is defined as exactly 2.54 cm. Thus,
in the statement 1in. = 2.54 cm, neither 2.54 nor 1
limits the number of significant figures when it is
used in a calculation.
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 Significant Figures
Use your rules to determine the number of
significant figures:
1. 0.0108
2. 0.0050060
3. 5.030 x 103
4. 480

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 Significant Figures
On your calculator you will find you have several extra
numbers and you must round off.
Rules for Rounding Off:
1. If the digit to be removed
a. is less than 5, the preceding digit does not
change. Example: 1.33 = 1.3
b. Is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding digit
is increased by 1. Example: 1.36 = 1.4
2. In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits
through to the final result and then round off.
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 Significant Figures

Rules for Using Significant Figures in Calculations:

1. For multiplication or division, the number of
significant figures in the result is the same as that in
the measurement with the smallest number of
significant figures. We say this measurement is
limiting, because it limits the number of significant
figures in the result.
For example: 4.56 x 1.4 = 6.384 => 6.4 2 sig figs
You try: 8.315 = ?
298 34
 Significant Figures
2. For addition or subtraction, the limiting term is the one with
the smallest number of decimal places.
For example: 12.11+18.0+1.013 = 31.123
The correct answer would be 31.1
You try: 0.6875 – 0.1 = ?

NOTE: For multiplication/division the significant figures are

counted. For addition/subtraction the decimal places are
counted.

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5.6 Problem Solving and Dimensional
Analysis
Objective:
To learn how dimensional analysis can be used to solve
various types of problems.

The problem:
Your mother asks you to buy 3 dozen cookies. The
cookies come in packages of 6 cookies. How many
packages of cookies must you buy?

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 Dimensional Analysis
In order to solve this problem and many others in
chemistry we are going to use a process called
dimensional analysis. We are going to analyze the
dimensions or units involved here.
First we must figure out the conversion factors. These
are the numbers that help us convert from one unit
to another.
1 dozen = ? cookies
1 package = ? cookies

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 Dimensional Analysis
So the conversion factor for the first is
1 dozen = 12 cookies, also if we read the problem we
can learn that
1 package = 6 cookies
We can now use this information to calculate how many
packages we need.
3 dozen x 12 cookies x 1 package = 6 pkgs.
1 1 dozen 6 cookies
We can cancel units that are the top and bottom of the
equation because this equals 1.
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 Dimensional Analysis
If you divide 2 this equals 1. The same rule
2
applies when dividing units. Cookies = 1
cookies
Or elephants = 1
elephants
It does not matter what the unit is, if it is on the
top and bottom of the equation, they equal 1.
And anything times one is anything. 2x1= 2 or
cookies x 1 = cookies
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 Dimensional Analysis

So let’s look at our problem again.

3 dozen x 12 cookies x 1 package = 6 pkgs.
1 1 dozen 6 cookies
The dozen cancels, the cookies cancel and we are
left with only packages as a unit.
IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO ALWAYS CLEARLY WRITE
DOWN YOUR UNITS!!!
If you do not, you WILL lose track and your answer
will become incorrect.

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 Dimensional Analysis
Earlier we measured the length of a pin. We found this
pin to be 2.85 cm, how many inches is this? There
are 2.54 cm in 1 inch.
1. Before we start the problem, read carefully and find
what we piece of information we are trying to
calculate here.
How many inches is the pin?
2. Then write down the information you are given.
The pin is 2.85 cm and 2.54 cm = 1 in.

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 Dimensional Analysis

Now we can set up our problem.

3. Always start with the given value, in this case it
would be 2.85 cm.
2.85 cm x 1 inch = ?
1 2.54 cm
4. Next write in your conversion factor(s).
5. Now check your units and see if they cancel.
If they don’t….then you need to find the missing
units.

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 Dimensional Analysis
6. Draw a light line through your canceled units.
2.85 cm x 1 inch = 1.12 inches
1 2.54 cm
7. Multiply and divide you answer and add your final
units to your answer.
8. Check your significant figures.
9. Ask whether your answer makes sense.

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 Dimensional Analysis
1. The length of a marathon race is
approximately 26.2 miles. What is this
distance in kilometers?
HINT: 1 mi = 1760 yd and 1 m = 1.094 yd

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 Dimensional Analysis
Your set up:
26.2 mi x 1760 yd x 1 m =
1 1 mi 1.094 yd
Do the units cancel?
What units is the answer supposed to be in?

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 Dimensional Analysis

26.2 mi x 1760 yd x 1 m x 1km =

1 1 mi 1.094 yd 1000 m
Do your units all cancel?
How many significant figures?
What is the correct answer?
Does this seem reasonable?

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 5.7 Temperature Conversions: An
Approach to Problem Solving
Objective:
To learn the three temperature scale.
To learn to convert from one scale to another.
To continue to develop problem-solving skills.

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 Temperature Conversions
There are three scales used for measuring
temperature:

Fahrenheit – Part of the English System

Celsius – Used in the metric system
Kelvin – The base unit in the SI units and also
known as the absolute scale.

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 Temperature Conversions
The thermometers
indicate the
freezing pts and
boiling pts on
each scale.
Notice there is an
equal distance
between the 2
pts on the Celsius
and Kelvin scales,
but not the
Fahrenheit.

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 Temperature Conversions
There are simple equations you
can use to convert
temperatures from one scale
to another.
Celsius -> Kelvin
Because these units are equal,
all we have to do is add 273 to
the Celsius temperature.
T C + 273 = TK
Kelvin -> Celsius
TK - 273 = T C
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 Temperature Conversions
When converting with the
Fahrenheit scale we
must do more math
because the scales are
not equal units.
Celsius ->Fahrenheit
T F=1.80(T C)+32
Fahrenheit -> Celsius
T C= T F – 32
1.80
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 Temperature Conversions
Convert the following:
1. 38 C = F
2. 145 C = K
3. 373 K = C
4. 25 C = K
5. 85 F = K

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 5.8 Density
Objective: To define density and its units.

Density: the amount of matter present in a given

volume of substance or is mass per unit volume.
In mathematical terms this means:
Density = mass or is the ratio of mass
volume to volume

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 Density
What type of units would you use for density?
Mass => ? Units
Volume => ? Units
Mass = grams (g)
Volume = milliliters (ml) = cubic cm = cm3/cc
So density units = g/ml or g/cm3

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 Density
So what does the term density really mean?
If something is very dense...what does that mean?
What if something is not very dense?
You know how to calculate density, but how would you
measure density?
What type of instruments would you need?

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