Day 1 fuckers

Throughout history people have built structures to protect themselves from the environment.
Structures must be supported with a strong framework, or else they could fall down.

A pueblo house (left) has mud walls and wood beams to support its flat roof. The Empire State Building
(right) was completed in 1931 and is supported by a huge system of steel beams.

Architects and civil engineers are professionals who are trained to design structures so they'll be safe
and sturdy. Many other people also work together to design structures so they won't fall down after
they're built.

A structure is made up of members, which spread out the weight of the forces acting on it.  

1. Horizontal members are identified as beams or girders.

2. Vertical members are referred to as columns, studs, pillars, or posts.

3. Diagonal members are called braces.

4. Panels are walls that divide or form the surface of a structure.

Members Spread the Loads

Members help to spread out the forces that push and pull on a structure. These forces are called
loads. Usually, loads are measured in pounds or pounds per square inch. With the metric system,
the measurements would be kilograms or kilograms per square centimeter. 

Static Loads
Static loads, also called dead loads, are forces that don't change. For example, a steel girder is
strong but it's heavy. Its weight adds to the static load. Engineers need to consider static loads
along with other factors in designing a structure.

Dynamic Loads
Dynamic loads, or live loads, include forces caused by:
1. Man-made elements, such as traffic moving over a bridge
2. Natural elements, such as snow, wind, waves, and earthquakes

The strength of a structure also depends on the materials used to make it. Structures can be made
of wood, stone, plastic, iron, steel, aluminum, and many other materials.

Ancient peoples built beautiful stone structures that have lasted for many hundreds of years.
Stone resists weather and fire. Yet it's very heavy and needs thick walls to support its weight.
 Architects and Civil Engineers must design structures to support forces much greater than those
normally expected. If they don't, the structure could fall apart.

They've developed Uniform Building Codes to include designs and materials that have worked
well in the past. A building inspector reviews engineering plans and inspects construction for
safety.

There are four basic forces that place stress upon any structure to weaken its structural integrity.
Every structural member is either in compression or tension.

1. Tension is a force that pulls.

2. Compression is a force that squeezes.
3. Torsion is a force that twists.
4. Shear is two opposing forces that cut or slide one piece over another.

If the load from forces is more than a structure can handle, there is structural
. But before this happens, engineers look for deflection, that is, bending or sagging under
pressure.

Engineers also know that over time, too much pressure can change a structure's size or shape.
This will result in deformation.

Equilibrium
All structures are designed around the idea of equilibrium. When the sum of all the forces
bearing down on a structure is balanced by all the forces designed to make it stable, then
equilibrium is reached.

A beam is a horizontal member that spans a gap and has supports at both ends. In prehistoric
times, a fallen tree lying across a stream probably acted as one of the first beam bridges. Later
this design was improved. Several beams could be placed end to end on top of columns to cross a
bigger river.
Five Beam Shapes
How much weight a beam can handle depends on its design, as well as the material it's made of.

There are five major beam shapes:

1. Angle 
2. Channel
3. Box
4. Tee
5. I-beam
Beams can be constructed of many different materials. In this module, you'll make beams from
balsa wood.

DAY 2
A beam is a horizontal member that spans a gap and has supports at both ends. Beams can be
found in almost all structures. The first beams were probably cut from big trees. In large
structures, steel or iron beams are also called girders. In house construction, ceiling beams are
called rafters.

Classic Beams
To span wider distances, a beam needs support underneath. Without support, the beam might sag
in the middle. Ancient builders understood the limits of natural materials. They found ways to
strengthen them. Greek architects in the 5th century B.C. used columns in the Parthenon, the
temple built for Athena, goddess of wisdom. The architects placed the columns close together. In
this way the columns could support the weight of the heavy marble.

Two opposing forces, tension and compression, are pulling and pushing all the time on the upper
and lower surfaces of beams. In this example, the beam is an empty bookshelf. Will it be strong
enough to hold the books we put on it?

Bookshelf 1
When the load isn't too great and the opposing forces of compression and tension are balanced,
the bookshelf will stay flat. We call this equilibrium. 

Bookshelf 2
However, if the load becomes too heavy, deflection occurs. The bookshelf sags, or bends, in the
middle. Because a bookshelf is thin, it has little material in the middle to handle the two forces.
Compression is squeezing the top of the shelf, while tension is pulling at the bottom.

Bookshelf 3
When a bookshelf is thicker, it can handle more weight without being bent by deflection. A
beam, like this bookshelf, must be built thick enough to carry the load it needs to support without
sagging.

Remember these five beam shapes from Day One? Look at the I-beam. You could say the I-
beam combines two horizontal bookshelves with a vertical member between them. The I-beam
balances the tension and compression forces with a good combination of horizontal and vertical
widths.

Six variables affect how much a beam can hold, also known as its load capacity:
 Shape 
 Size 
 Span 
 Weight 
 Materials 
  Area of load
Shape
 Some shapes make stronger beams because they combine horizontal and vertical
shapes. Some of the best beam shapes are channel design, box design, and I-beam
design. Structural engineers choose shapes appropriate for different structure.

Size
A bigger beam is thicker and can carry more weight than a smaller one. The size of the
beam for a structure is often determined by how big the structure is and how much weight
it will be bearing.

Span
The wider the span is, the weaker it becomes in the middle. To make sure the beams can hold up
the structure's weight, the structural engineers must have longer beams supported to prevent
deflection.

Weight
If a beam is heavy, it has its own weight to bear, in addition to the weight placed upon it. A
heavy beam places more weight on its ends, so stronger columns are needed to support it.

Materials
Iron is a stronger material than wood. Carbon fiber is even stronger! Iron beams were invented in
the 1800s. Iron allowed architects to design taller buildings than they could using wood beams.

Areas of Load
If the load on the beam is centered in one spot, the beam may need more support at that point. A
beam can bear more weight if the weight is spaced evenly along the length of the beam.

Camber
Some beams are made with a slight upward curve or arc called camber. When weight is set on
the beam, the weight deflects the beam into a straight position. 

Another important structural member is the panel. Panels divide spaces in a structure or form the
outer surfaces. You also know them as walls!

Jet planes and race cars have curved panels on the outside. This gives them a smooth outer skin
for better aerodynamics.

Airplane Panels
As aircraft became faster, aircraft designers needed to make wing panels stronger. But thicker
panels would also make planes too heavy. The problem was solved with the invention of
stressed-skin and composite construction.

Sandwich Panels
These new stressed-skin panels called sandwich panels weren't solid. Instead, they had a rigid
foam or honeycomb-like center. This center was sandwiched between two thin outer layers.
These layers were made of a different material, usually aluminum. They were something like a
bologna sandwich! Gluing two different materials together is called composite construction.
Curves are Easier
The stressed-skin panel construction method is used when strength is needed on curved surfaces.
Blocks of material such as balsa wood are placed between fiberglass and held together with
epoxy glue.

For even greater stiffness, airplane wings are made with an aluminum core. This core looks like a
honeycomb sandwiched between carbon-fiber skin.

Curved surfaces are needed to build smooth shapes for jet planes, racecars and power boats. To
make a curved panel, the materials that make up the composite must be shaped over a curved
mold. The panels will be very strong, stiff and light. Stressed skin panels can be molded to fit the
design of a plane, racecar or boat. They create a strong, stiff and light surface.

Composite construction needs strong, high-tech adhesives, or glues, to hold the outer skin to the
inner materials. 

Chemical Engineers have invented new materials that hold together with heat. New epoxy glues
cause a chemical reaction when the two components of the glue are mixed together and the glue
becomes solid.

Structural Engineers help to make decisions on how to construct a building. They make sure that
the building plan and the materials are safe and can function appropriately.

DAY 3
Structures must be built to maintain stability against the strongest forces on Earth. 

Architects and civil engineers worry that natural forces may destroy their structures. For
example, hurricane winds blowing at 110 miles per hour have damaged hotels in Florida. Ocean
waves 30 feet high have washed away homes in California. Strong earthquakes have knocked
over highway bridges in Japan.

Earthquake & Tsunami

In 2011, Japan experienced a devastating earthquake that later triggered a powerful tsunami. The
earthquake measured a record breaking 9.0 on the Richter scale. The Richter scale is a
measurement of earthquake intensity. The tsunami waves reached heights of 100 feet and
traveled up to 6 miles inland. Approximately 23,000 people were killed. Both the earthquake and
tsunami caused extensive and severe structural damage, including heavy damage to roads,
railways, buildings, and nuclear power plants.

Do you think that bridges and buildings can be built to withstand earthquakes and tsunamis?
In 1981, an accident happened due to bad engineering design and construction. In Kansas City, a
Hyatt Hotel walkway fell four floors, killing 113 people. The movement of dancing people had
caused some of the bolts to fail.

How can civil engineers and architects know if their designs are safe? 

Before actual construction begins, a model must be tested. This helps engineers to find the
weaknesses in the structure. This step is especially important when using new materials or
building structures that aren't covered by the Uniform Building Code.

Prototypes and Scale Models

A prototype is a preliminary model of something from which future versions are further
developed or formed. 

A scale model is a physical representation of a real structure or object, except much smaller. A
scale model must maintain an accurate relationship between all of the important aspects of the
object as well as meet the same general requirements to be functional.

For example, if a scale model is made so that 1 inch equals 20 feet, the scale is written as 1:20 or
1/20. A one-twentieth scale model of a 400-foot ship would be 20 inches long.

Model tests, or simulations, will only work if the forces placed on the model can be perfectly
controlled. If this happens, then the results should tell what will take place after the structure is
really built.

Putting weights on a model bridge suggests how a real bridge will handle real load forces.

The structural tester you will use can create a downward force of 125 pounds. This simulates the
force of a heavy object on a real bridge.

Materials Testing
Special equipment is used to test prototypes and building materials. Some machines put huge
pressure on concrete samples to test them. The concrete must be strong enough to pass industry
standards. If the concrete breaks too soon, it can't be used for construction. Other testing
instruments include water tanks to test ship models.

Aircraft models are tested inside a wind tunnel. The structure of a plane must be designed for
shape and lightness. Many prototypes are tested until everything is proven to work.

CAD stands for Computer-Aided Design. A CAD operator uses software tools to recreate the
way the design looks in 3-D. Then the design can be rotated to view it from any angle.

Before a new car is sold it must be tested for safety and pass government codes. Car companies
use formulas to measure the force of a crash. In this way they can test different designs to see if
passengers will be protected. 
Airplane Design
Computer simulation and CAD also played a big role in designing the Boeing 777 jet airplane.
Once the tests were finished, the final computer designs could be used to build the panels and
beams accurately.

Skyscraper Design
Did you know that a skyscraper moves in the wind? The John Hancock Insurance Building in
Boston moved so much that people on the top floors felt seasick. The glass windows even fell
out! To find a solution, engineers tested a model skyscraper in a wind tunnel. Fixing the building
after it was already finished was a very expensive mistake.

Another important person involved in making a building or bridge safe is the Surveyor. The
surveyor looks over the land and determines the best location for the structure. He or she later
makes sure the structure is built where the plan designates.

DAY 4

In this lesson, you'll study different kinds of trusses. You'll see how trusses are used in
construction. You'll probably want to use trusses when you build your bridge prototype.

A truss is a structure made from one or more triangles. A triangle always has three sides, but the
sides don't always have to be equal.

Better than Beams

A truss offers one of the best ways to build a structure. It's much better than a beam, which sags
in the middle if the span is too large.

A roof truss can span distances up to 40 feet without a column underneath it. This means rooms
can be larger and more open.

Look for Triangles

The triangle is the basic shape found in trusses. It's the only geometric figure that cannot change
shape without shortening or stretching at least one side

A Fink truss has five triangles that all share sides. The downward pressure is spaced across all of
the linked triangles

A Square is Weak
Compared to triangles, squares easily change their geometric shape. Just push on a corner and a
square falls over! It becomes a diamond. A square can be strengthened with a diagonal cross
brace. But notice how it becomes a square with two internal triangles!

A truss that holds the roof over your head has the following parts:
 Upper/bottom chord: the sides and base of the truss. The bottom chord is also called a
tie.
  Gang-nail plate: the joint at the roof peak.
 Tension web: the cross brace that resists pulling forces.
 Compression web: the cross brace that resists compression forces.

The first primitive roofs were flat, with beams spanning the walls. But large rooms needed posts,
or else the beams would sag. If too much weight from snow or water fell onto the beams, the
roof caved in!

Roof Forces
The simplest solution was to make the roof slope, as shown in the diagram. But this also caused
downward forces to punch out the supporting walls at the tops. 

To solve this, engineers connected the two sloping members with another member laid across the
bottom. This is called a tie.

Trusses have many advantages. These include strength, efficient use of material, and longer
span. For this reason, they're often used in building structures.

Although beams and arches came first, we know the Romans built bridges using trusses. Julius
Caesar wrote about one in detail.

Railroad Bridges
There was a big problem after trains were invented. Railroad companies needed quick, low-cost
bridges so trains could cross over valleys and rivers. The solution was the truss bridge. Today,
thousands of both wood and iron-truss bridges are still standing.

Building Girder
Look up at the ceiling next time you're in the school gym or cafeteria. Were parallel-chord truss
girders used? Truss girders support many flat roofs in schools, factories, and office buildings.

Famous truss designs are named for their inventor, such as the Howe truss, after William Howe.
In the mid-19th century, designers came up with many fastening systems for wood and iron
bridges.

Scissors
By using a scissors truss, with its sloping bottom chords, a room's volume can be increased. This
truss can span up to 40 feet across a room.

Fink and Fan

Fink and fan trusses are common designs found in many homes. The Fink truss spans more than
40 feet, allowing large, open rooms. The fan truss adds one more vertical tension web.

Parallel-chord
Parallel-chord trusses are used for flat roofs. Standard spans are up to 30 feet. 
You might see this truss in your school gym or cafeteria.
King-post
The simplest truss is a king-post truss, which can span about 25 feet.

Mono-pitch
A mono-pitch truss, used for shed roofs, spans about 25 feet.

Howe
Notice that the Howe truss, one of the best designs, is similar to the mono-pitch truss.

Pratt
The Pratt truss uses simple construction and a more logical spacing of stresses. It was patented in
1844. When iron became less expensive, the Pratt truss became a popular choice for building
bridges.

The engineer's job is to follow the architect's plans and figure out the load capacity for the roof
trusses. The drawings are given to the Building Inspector for approval.

The trusses will probably be made at a factory and trucked to the home site. Before the trusses
leave the factory, workers must follow the plans for their construction and test them.

The General Contractor watches over the entire construction process. He or she must follow the
architect's approved plans. The Construction Carpenters install the trusses at the construction
site.

DAY 5

Bridges have been very important throughout history. For instance, they played a significant role in the
exploration of the West, the outcome of World War II, and the growth of many cities.

Why a Bridge?

A bridge provides a pathway over an obstacle. The obstacle might be a body of water, a roadway, or a
valley.

The bridge carries a load, for example, a footpath, a road, train tracks, power lines, pipelines, or even a
city water supply. Other types of bridges include aqueducts (which carry water), causeways (a road over
a shallow lake), and overpasses (highway bridges).

The history of bridges shows how technology has changed. Bridges reflect the materials and needs of
the time in which they were built.
Beam Bridges

The beam bridge is the simplest type of bridge. It's ideal for short spans or places where columns won't
get in the way. Beam bridges are still commonly used for railroad and highway overpasses.

Arch Bridges

The ancient Romans built arch bridges out of stone and brick. Now such bridges are made using steel
and concrete. 

Arch bridges need temporary structures in place until the arch is completed.

Truss Bridges

Patented truss railroad bridge designs were quick and inexpensive to build. They were often made from
wood and later, from iron. American settlers needed lots of bridges to travel west after the 1850s.

Suspension

The suspension bridge is one of the most beautiful designs. Yet this type of bridge is one of the most
costly to build. So it's used only to cross long spans.

The Brooklyn Bridge opened in 1883. 

The roadway for a truss bridge can either be placed on the bottom, through the middle, or on top of the
trusses. This makes a truss design practical for many different situations.

DAY 6

When the original Clark Bridge was built, the people of Alton, Illinois, were pleased. However, in the
early 1990s, the bridge no longer had the capacity for the cars crossing it.

The Clark Bridge was rebuilt and reopened in 1994, in order to handle all the traffic and allow the city to
grow. What did the engineers think about when choosing a new bridge design?

Two hundred years ago, you would have had to swim or float across the Mississippi River. There were no
bridges across the river then.
Early peoples were smart bridge builders. The Incas knew how to make suspension footbridges out of
simple natural materials. They braided grass together to make big ropes that lasted for years.

Roman Bridges

In the 1st century B.C., Romans built an aqueduct at Pont du Gard in France. It still spans 855 feet today.

The Roman army also built semicircular arch bridges wherever it defeated people. One at Martorell,
near Barcelona, Spain, was built around 219 B.C. and is still standing.

Throughout the ages, the problem of how to cross over a river or valley has been solved by some type of
bridge construction.

It took brilliant engineers to solve the problem the first time. They created structures that are still seen
today as marvels of technology.

Roman Aqueduct

The name of the ancient engineer who built the first arch bridge is not known. But he was probably
Chinese or Babylonian. The best example of a 1st century B.C. Roman aqueduct is the Pont du Gard in
France. It measures 260.6 meters (855 feet) in length. There are three tiers of arches rising 47.2 meters
(155 feet) above the Gard River.

Tweed Arch Bridge

The British engineer John Rennie built the Tweed River Arch Bridge in Kelso, Scotland, in 1803.

It was the first semielliptical arch bridge. This design improved upon the semicircular arch bridges, which
weren't wide enough for easy travel underneath.

First Steel-arch Bridge

The first steel-arch bridge was designed by the American engineer James Buchanan Eads and was
opened in 1874. 

It has three 500-foot arches spanning the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri. 

Brooklyn Bridge

Opened in 1883 in New York City, the Brooklyn Bridge has a central span that stretches 486.2 meters
(1,595 feet).
It was built by John Roebling, a famous German-American engineer. In 1846 he also designed the first
long-span wire cable suspension bridge in the world over the Ohio River

London Tower Bridge

The earliest type of drawbridge was called a bascule. It was a hinged bridge made of timber and built
over castle moats. This bridge was raised using chains and counterweights.

The London Tower Bridge, built in the 1830s across the Thames River, is probably the most famous
example of a bascule. Do you remember the song "London Bridge Is Falling Down?"

Four months and seven days after this bridge was constructed in 1940 it collapsed. The bridge swayed
violently in the strong winds that were funneled into the narrow canyon that it crossed. The engineers
didn't take into consideration the effect the wind would have on the bridge. 

They later built a bridge that had vents that allowed the wind to pass through it without causing it to
sway.