Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Effect of elevated temperatures on the shear-friction behaviour of concrete:

Experimental and analytical study
Subhan Ahmad a, *, Pradeep Bhargava a, Ajay Chourasia b, Asif Usmani c
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, 247667, India
b
Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee 247667, India
c
Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Thirty-two uncracked shear-friction specimens were tested to investigate the effect of elevated temperatures on
Shear-friction the shear-friction behaviour of concrete. Exposure temperature and the shear reinforcement were the principal
Elevated temperature variables. Specimens were exposed to high temperatures of 350 ◦ C, 550 ◦ C, and 750 ◦ C in a programmable
Crack deformation
insulated closed electric furnace and were cooled down to room temperature before testing. Shear-friction
Angle of internal friction
Analytical prediction
specimens were also tested at the ambient temperature. Exposure of shear-friction specimens to high tempera­
tures resulted in the decrease of shear strength of concrete. An increase in shear reinforcement reduced the loss in
shear strength when specimens were subjected to high temperatures. The post-ultimate strength of the specimens
was not reduced up to an exposure temperature of 550 ◦ C. After experiencing high temperatures, crack slip and
crack width at the shear plane increased significantly at all the load levels. Two simple approaches, modified Zia
failure analysis and a simple calculation method (SCM) were also suggested for the prediction of shear strength of
concrete after high temperatures. Modified Zia failure analysis provided precise estimates of shear strength for all
the temperature levels. SCM was found to be precise for shear strength predictions up to an exposure temperature
of 550 ◦ C. For an exposure temperature of 750 ◦ C, SCM was found to be unconservative by 20–30%.

column or the bearing of a ledger beam. Cold-jointed interface simulates

construction joints in a shear wall or interface of the pre-cast girder and
1. Introduction
cast-in-place slab. A brief overview of the studies performed on the
shear-friction behaviour of concrete is given in Table 1.
Shear-friction is a mechanism by which shear is transmitted through
When concrete comes in contact with high temperatures, various
an interface between two members that can slip relative to one another.
physical and chemical changes take place, which results in the degra­
The interface on which the shear acts is called the shear plane or slip
dation of its strength and stiffness. Temperature increase causes loss of
plane. It may be noted that in this case, the shear failure is constrained to
free moisture followed by loss of physically adsorbed water and, finally,
occur along a definite plane. In reinforced concrete beams, the location
chemically bound water from the hydrated products. Latter is respon­
of the critical inclined crack across which shear has to be transferred is
sible for the significant loss in strength. Also, heating of concrete leads to
not fixed. Some common examples of these interfaces might be a vertical
its microcracking due to shrinkage of cement paste and expansion of
plane at the junction of corbel and column, the junction of a pre-cast
aggregates, hence causing a further loss in strength [30–34]. Also, the
girder and a cast-in-place slab, bearing in a ledger beam and construc­
properties of reinforcing steel reduce when the temperature increases
tion joints. Such interfaces must be designed prudently so that their
beyond 500 ◦ C [35–38]. Table 1 indicates that studies on shear-friction
shear capacity is greater than the diagonal-tension capacity of the
of concrete at ambient temperature conditions are adequate, and most of
adjoining members, which is achieved by providing reinforcement,
the parameters have been studied. Few studies [18,22,28] have
generally perpendicular to the shear plane [1–3]. Numerous studies
addressed the influence of high temperatures on the shear-friction of
[4–29] performed in the past six decades on shear-friction of concrete
concrete. Smith et al. (2011) [18] tested normal-strength concrete
shows that the interface of concrete studied was either monolithic or
specimens over a temperature range of 20–622 ◦ C. The concrete
cold jointed. Monolithic interface simulates the junction of a corbel and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: sahmad@ce.iitr.ac.in (S. Ahmad), p.bhargava@ce.iitr.ac.in (P. Bhargava), ajaycbri@gmail.com (A. Chourasia), asif.usmani@polyu.edu.hk
(A. Usmani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111305
Received 4 February 2020; Received in revised form 31 July 2020; Accepted 6 September 2020
Available online 17 September 2020
0141-0296/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Ahmad et al.
Notations
Ac area of the shear plane (mm2)
B thickness of the specimen (mm)
CC conventional concrete
Da maximum aggregate size (mm)
db diameter of bar (mm)
e eccentricity of load with the shear plane
fc compressive strength (100 mm × 200 mm cylinders) (MPa)
f′ c compressive strength (150 mm × 300 mm cylinders) (MPa)
f′ cT residual compressive strength of 150 mm × 300 mm
cylinders exposed to temperature, T (MPa)
fcc compressive strength (150 mm × 150 mm concrete cubes)
(MPa)
fccT residual compressive strength (150 mm × 150 mm
concrete cubes) exposed to temperature, T (MPa)
ft tensile strength of concrete (MPa)
ftT residual tensile strength of concrete after elevated
temperature T (MPa)
fy yield stress in the reinforcement (MPa)
fyT residual yield stress in the reinforcement after elevated
temperature T (N/mm2)
L length of the shear plane (mm)
compressive strength and restraining stress across the interface were
kept constant. It was found that an increase in temperature leads to a
decrease in ultimate strength and stiffness of the shear plane. Xiao et al.
(2014) [22] tested high-strength-concrete specimens with a constant
restraint provided across the shear plane over a temperature range of
20–800 ◦ C. Specimens were cast with concrete having compressive
strengths of 64.7 and 94 MPa. The shear strength was found to be
decreased, while the crack deformation increased with an increase in
exposure temperature. The loss in shear strength was found to be more
for the specimens cast with concrete of higher compressive strength.
Ahmad et al. (2018) [28] tested normal-strength concrete for shear-
friction with a constant restraining stress after exposure to 250 ◦ C and
500 ◦ C. The findings of the experimental investigation were similar to
Smith et al. (2011). A simplified procedure was also developed for the
computation of the shear strength of concrete exposed to high
temperatures.
The restraint provided at the shear plane was kept constant in all
three studies. RILEM TC -200 HTC [39] suggests that accidental fires
may expose structures up to 750 ◦ C. Residual compressive strength of
concrete severely decreases when exposure temperature increases over
600 ◦ C, which may also result in an abrupt reduction of shear-friction in
concrete. Therefore, this study is intended to have an insight into shear-
friction behaviour concrete with different confinements up to an expo­
sure temperature of 750 ◦ C. Hofbeck et al. (1969) [4] proposed a
graphical method for the estimation of shear strength in concrete at
ambient temperature, which was based on the failure envelope con­
structed by Zia [40]. The method is often called as the modified Zia
failure analysis. Changes in the modified Zia failure analysis were also
suggested to make its use for the estimation of shear strength of concrete
after elevated temperatures. Another approach is also suggested in
which an ambient temperature model incorporating residual strength of
concrete and steel is used for the prediction of residual shear strength of
concrete after elevated temperature.
2. Research significance
It is important to evaluate the residual shear-friction in concrete after
high temperatures so that the strengthening and retrofitting of a struc­
ture may be performed after an event of a fire. In this study, the results of
2
Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305
LWA Light-weight aggregate
n no. of bars provided across a shear plane
Rr replacement of normal aggregate with recycled aggregate
(%)
SCC self-compacting Concrete
SLWA sanded-light-weight aggregate
su slip ultimate shear strength (mm)
Vf volume of fibres (%)
vu experimentally obtained shear strength (MPa)
vp predicted shear strength (MPa)
W width of the specimen (mm)
Wf weight of fibres
wu crack width at ultimate shear strength (mm)
wi initial crack width, (mm)
µ friction coefficient between the concrete faces (=tan ф)
σt external tension applied on the shear plane
ф angle of internal friction of concrete
фT angle of internal friction of concrete exposed to
temperature, T
ρ fy restraining stress at the slip/shear plane (MPa)
ρ fyT residual restraining stress through the shear/slip plane
exposed to temperature, T (MPa)
an experimental investigation on the shear-friction behaviour of con­
crete after exposure to high temperatures are reported. Necessary
changes in modified Zia failure analysis are also suggested to make its
use possible for the estimation of shear- friction in concrete exposed to
high temperatures. Moreover, an SCM is also used to predict the results
of the experimental investigation. The use of modified Zia failure anal­
ysis or an SCM for the estimation of shear strength is simple and pref­
erable because they do not involve any experimental or mathematical
rigour.
3. Experimental investigation
3.1. Materials used
43 grade (min. avg. compressive strength of three mortar cubes was
43 MPa) Portland cement, complying with IS 8112-2013 [41], was used
in the experimental investigation. Thermo-mechanically treated bars of
diameter 12 mm and 8 mm were used as the reinforcement. Reinforcing
bars were tested in tension using a displacement controlled UTM as per
IS 1608:2005 [42]. The yield and ultimate strength of reinforcing bars
were found to be 567.2 MPa and 648 MPa, respectively. Coarse sand
obtained from a local river was used as fine aggregate, and gravels of
maximum nominal size of 12.5 mm obtained from the calcareous rock
was used as coarse aggregate. The physical properties of the fine and
coarse aggregates are reported in Table 2. A superplasticiser was also
added in concrete to obtain adequate workability.
3.2. Test specimens
Dimensions and typical reinforcement details of the shear-friction
specimen used in the experimental investigation are shown in Fig. 1
(a). The specimen size was similar to the specimens tested by [4,23,24].
Concrete of target compressive strength of 40 MPa was used for pre­
paring the specimens. Restraining stress produced at the shear plane and
exposure temperature were the two variables. Ambient, 350 ◦ C, 550 ◦ C,
and 750 ◦ C were the four temperatures for each confinement level.
Restraining stress of 3.6–9.1 MPa was provided by using 2, 3, 4, and 5
numbers of 8 mm diameter bars which were uniformly distributed over
the shear plane. The details of the location of the stirrups providing
S. Ahmad et al. Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305

Table 1 Table 2
Summary of the studies conducted on shear-friction of concrete. Physical properties of fine and coarse aggregate.
Author (s) Variables Range of variables Characteristic Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate

Hofbeck et al. (1969) [4] fy fy = 292–456 MPa Bulk specific, gravity 2.59 2.66
f′ c f′ c = 16.5–31.10 Fineness modulus 2.80 6.88
n n = 0–6 Water absorption (%) 0.8 1
db db = 3.2–15.9 mm Density (loose) (kg/m3) 1635 1405
Mattock and Hawkins (1972) ρf y ρfy = 1.33–5.3 MPa Density (compacted) (kg/m3) 1875 1645
[5] f′ c f′ c = 33.5–37.31 MPa
db db = 6.35–9.52 mm
Paulay and Loeber (1974) [6] da da = 9.5 and 19 mm
Aggregate type Round and crushed
Initial crack width wi = 0.13–0.51 mm
(wi)
Mattock et al. (1975) [7] ρf y ρfy = 0.917–4.02 MPa
f′ c f′ c = 26.24–29.10 MPa
σt σt = 0–2.76 MPa
e e = 0–190 mm
Mattock et al. (1976) [8] ρf y ρfy = 0–9.68 MPa
fc
′
f′ c = 15.38–39.80 MPa
Aggregate type LWA and SLWA
Valle and Buyukozturk (1993) ρf y ρfy = 0 and 6.1 MPa
[9] f′ c f′ c = 26.20–34.14 MPa
Fibre type Steel and Polypropylene
Volume of fibres (Vf) Vf = 0 and 1%
Walraven and Stroband (1994) ρf y ρfy = 3.33–14.93 MPa
[10] Initial crack width wi = 0.1–0.4 mm
(wi)
Khaloo and Kim (1997) [11] Vf Vf = 0–1.5%
Aspect ratio (A.R) A.R = 29 and 58
f′ c f′ c = 28–70 MPa
Kahn and Mitchell (2002) [12] ρf y ρfy = 1.76–8.40
f′ c f′ c = 46.93–123.84 MPa
Saenz and Pantelides (2005) CFRP strip width (w) w = 25, 38 and 75 mm
[13] No. of layers (n.l) (n.l) = 1 and 2
Strips per face Strips per face = 1 and 3
Wrapping scheme 4 and 2 sided
Barragan et al. (2006) [14] Weight of fibres (Wf) Wf = 20 and 40 kg/m3
f′ c f′ c = 30 and 70 MPa
Mansur et al. (2008) [15] ρf y ρfy = 1.34–14.13 MPa
f′ c f′ c = 40.2–106.4 MPa
Cuenca and Serna (2010) [16] Wf Wf = 0–60 kg/m3
ρf y ρfy = n.a
wi wi = 0.28–1.76 mm
Sagaseta and Vollum (2011) ρf y ρfy = 2.31–4.68 MPa
[17] Aggregate type gravel and limestone
Smith et al. (2011) [18] Temperature 25–622 ◦ C (fc′ = 23.2
MPa)
Fakitsas et al. (2012) [19] ρf y ρfy = 0–4.21 MPa
f′ c f′ c = 70.7–71.6 MPa
Rr Rr = 0–100%
Xiao et al. (2012) [20] ρf y ρfy = 1.9–3.8 MPa
f′ c f′ c = 14.6–25.7 MPa
Rr Rr = 0–100%
Yang et al. (2012) [21] Aggregate type LWA and SLWA
da da = 8–19 mm
Xiao et al. (2014) [22] f′ c f′ c = 51.8 and 75.2 MPa
Temperature T = 25–800 ◦ C
Rahal and Khaleefi (2015) [23] ρf y ρfy = 0–7.88 MPa
f′ c f′ c = 23.44–43.76 MPa
Rr Rr = 0–100%
Rahal et al. (2016) [24] Concrete type CC and SCC
ρf y ρfy = 0.93–7.88 MPa
f′ c f′ c = 37.15–67.32
Waseem and Singh (2016) [25] ρf y ρfy = 0–6.7 MPa
f′ c f′ c = 30.24–73.60 MPa
Rr Rr = 0–100%
Sneed et al. (2016) [26] Aggregate type LWA and SLWA
ρf y ρfy = 4.48–10.96 MPa
Xiao et al. (2016) [27] f′ c f′ c = 23.43–33.03 MPa
Rr Rr = 0–100%
Ahmad et al. (2018) [28] Temperature 20–500 ◦ C
Ahmad et al. (2018) [29] ρf y ρfy = 0–9.1 MPa

Fig. 1. (a) Reinforcement details and dimensions of the shear-friction spec­

imen; (b) Location details of the stirrups for different restraining stresses.

3
S. Ahmad et al.
different restraining stresses are shown in Fig. 1(b). Two companion
specimens for each restraining stress and temperature level were tested.
Specimens were categorised as A-B-C, in which A signifies the exposure
temperature, B signifies the number of 8 mm bars used as transverse
reinforcement, and C signifies the 1st or 2nd specimen of the identical
confinement and temperature levels.
3.3. Concrete mix
Concrete with a target compressive strength of 40 MPa was used
throughout the experimental programme. Concrete cylinders of 100
mm × 200 mm were prepared along with the shear-friction specimens to
ascertain the compressive strength of concrete. The concrete mix con­
tained 400 kg/m3 of cement, 825 kg/m3 of fine aggregate, and 1004 kg/
m3 of coarse aggregate. The water-to-cement ratio was 0.42, and 0.2% of
superplasticiser was also used.
3.4. Heating and testing of the specimens
After 28 d curing, specimens were air-dried for a month to evade
excess moisture from the concrete which may result in explosive spal­
ling. The cured and dried samples were shifted to a programmable
insulated closed electric furnace for the high-temperature tests. Heating
was performed at 5 ◦ C per min to avoid higher thermal gradients, which
may result in explosive spalling [43–45]. One k-type thermocouple was
installed in the furnace, and three k-type thermocouples were installed
in the specimen to record the temperature. The location details of the
thermocouples installed in the specimens are shown in Fig. 2. The supply
to the furnace was discontinued when the temperature of three locations
inside the specimen became equal to the target temperature. The door of
the furnace was opened slightly to cool the samples naturally up to the
ambient temperature. Specimens were exposed to steady-state temper­
atures of 350 ◦ C, 550 ◦ C, and 750 ◦ C because previous studies [22,28]
reported that the exposure up to 250 ◦ C had an insignificant effect on the
shear-friction of concrete. RILEM TC-200HTC [39] reported that in
accidental conditions, reinforced concrete might be exposed up to
750 ◦ C.
Fig. 2. Heating condition and location of thermocouples in a specimen.
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Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305
Shear-friction specimens were equipped with two LVDTs, one on
each face to record the crack width and crack slip at the shear plane, as
shown in Fig. 3. To measure the crack slip and crack width one LVDT
each was mounted on a clip angle glued to the one side of the shear
plane, and the tip of LVDT was resting on the other clip angle glued to
the other side of shear plane. Position of LVDT to record the crack slip
was chosen identical to the pioneering work of Mattock and associates
[4,5,8]. For the measurement of crack width, several researchers have
used one LVDT [11,14,25] while some other researchers [10,22] have
used two or three LVDTs along the shear plane length and reported the
average crack width. In the present study, a comparative analysis of
crack slip and crack width was performed; therefore, one LVDT has been
used in all the specimens at the same location. All the samples were
tested in a UTM in displacement control mode with a rate of deformation
of 1 mm/min. The loading on the specimens was continued beyond the
peak load until the load became constant. The data was collected
through an automatic data acquisition system. All the specimens failed
due to the crushing of concrete in the shear plane, followed by the
yielding of transverse reinforcement provided across the shear plane.
Specimens during testing are shown in Fig. 4.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Thermal behaviour
The heating-cooling curves for furnace and different locations in the
specimens are illustrated in Fig. 5. The temperature of thermocouples
embedded in specimens increased at a slower pace than the furnace
owing to the lower thermal conductivity of the concrete. It may be
observed that the temperature of the thermocouple T1 increased earlier
than that of T2 since T1 is nearer to the upper heating face. The tem­
perature of the thermocouple T2 increased earlier than that of T3
because T2 is closer to the surface of the specimen. The steady-state was
attained when the temperatures of the three thermocouples T1, T2, and
T3 became equal to the target temperature. In all the specimens, the
development of temperature was at a slower pace in the first 60 min
because the temperature difference between the specimen surface and
the furnace wall was very small. Afterwards, the rate of temperature
development increased owing to a higher temperature difference be­
tween the furnace wall and specimen. The temperature increased slowly
in about the last 50 min owing to the smaller temperature difference
between the specimen surface and the furnace wall. Heated specimens
showed surface cracking due to the thermal incompatibility of the
cement paste and the aggregates. Surface cracks were more prominent in
the specimens exposed to 750 ◦ C, as shown in Fig. 6. The restraining
stress had an insignificant effect on the surface cracks arising due to
temperature rise because the heating rate for all the specimens was kept
identical.
4.2. Overall behaviour of the specimens
The failure pattern of all the specimens was similar. The crack width
and slip were not perceived initially. During loading, small flexural
cracks were detected in the vertical limbs of the shear-friction speci­
mens, as presented in Fig. 7. Elevated temperature results in the soft­
ening of concrete [44]; therefore, flexural cracks observed in heated
specimens were more significant. Due to sufficient flexural (main) steel,
none of the specimens exhibited flexural failure. The further increase of
load resulted in the formation of short diagonal tension inclined to the
shear plane at approximately 30–40◦ , as shown in Fig. 7. Formation of
concrete struts between these inclined cracks rotated because of the
elongation of transverse reinforcement resulting in the longitudinal and
transverse movement of the two halves. Specimens with different
restraining stresses tested after exposure to various temperatures are
shown in Fig. 8. Spalling of the surface concrete due to the detaching of
concrete struts was also observed. It may be perceived from Fig. 8 that
S. Ahmad et al.
Fig.3. Details of the experimental setup.
(a) Front view (b) Rear view
Fig. 4. Specimens under test.
the specimens with a higher amount of restraining stress exhibited
higher spalling. Moreover, specimens tested after exposure to elevated
temperatures exhibited heavy spalling than the specimens tested at
ambient temperature conditions. Table 3 indicates the results of the
experimental study. Compressive strength obtained from the testing of
100 mm × 200 mm concrete cylinders is fc. Standard compressive
strength in different design codes [46–48] is taken as the compressive
strength of 150 mm × 300 mm concrete cylinders. Therefore, the cor­
responding standard compressive strengths were also calculated using
the relationship proposed in Yi et al. (2006) [49].
4.3. Effect of temperature on the shear strength
Fig. 9 illustrates the loss in normalised shear strength for various
amount of transverse reinforcement after exposure to elevated temper­
atures. For the specimens with restraining stress of 3.6 MPa, loss in shear
strength of concrete after exposure to 350 ◦ C, 550 ◦ C, and 750 ◦ C was
found to be 8.1%, 18.53%, and 40.62%, respectively. When restraining
stress increases to 5.5 MPa, shear strength loss for 350 ◦ C, 550 ◦ C, and
750 ◦ C exposure temperatures were reduced to 5.97%, 14.22%, and
39.33%, respectively. Shear resistance of reinforced concrete is
composed of the contribution of concrete and steel [9]. Concrete
strength reduces earlier and at a faster rate than the strength of rein­
forcing steel when exposed to elevated temperatures [31,35]. Therefore,
specimens with lower restraining stress indicated a higher loss in
5
Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305
strength after each temperature level. Chang et al. (2006) [50] found
that the reduction in compressive strength of concrete was 85% after
exposure to 800 ◦ C. Tao et al. (2012) [35] reported that the yield
strength of reinforcing steel was reduced by 19% after exposure to
800 ◦ C. Alimrani and Balazs (2020) [51] tested push-off specimens
without transverse reinforcement and observed that the reduction in
shear strength was 88% after exposure to 700 ◦ C. It may also be noticed
that increasing the restraining stress beyond 5.5 MPa does not show any
reduction in the shear strength loss of concrete. Many studies reported in
the literature suggested that increasing the magnitude of restraining
stress beyond a critical value does not show a considerable increase in
the shear strength of concrete [5,7,8,12,15,46,47]. Therefore, the
models available in literature put an upper bound restriction on the
shear strength of concrete.
4.4. Effect of temperature on crack deformation
Fig. 10 presents the shear stress-crack width and shear stress-crack
slip response curves for various shear-friction specimens. Dashed lines
of the same colour show curves of the companion specimens. Transverse
and longitudinal movements arising at the shear plane are the crack
width (w) and crack slip (s), respectively. It is evident from Fig. 10 that
the crack slip and crack width started at a lower magnitude of shear
stresses when specimens were exposed to elevated temperatures. The
rise in temperature leads to the reduction of shear stress at which the
longitudinal or transverse movement of the shear plane started. This
observation suggests that as the exposure temperature increases, the
initial stiffness of the shear plane decreases. From Table 3 and Fig. 10, it
may also be noted that the increase in exposure temperature not only
reduces the shear strength but also increases the deformation of the
shear plane at all the stress levels. In other words, lower and ductile
shear transfers occurred in the specimens after experiencing high tem­
peratures. Similar observations were made in the investigations where
concrete was tested in uniaxial compression after high temperatures
[51–53]. The transfer of shear stresses across a shear plane involves the
contribution of concrete cohesion, aggregate interlock, and the trans­
verse reinforcement provided across the shear plane [29]. When con­
crete comes in contact with high temperatures, cement paste shrinks due
to the evaporation of moisture and aggregates expand. This thermal
incompatibility between the cement paste and aggregates results in the
development of crack at the interfacial transition zone of concrete [30].
S. Ahmad et al. Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305

T1 T2 T3 Furnace T1 T2 T3 Furnace

400 600

Temperature (oC)

Temperature (oC)
300 450

200 300

100 150
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 400 800 1200 1600
Time (min) Time (min)
T1 T2 T3 Furnace

800

Temperature (oC) 600

400

200

0
0 350 700 1050 1400 1750
Time (min)

Fig. 5. Heating-cooling curves.

Cracking of the interfacial transition zone leads to the reduction of

Fig. 6. Cracking observed on the surface of the specimens.
aggregate interlock. Cracks in concrete developed due to the thermal
stresses also reduce the bond between steel and concrete [22]. More­
over, temperatures higher than 500 ◦ C also reduces the restraining ac­
tion provided by transverse reinforcement due to the reduction of the
yield strength of steel [35,38].
The stress at larger slip levels where load becomes stable is the post-
ultimate strength of the specimen. Fig. 10 indicates that the post-
ultimate strength of the specimens was found to be unaffected for
350 ◦ C and 550 ◦ C but was found to be reduced for an elevated tem­
perature of 750 ◦ C. Transverse reinforcement provided across the shear
plane mainly contributes to the post-ultimate strength [24]. It has been
widely reported in the literature [35–38] that the exposure of steel up to
550 ◦ C does not reduce its residual strength. Therefore, exposure tem­
perature up to 550 ◦ C did not show any reduction in the post-ultimate
strength of the specimens.

5. Analytical investigation

5.1. Failure theories

Failure theories are of great importance for engineering applications

Fig. 7. Flexural and diagonal tension cracks in a specimen during loading.
and the effective utilisation of the materials. Mainly for the design of
structures, a reliable strength prediction method for various combina­
tions of stresses is always essential. For the estimation of concrete
strength under combined stresses, various theories of failure are sug­
gested in the literature for which failure envelopes are constructed
[40,54–56]. Failure will occur if a Mohr’s circle representing a stress
condition in concrete becomes tangent to the failure envelope. Cowan
[54] observed two different modes of failure in concrete; shear fracture
and pure cleavage and proposed a failure envelope for concrete, as
shown in Fig. 11. The proposed envelope is a combination of Rankine’s
maximum stress theory and Coulomb’s internal friction theory. There­
fore, the failure envelope of Cowan comprises two parts; a vertical line
parallel to the shear stress axis, which is tangent to the pure shear circle
and, a line inclined at an angle, ф to the normal stress axis which is
tangent to the circle of uniaxial compression. The angle of internal
friction (ф) of average concrete was assumed to be 37◦ . Cowan’s failure
envelope indicates that there is a particular state of stress at which

6
S. Ahmad et al. Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305

350-2-B 550-2-B 750-2-A

A-2-A

350-3-A 550-3-2 750-3-A

A-3-B

350-4-B 550-4-B 750-4-B

A-4-A

A-5-B 350-5-A 750-5-A

550-5-A

Fig. 8. Specimens tested after different temperatures.

concrete failure changes abruptly from pure cleavage to shear fracture element under the shear plane is also shown. The exact stress distribu­
type. Zia [40] attempted to develop a unified and yet simple theory in tion is not known, therefore, averaged stresses are used
which abrupt change in failure from pure cleavage to shear fracture type
Vu
was reduced, as shown in Fig. 11. v= (1)
BL
Hofbeck et al. (1969) [4] suggested a slight modification in the Zia
failure envelope and used it for the prediction of shear strength of un­ Vu
cracked concrete interface. The modification was that the tangent from σy = (2)
BW
the shear stress axis is to be drawn to the circle representing uniaxial
tension instead of a pure shear circle. The subsequent section demon­ σ x = ρf y (3)
strates how the failure envelope is developed for a state of stress.
Consider a shear-friction specimen of thickness B, width W, and the
v, is the shear stress acting on the element (MPa).
shear plane length L, as shown in Fig. 12. The state of stress on a concrete

7
S. Ahmad et al. Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305

Table 3
Details of the specimens and summary of the results.
Specimen fc (N/mm2) fc′ (N/mm2) ρ fy (N/mm2) Vu (kN) vu (N/mm2) Average vu (N/mm2) su (mm) wu (mm)

A− 2− A 43.98 42.6 3.6 260.9 8.35 8.67 0.36 0.51

A− 2− B 43.98 42.6 3.6 280.6 8.98 0.29 0.25
350− 2− A 42.28 39.02 3.6 215.7 6.9 7.3 0.36 0.78
350− 2− B 42.28 39.02 3.6 239.6 7.67 0.34 0.53
550− 2− A 40.28 39.02 3.6 188.8 6.04 6.47 0.48 1.06
550− 2− B 40.28 39.02 3.6 215.6 6.9 0.39 0.79
750− 2− A 41.43 40.13 3.6 157.8 5 4.85 0.54 1.48
750− 2− B 41.43 40.13 3.6 145.3 4.7 0.61 1.35
A− 3− A 43.98 42.6 5.5 315.6 10.1 9.7 0.49 0.29
A− 3− B 43.98 42.6 5.5 290.6 9.3 0.33 0.43
350− 3− A 41 39.7 5.5 279 8.9 8.5 0.78 0.65
350− 3− B 41 39.7 5.5 253.1 8.1 0.69 0.45
550− 3− A 38.22 37.02 5.5 204.7 6.55 7.23 0.44 0.87
550− 3− B 38.22 37.02 5.5 246.56 7.9 0.79 1.01
750− 3− A 39.76 38.51 5.5 172.2 5.5 5.32 0.68 1.82
750− 3− B 39.76 38.51 5.5 160.94 5.15 0.55 1.4
A− 4− A 41.83 40.51 7.3 342.8 10.97 11.13 0.62 0.42
A− 4− B 41.83 40.51 7.3 353.1 11.3 0.55 0.35
350− 4− A 38.21 37.01 7.3 310.3 9.9 9.55 0.94 0.82
350− 4− B 38.21 37.01 7.3 287.5 9.2 0.54 0.57
550− 4− A 38.73 37.51 7.3 283.8 9.08 8.75 0.69 0.91
550− 4− B 38.73 37.51 7.3 263.1 8.42 0.77 0.66
750− 4− A 38.33 37.12 7.3 215.6 6.9 6.14 0.66 1.2
750− 4− B 38.33 37.12 7.3 168.1 5.38 0.71 1.81
A− 5− A 41.83 40.51 9.1 384.4 12.3 12.15 0.55 0.41
A− 5− B 41.83 40.51 9.1 374.4 12 0.63 0.29
350− 5− A 39.75 38.5 9.1 310.9 9.95 10.5 0.64 0.55
350− 5− B 39.75 38.5 9.1 343.75 11 0.62 0.87
550− 5− A 38.73 37.51 9.1 258.4 8.26 9.08 0.55 0.78
550− 5− B 38.73 37.51 9.1 309.7 9.9 0.59 0.96
750− 5− A 39.35 38.11 9.1 193.8 6.2 6.7 0.63 1.63
750− 5− B 39.35 38.11 9.1 225 7.2 0.83 1.4

OA inclined at an angle tan− 1 (W L ) to the normal stress axis. A circle

350 C 550 C 750 C
45 drawn tangent to the failure envelop will cut line OA at a point (v, σy ) for
40 stress condition at failure denoted by that circle. From the point (v, σ y ) a
(%)

35 line is drawn through the center of that circle cutting at a point (v, ρf y ) on
30 the opposite side of that circle. Repeating the above process for several
Loss in normalized

25 circles will establish the succession of point (v, ρf y ). A line through these
20 points will give a relationship between v and ρf y .
15 Compressive strength, tensile strength, and angle of internal friction
of concrete after elevated temperatures are required to use to the
10
modified Zia failure analysis for the estimation of shear strength of
5
concrete. The modified Zia failure analysis for an elevated temperature T
0
is represented in Fig. 13(b).
3.6 5.5 7.3 9.1
Restraining stress (N/mm2) 5.2. Residual compressive and tensile strength of concrete after elevated
temperatures
Fig. 9. Loss in normalised shear strength of specimens at different confine­
ment levels.
For the specimens tested at ambient temperature the uniaxial
√̅̅̅̅
Vu , is the ultimate load (N). compressive and tensile strength were taken as 0.85f′ c and 0.56 f ’c
σ y , is the normal stress due to the ultimate load (MPa). MPa, respectively, as reported by Hofbeck et al. (1969) [4]. Exposure of
σ x , is the normal stress arising at the shear plane due to the concrete to elevated temperatures results in the degradation of its me­
restraining stress (MPa). chanical properties. Therefore, after experiencing a high-temperature T,
the compressive strength and tensile strength of concrete are f′ cT and ftT,
The objective is to determine the combination of stresses, which will respectively. Model of Eurocode 4 [57,58] is used to calculate the re­
result in the failure of concrete lying under the shear plane. Failure sidual compressive strength f′ cT and residual tensile strength is assumed
envelops consist of two parts, as shown in Fig. 13(a). The first part is a √̅̅̅̅̅̅
to be 0.56 f ’cT MPa.
line tangent to the Mohr’s circle representing the uniaxial compressive
strength of concrete, inclined at an angle ф degrees to the normal stress f ’cT = φf ’c (4)
axis, where, ф is the angle of internal friction of concrete. Hofbeck et al.
(1969) [4] considered ф = 37 degrees for concrete. The second part is a φ = kcT
◦
20 C ≤ T < 100 C
◦
(5)
tangent drawn from the point of intersection of shear stress axis and line
1 to the Mohr’s circle representing the concrete tensile strength. For a (T − 100)
(6)
◦ ◦

particular shear-friction specimen, σvy (= WL ) is constant, therefore points

φ = 1 − 0.235
200
; 100 C ≤ T < 300 C

on the Mohr’s circle at failure corresponding to v and σy will lie on a line

8
S. Ahmad et al. Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305

Amb-2-A Amb-2-B 350-2-A 350-2-B Amb-2-A Amb-2-B 350-2-A 350-2-B

550-2-A 550-2-B 750-2-A 750-2-B 550-2-A 550-2-B 750-2-A 750-2-B
10 10

8 8

(MPa)
6
(MPa)

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Slip (mm) Crack width (mm)

Amb-3-A Amb-3-B 350-3-A 350-3-B Amb-3-A Amb-3-B 350-3-A 350-3-B

550-3-A 550-3-B 750-3-A 750-3-B 550-3-A 550-3-B 750-3-A 750-3-B
12 12

10 10

8 8
(MPa)

(MPa)
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Slip (mm) Crack width (mm)
Amb-4-A Amb-4-B 350-4-A 350-4-B Amb-4-A Amb-4-B 350-4-A 350-4-B
550-4-A 550-4-B 750-4-A 750-4-B
550-4-A 550-4-B 750-4-A 750-4-B
12
12
10
10
8 8
(MPa)

(MPa)

6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Slip (mm) Crack width (mm)
Amb-5-A Amb-5-B 350-5-A 350-5-B Amb-5-A Amb-5-B 350-5-A 350-5-B
550-5-A 550-5-B 750-5-A 750-5-B 550-5-A 550-5-B 750-5-A 750-5-B
14 14

12 12

10 10
(MPa)

8
(MPa)

8
6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Slip (mm) Crack width (mm)

Fig. 10a. Shear stress- crack slip curves. Fig. 10b. Shear stress- crack width curves.

φ = 0.9kcT ; T ≥ 300 C
◦
(7) 5.3. Angle of internal friction of concrete (фT) after elevated temperatures

where kcT is the reduction factor based on exposure temperature. For Most of the models suggested in the literature are similar to the
calcareous concrete, kcT may be obtained from Table 3.1 of EN 1992-1-2 Mohr-Coulomb equation, assigning the shear strength of concrete as a
[58]. combination of cohesion and friction.
vu = c + μρf y (8)
For 350 ◦ C; kcT = 0.88 and f′ c = 31.68 MPa
For 550 ◦ C; kcT = 0.67 and f′ c = 24.12 MPa where μ is the coefficient of friction (=tan φ).
For 750 ◦ C; kcT = 0.31 and f′ c = 12.60 MPa φ for different elevated temperatures (φT) may be calculated from the

9
S. Ahmad et al. Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305

Fig. 11. Cowan’s and Zia’s failure theories.

Fig. 12. A shear-friction specimen and the state of stress in a concrete element
under a shear plane.

Fig. 13b. Modified Zia failure analysis for elevated temperatures.

Amb 350 C 550 C 750 C

0.35
y = 0.12+0.83x
0.3 y = 0.1+0.78x
0.25
y = 0.08+0.72x
0.2

0.15 y = 0.05+0.57x
0.1

0.05
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Fig. 14. Linear relationships between shear strength and normal stress for
Fig. 13a. Modified Zia failure analysis for ambient temperature. different temperatures.

slope of linear relationships between shear strength and restraining Comparing the equations obtained for various elevated temperatures
stress, as shown in Fig. 14. One point represents the average of the two shown in Fig. 14 with the Mohr-Coulomb equation (Eq. (8)), the
specimens tested for particular confinement. following values of μ may be obtained

10
S. Ahmad et al. Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305

For ambient; μA = 0.83 Eqn.10 Eqn.12

◦
45
For 350 C; μ350 = 0.78
◦
For 550 C; μ550 = 0.72 30

(degrees)
◦
For 750 C; μ750 = 0.57
The variation of μ with temperature is shown in Fig. 15, from where 15
the following relationship between μ and T may be determined

μT = − 6 × 10− 7 T 2 + 0.0001T + 0.82 (9) 0

− 1 − 7 2
ϕT = tan (− 6 × 10 T + 0.0001T + 0.82)
Several studies performed for the evaluation of ф suggests that
concrete strength is the main parameter affecting the angle of internal
friction of concrete. Doran et al. (1998) [59] proposed a range of 25–38
degrees for the angle of internal friction of conventional concrete.
Mahboubi and Ajorloo (2005) [60] determined an angle of internal
friction of 30.5 degrees for concrete after 28 days of curing and 29.7
degrees after 150 days of curing. Arslan (2007) [61] calculated an angle
of internal friction of 33 degrees for the concrete having a compressive
strength of 22.5 MPa. Recently, Pul et al. (2017) [62] conducted an
extensive experimental investigation to determine the relationship be­
tween the angle of internal friction and the compressive strength of
concrete. Concrete compressive strength was varied between 14.4 MPa
and 47 MPa. The following relationship was proposed between the angle
of internal friction and concrete compressive strength.
ϕ = (0.276f cc + 25.967)degrees
where fcc is the compressive strength of concrete cubes of 150 mm ×
150 mm × 150 mm.
For the calculation of the angle of internal friction of concrete after
elevated temperature T, Eq. (8) may be modified as follows
ϕT = (0.276fccT + 25.967)degrees
where fccT is the cube compressive strength of concrete after elevated
temperature T.
The compressive strength of concrete corresponding to an elevated
temperature obtained in Section 5.2 is substituted in Eq. (12) for the
calculation of φ. The compressive strength of concrete cylinders was
converted to the compressive strength of concrete cubes by using the
relationship proposed in Eurocode [57] (i.e., fcc = 1.2f′ c). The values of φ
obtained for various temperatures are:
ϕA = 39.76 degrees; ϕ350 = 36.9 degrees; ϕ550 = 34.3 degrees; and
ϕ750 = 30.3 degrees
It will be interesting to compare the values of ф for different tem­
perature levels obtained from Eq. (10) with those obtained from Eq.
(12). Fig. 16 compares the values of φ calculated using Eqs. (10) and
1
0.8
0.6
y = -6E-07x2 + 0.0001x + 0.8254
0.4 R² = 0.99
0.2
0
0 200 400 600 800
Temperature (oC)
Fig. 15. Relationship between μ and T.
0 200 400 600 800
(10)
Temperature ( C)
Fig. 16. Comparison of φT obtained using Eqs. (10) and (12).
(12). It is noteworthy that Eqs. (10) and (12) yielded approximately
equal values of the angle of internal friction after elevated temperatures.
Therefore, for the construction of the modified Zia failure envelope, Eq.
(10) may be used for the evaluation of фT.
6. Estimation of shear strength
6.1. Modified Zia analysis
The method explained in Section 5.1 is used to draw the failure en­
velopes for different temperatures using the temperature-dependent
properties of concrete. The temperature-dependent properties (f′ cT, ftT,
(11)
and φT) were obtained by using the methods explained in Sections 5.2
and 5.3. Estimated (v, ρfy) relationships for different temperature levels
and the corresponding experimental values are shown in Fig. 17, from
which it is evident that the estimated values of the shear strength of
concrete at all the temperature levels are very close to the experimental
values. The reduction in concrete strength after exposure to high tem­
(12) peratures is more significant than that of steel. Therefore, the reduction
in the uniaxial compressive strength Mohr’s circle size is more than that
of normal stress. From Fig. 17(d), it is evident that in the case of 750 ◦ C,
the Mohr circle for uniaxial compressive strength becomes so small that
the values of normal stress fall beyond the range of failure envelope
constructed with available Mohr’s circles. Therefore, an extrapolated
Mohr’s circle is drawn tangent to the failure envelope with a diameter
larger than that of uniaxial compressive strength to compare the
experimental and predicted residual shear strength of concrete. The
values obtained from (v, ρfy) relationships corresponding to a particular
temperature and normal stress are given in Table 4. Fig. 18(a) also shows
the experimental and predicted residual shear strengths for various
temperatures on abscissa and ordinate, respectively. A 45◦ line is also
shown with 95% confidence lines on each side to observe the accuracy of
the prediction method. It is evident from Fig. 18(a) that the shear
strength values predicted using the modified Zia failure analysis are in
excellent agreement with the experimentally obtained values since most
of the data points are within the 95% confidence line. Moreover, the R-
squared value obtained by the modified Zia failure analysis is 0.97.
6.2. Simple calculation method (SCM)
Several previous studies [63–68] attempted to estimate the residual
capacities of structural members after exposure to elevated tempera­
tures. The estimations were based on the simple calculation method
(SCM) which involved three steps
1. The prediction of the temperature inside the member
2. Computation of residual material properties using the strength
temperature relationships, and

11
S. Ahmad et al. Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305

Fig. 17. Experimental and predicted shear strengths using modified Zia failure analysis (a) Ambient; (b) 350 ◦ C; (c) 550 ◦ C; (d) 750 ◦ C.

diverged from measured results in the cooling phase.

Table 4
Hsu and Lin (2008) [64] proposed an approach for the estimation of
Summary of the predicted shear strengths.
residual flexural and shear strength of reinforced concrete beams. The
Specimen Experimental residual shear strength vu Predicted residual shear temperature at various locations in the beam cross-section was esti­
(N/mm2) strength (N/mm2)
mated by using a heat transfer analysis of the typical fire using a finite
Modified Zia SCM difference method. The ambient temperature models of ACI – 318 [46]
analysis
were used with the residual properties of steel and concrete. The pro­
A–2 8.67 8.45 7.94 posed approach was validated on the beams available in the literature,
A–3 9.7 10.11 9.18 which were tested for post-fire residual flexural and shear strength. The
A-4 11.14 11.74 10.24
A–5 12.14 12.78 11.16
results of residual flexural and shear strength predicted were found to be
350–2 7.29 7.74 7.44 reasonable and conservative.
350–3 8.52 9.38 8.68 Kodur et al. (2010) [65] estimated the post-fire residual flexural
350–4 9.57 10.49 9.74 strength of reinforced concrete beams. The temperature at various lo­
350–5 10.48 11.39 10.66
cations was predicted using a finite element model generated by
550–2 6.47 6.87 6.9
550–3 7.22 7.84 8.13 Dwaikat and Kodur (2008) [66]. The residual strength of beams was
550–4 8.75 8.75 9.16 estimated using the equation of ACI-318 [46] by incorporating the
550–5 9.09 9.62 10.07 temperature-dependent residual properties of concrete and steel. The
750–2 4.85 4.42 5.86 proposed approach predicted residual capacity of beams with an accu­
750–3 5.33 5.07 7.01
750–4 6.14 5.58 7.98
racy that is sufficient to be used for practical applications.
750–5 6.7 5.98 8.83 Aslani and Samali (2013) [67] proposed a model for the prediction of
the bond between steel and concrete at elevated temperature by incor­
porating the residual properties of concrete and steel in the ambient
3. The computation of residual strength by incorporating the residual temperature bond-slip model. The developed model was used for the
strength parameters (f′ cT, fyT) in the strength models of ambient prediction of experimental results reported in the literature. It was found
temperature conditions. that the proposed model predicted the experimental bond-slip at
elevated temperatures with reasonable accuracy.
Lie et al. (1986) [63] tested reinforced concrete columns for the post- Ahmad et al. (2018) [68] predicted the residual shear capacity of
fire residual strength and axial deformations. An approach for the esti­ reinforced concrete joints tested by Smith et al. (2011) [18] and Xiao
mation of residual strength and axial deformation was also suggested by et al. (2014) [22]. The ambient temperature model of shear capacity was
incorporating the residual properties of steel and concrete in ambient used by incorporating the residual strengths of concrete and steel. The
temperature models. The estimated post-fire strengths of columns were average ratio of experimental to calculated shear capacities was 1.10,
found to be in good agreement with the experimental results. The pre­ with a coefficient of variation of 11%.
dicted axial deformations during the fire were found to be precise but In the present study, specimens were heated to achieve a steady-state

12
S. Ahmad et al. Engineering Structures 225 (2020) 111305

Amb 350 C 550 C 750 C Amb 350 C 550 C 750 C

14 14
R2 = 0.97 R2 = 0.84
12 12
95%
(N/mm2)

(N/mm2)
10 confidence line 10

8 8

p
p

95% confidence
6 6 line

4 4
4 6 8 10 12 14 4 6 8 10 12 14
u (N/mm2) u (N/mm2)
(a) Modified Zia failure analysis (b) Simple calculation method
Fig. 18. Predicted and experimental residual shear strengths.

condition of known temperature. Therefore SCM for the present case
will involve only the following two steps
1. Calculation of residual mechanical properties of steel and concrete
and
2. Calculation of residual shear strength with ambient temperature
model incorporating the residual mechanical properties of steel and
concrete obtained through step 1.
Numerous models are available in the literature for the prediction of
shear strength of concrete at ambient temperature. A comparison of
these models has shown that the model proposed by Ahmad et al. (2018)
[29] provides an accurate and conservative estimate of the shear
strength of a concrete interface.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
vu = (0.06f ’c + 2.9 ρf y )MPa ≤ 0.3f ’c (13)
Eurocode 4 [57,58] model (Eqs. (4)–(7)) was used to obtain residual
concrete compressive strength while the following model proposed by
Tao et al. (2012) [35] was used for the evaluation of residual yield
strength of reinforcement after exposure to elevated temperatures.
transverse reinforcement up to 5.5 MPa reduced the shear strength
loss at all the temperature levels.
2. Exposure temperature up to 550 ◦ C did not show any reduction in the
post-ultimate strength of the specimens. Post-ultimate strength of the
specimens was found to be reduced by 20–30% after an exposure
temperature of 750 ◦ C.
3. After exposure to elevated temperatures, shear plane stiffness was
found to be decreased, and the crack deformations at all the load
levels were increased.
4. ф for concrete was found to be reduced with the increase in tem­
perature. Equation of Pul et al. incorporating the residual concrete
compressive strength provided precise estimates of ф for all the
temperature levels.
5. Modified Zia failure analysis with the residual compressive and
tensile strength and фT provided accurate estimates of the shear
strength of specimens for all the temperature levels.
6. SCM yielded precise estimates of the shear strength at ambient and
after exposure to 350 ◦ C and 550 ◦ C. It was also found that the SCM
over-estimated the shear strength of specimens exposed to 750◦ C by
20–30%.

f yT
(14a) CRediT authorship contribution statement
◦
= 1; T ≤ 500 C
fy

f yT Subhan Ahmad: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis,

(14b)
◦

fy
= 1 − 5.82 × 10− 4 (T − 500); T > 500 C
The values of residual shear strength for different specimens calcu­
lated from SCM are given in Table 4. Fig. 18(b) shows that the SCM
method provides precise estimates of the shear strength for specimens
tested at ambient temperature and after exposure to 350 ◦ C and 550 ◦ C
with an R-squared value of 0.84. Moreover, the predicted values of re­
sidual shear strength for 750 ◦ C using SCM are 20–30% higher than the
experimental values. The model given in Eq. (13) assumes that failure
would occur after the yielding of restraining steel, which may be un­
likely for the samples exposed to 750 ◦ C. For an exposure temperature of
750 ◦ C, concrete experiences severe thermal damage; therefore, the
failure may have occurred due to the crushing of concrete before
reaching the yield stress in the reinforcement.
7. Conclusions
From the experimental and analytical studies performed in this
paper, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The ultimate shear strength of the specimens was found to be
decreased as the exposure temperature was increased. An increase in
Investigation, Writing - original draft. Pradeep Bhargava: Resources,
Supervision, Funding acquisition. Ajay Chourasia: Visualization. Asif
Usmani: Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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