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Fire design of high strength concrete walls

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 FEATURE: CONCRETE PERFORMANCE IN FIRE

Fire design of high strength concrete walls

Priyan Mendis, Quynh Thuy Nguyen, Tuan Ngo, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

High-strength concrete (HSC) is becoming very popular around the world due to its many advantages over normal strength
concrete (NSC). There are significant behavioural differences between HSC and NSC, most notably the brittleness and sudden
spalling under elevated temperatures, whereby pieces of hardened concrete explosively dislodge. The spalling of high strength
concrete walls in fire has generally been ignored by the designers and the fire-resistance of walls has been calculated using the rules
specified for normal strength concrete. Major design codes including the Australian Code do not cover spalling adequately. After a
brief discussion on the status of research, general observations on spalling are summarised. Relevant results from a comprehensive
study conducted at the University of Melbourne are briefly discussed. This is the first systematic testing program covering the fire
behaviour of NSC and HSC walls exposed not only to standard fires but also hydrocarbon fires. It is shown that fire-induced
spalling may lead to serious reduction in the cross-section of structural elements and could lead to early catastrophic failure.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The performance of concrete structures in fire has become
increasingly significant in the past decade. This is due in
part to the increased incidence of accidental fires, explosions
and the trend to build high-rise structures. The types of fires
evident have exceeded the scope of standard fire tests and
in many recent events are those of the hydrocarbon type.
There is an increasing use of load-bearing reinforced high-
strength concrete (HSC) walls in the design of buildings. The
increase in HSC (f ’c > 50 MPa) use is because it has many
advantages and it has also become easier to manufacture, due
to the availability of a variety of pozzolanic admixtures such
as micro-silica and high-range super-plasticisers. The reason
for the popularity of using load-bearing reinforced HSC walls
is mainly due to the trend towards reinforced concrete core
walls in high-rise buildings and the increased acceptance of
tilt-up and other types of precast structures. In addition to
providing a load-bearing function, these walls usually provide
a fire separating function between compartments in modern
structures, and they must therefore satisfy all three fire safety
requirements, namely integrity, insulation and structural
adequacy, at high temperatures.1
Despite the increasing use of load-bearing HSC walls in
buildings, there have been only very few investigations reported
on HSC walls subjected to fire conditions, both locally and
internationally.2-5
1.1 Fire resistance of high-strength concrete
According to the wide ranging research studies conducted
over a number of years, the material properties of HSC vary
differently with temperature as compared to those of normal
strength concrete (NSC).6-11 Meda et al.12 studied the ultimate
behaviour of HSC sections at high temperature and after
cooling subjected to several fire durations. They concluded
that HSC sections are more temperature-sensitive than NSC
sections. Results indicated that losses in relative strength
due to high-temperature exposure were affected by the test
condition and water/cement ratio, but there were significant
interactions among other main factors that resulted in
complex behaviours.13 These complex behaviours were believed
to be linked to heat-induced transformations and transport
of free and chemically combined water. The differences are
more pronounced in the temperature range of between 25 °C
to about 400 °C, where higher strength concretes have higher
rates of strength loss than lower strength concretes. These
differences become less significant at temperatures above
400 °C. Compressive strengths of HSC at 800 °C decrease to
about 30% of the original room temperature strengths. The
difference between the compressive strength versus temperature
relationships of normal weight and lightweight aggregate
appears to be insignificant, based on the limited amount of
existing test data. The tensile strength versus temperature
relationships decreases similarly and almost linearly with
temperature for HSC and NSC. HSC mixtures with micro-
silica have higher strength loss with increasing temperatures
than HSC mixtures without micro-silica. The failure of HSC
is more brittle than NSC at temperatures up to 300 °C. With
further increase in temperature, specimens exhibit a more
gradual failure mode.
Adverse effects of HSC elements in fire have been described
by many researchers (e.g. Sanjayan).14 According to the results
of laboratory focused fire tests in these research studies, there
are remarkable differences between the properties of HSC and
NSC in terms of the loss of cross-section, the timing of loss
of strength, and the degrees of deformation and spalling at
elevated temperatures. The most notable finding is that HSC
is considered to suffer more seriously from spalling due to fire
than NSC. Fire-induced spalling of concrete is a phenomenon
whereby pieces of hardened concrete explosively dislodge or
fall-off the fire exposed surface of a concrete member during
rapid high temperature exposure. The risk of concrete spalling
at elevated temperature should be considered when designing
structural elements especially high-strength concrete (f ’c >50
MPa). Disintegration of concrete parts due to spalling can cause
serious reduction in the cross-section of structural elements and

38 Concrete in Australia Vol 40 No 3

could lead to early catastrophic failure. The depth of spalled
concrete often far exceeds the cover to the main reinforcement.
The pieces can be large or small and detachment can either
occur explosively or pieces may dislodge and subsequently fall
(Figure 1). The pore pressure generated during fire exposure
in typical high strength concrete columns can reach about 4.5
MPa, while the corresponding pore pressure in conventional
normal strength concrete columns is only about 1 MPa.15
Spalling can take place over the whole surface area of a member
or in localised areas. The risk of spalling is higher in high-
strength concrete due to the following reasons:
(i) Low permeability of HSC retains the moisture inside
the concrete resulting in a high moisture content being
present for prolonged periods.
(ii) Low porosity of HSC creates higher pore pressure.
(iii) HSC tends to be subject to higher compressive stresses
than lower strength concrete.
Whether spalling occurs or not in a particular situation
and the extent of spalling have a random element in them.
Therefore, although the investigations on high-strength
concrete started in mid 1990s, still no comprehensive design
rules are included in design codes. HSC specimens heated at
higher heating rates, such as hydrocarbon fire which occurred
in WTC collapse on September 11, and larger specimens are
more prone to spalling than specimens heated at lower rates
and of smaller size. Ta16 showed that, for HSC, hydrocarbon
fire produces explosive spalling compared to standard fire.
Ko et al.17 investigated the spalling properties of concrete in
relation to surface moisture content. They found that spalling
of high-strength concrete was significantly affected by moisture
transfer in the surface region of concrete and moisture transfer
was found to be closely related to the temperature profiles
resulting from the characteristics of pore structures, which are
the main passages for moisture. They also found that in high-
strength (80 MPa) concrete, the probability of spalling and
scale of damage could be reduced according to dryness in the
surface region (0-30 mm depth).
There are some general observations on spalling,1, 5, 14
summarised below.
The tendency for spalling is high when:
• the element is made of high-strength concrete rather than
normal strength concrete
• cover to reinforcement is increased, especially more than
about 40 mm
• moisture content of the concrete is high
• the temperature rise of the fire is rapid and concrete is
subjected to a high thermal gradient
• concrete is subjected to compressive stress
• when concrete is subjected to a hydrocarbon fire compared
to a standard fire.
Many experimental studies (e.g. Ngo et al.)5 have shown that
the use of polypropylene fibres in the concrete mix reduces
the tendency for spalling. This is due to the fact that the
polypropylene fibres melt during the fire, thus increasing
the internal voids of the concrete and decreasing the vapour
pressure build-up within the concrete. A dosage rate of
1.2 kg/m3 of 6 mm monofilament polypropylene fibres is
Sudden burst due to the Water bound chemically and
steam-pressure physically in cement paste
Figure 1: Behaviour of HSC in Fire.18
recommended to reduce the level of spalling1, although
EN1992-1-2 2004 recommends a higher dosage as stated
below.
1.2 Rules for high-strength concrete in Eurocode
Although not proven by systematic testing, the rules given in
Section 6 of EN1992-1-2 2004 can be used as an initial guide
for high-strength concrete. Strength properties are given in
three classes (f ’c, 50 to 70 MPa, 70 to 90 MPa and equal to
90 MPa) and recommendations against spalling are given for
two ranges of HSC. Where the actual characteristic strength
of concrete is likely to be of a higher class than that specified
in design, the relative reduction in strength for the higher
class should be used for fire design.
Simplified Calculation Method presented in Appendix B of
EN1992-1-2 2004 (500 degree isotherm method, zone method,
curvature method) can be applied for high-strength concrete
with some modification factors.
The following methods are suggested for spalling:
(1) For concrete strengths between 55 to 80 MPa, fire
design rules provided for normal strength concrete apply
if the maximum content of micro-silica is less than 6%
by weight of cement. For higher contents of silica fume
the rules given in (2) apply.
(2) For concrete strengths between 80 and 90 MPa (and can
be assumed to extrapolate up to 100 MPa) spalling can
occur in any situation for concrete exposed directly to
the fire and at least one of the following methods should
be provided:
• Method A: A reinforcement mesh with a nominal cover of
15 mm. This mesh should have wires with a diameter ≥ 2
mm with a pitch ≤ 50 x 50 mm. The nominal cover to the
main reinforcement should be ≥ 40 mm.
• Method B: A type of concrete for which it has been
demonstrated (by local experience or by testing) that no
spalling of concrete occurs under fire exposure.
• Method C: Protective layers for which it is demonstrated that
no spalling of concrete occurs under fire exposure.
• Method D: Include in the concrete mix more than 2 kg/m3
of monofilament propylene fibres.
Concrete in Australia Vol 40 No 3 39
 FEATURE: CONCRETE PERFORMANCE IN FIRE

Table 1: Compressive test and loading details of specimens.

Parameter Specimen code

NSC-SD NSC-HC HSC-SD HSC-HC HSC-PP
Fire test condition Standard Hydro-carbon Standard Hydro-carbon Hydro-carbon
fire fire fire fire fire
Test load (kN) 485 485 970 970 970
Eccentricity (mm) 10 10 10 10 10
Initial moisture content (%) 8.4 8.4 5.7 5.7 5.7
28-day compressive
31.8 31.5 81.8 81.8 84.6
strength (MPa)
Test day compressive
35.6 36.2 87.6 87.6 89.3
strength (MPa)

2. TESTING OF HSC WALLS UNDER
STANDARD AND HYDROCARBON FIRE
Previous research on concrete walls focused on standard fire
testing only. Compared to a standard fire, a hydrocarbon
fire creates a significant increase in temperature in the
initial period of the fire (i.e. it reaches 1000 °C in only
eight minutes). As a result, hydrocarbon fires could have
the potential to create violent explosive spalling in concrete
structures, especially in HSC. The results from fire tests on 10
reinforced concrete wall panels subjected to both standard or
hydrocarbon fires fire, conducted in a PhD project are briefly
discussed here. Two walls were of NSC were axially loaded at
an eccentricity of 10 mm and exposed to both types of fires.
Two identically dimensioned HSC walls were also tested using
these variables. One further HSC wall with polypropylene
fibres (2 kg/m3) added was tested under hydrocarbon fire.
The water/binder ratio was maintained to be 0.59 for NSC
mixes and 0.24 for HSC mixes. 10% micro-silica was used
for HSC specimens. Emphasis was given to observing failure
mode, spalling characteristics, thermal transfer, and wall
displacements. Initial moisture content and slump were also
measured.
Five specimens of 240 x 1000 x 150 mm (height x width x
thickness) were prepared. The details are presented in Table
1. Reinforcement was placed in two layers in both vertical
and horizontal (N16@300mm) directions, with clear cover of
25 mm. All walls were tested in a vertical position in a large
furnace, and supported top and bottom only. Full-scale fire
tests were done with a constant eccentric load of approximately
15-20% of axial load capacity. The loading device consisted of
1000 kN hydraulic jacks mounted on top of the chamber and
transferring the load through a steel beam to the top of the
wall. Temperatures inside the specimens were measured every
minute. Crack propagation, deflections and the occurrence
of spalling were monitored during fire testing via four small
portal openings on the furnace. Thermocouples were secured
into specimen at designed locations as illustrated in Figure 2.
Two different test conditions of standard fire (ISO834) and
hydrocarbon fire were applied to the relevant specimen as given
in Figure 3.
The temperature profiles were more significantly different
when identical HSC and NSC walls were subjected to a
hydrocarbon fire. Figures 4 and 5 show a comparison of heat
transfer within NSC and HSC walls subjected to standard and
hydrocarbon fire. Temperatures were taken throughout the

Figure 2: Positions of thermocouples through the specimen thickness

(dimensions in mm). Figure 3: Standard and hydrocarbon fire curves.

40 Concrete in Australia Vol 40 No 3

Figure 4: Comparison of heat transfer within NSC wall (NSC-SD) and HSC wall (HSC-SD) when subjected to standard fire.

Figure 5: Comparison of heat transfer within NSC wall (NSC-HC), HSC wall (HSC-HC) and HSC wall with PPF (HSC-PP) when subjected to hydrocarbon fire.

thickness of the specimen as indicated in Figure 2. Figure 4(a)
shows the temperature curves recorded at thickness respective
to point 1, 2, and 3 in Figure 2 while figure 4(b) shows the
temperature curves recorded at thickness respective to point
4, 5, 6 and 7 in Figure 2, for standard fire. Figure 5 shows the
temperature curves inside the furnace and temperature recorded
at thickness respective to (a) point 1; (b) point 2 and 3; (c)
point 4 and 5; (d) point 6 and 7 in Figure 2, for hydrocarbon
fire. In general, the temperatures at thermocouples 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6 and 7 in specimen HSC were higher than in specimen
NSC. Probable reasons for this difference are HSC spalled
earlier than NSC when the walls were subjected to fire and the
thermal conductivity of HSC is usually higher than that for
NSC. Severe spalling occurred in the first period of the fire test
HSC-HC, resulting in the temperatures of layers 1, 2, 3 and
4 increasing very quickly. After being subjected to 30 minutes
of hydrocarbon fire, the HSC-HC wall had a spalling depth of
more than 50mm (Figure 6 and Figure 7).

Concrete in Australia Vol 40 No 3 41

 FEATURE: CONCRETE PERFORMANCE IN FIRE
0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35
Figure 6: Depth of spalling of (a-left) NSC-HC (in mm) and (b-right) HSC-HC (in mm).
The results indicate that all concrete wall panels (NSC and
HSC) exposed to the standard fire tests survived the 120 minute
fire period, with low to moderate spalling evident. The NSC
walls exposed to hydrocarbon fires also survived the 120 minute
test whereas the HSC walls experienced severe spalling under
these fire conditions (Figure 6) with failure at 31 minutes. The
addition of polypropylene fibres in the concrete improved the
fire resistance of HSC walls in hydrocarbon fire to 65 minutes.
This result was typical when comparing identical HSC and
NSC test panels subjected to a standard fire test. The possible
reason for the significant differences under hydrocarbon
fire, is that the HSC wall suffered more from early concrete
spalling than its NSC counterpart and therefore was exposed
to increased temperatures within its section at a much earlier
time. Some form of spalling was found to occur within 3 to
25 minutes of the wall being exposed to fire and when the
temperature at the spalling point was in the range 200 °C
to 400 °C.
The experimentally observed time-temperature curves show
that there is a reduction in the rate of temperature increase once
the temperature reaches around 100 °C up to approximately
130 °C. This can be explained by the production of water
vapour at 100 °C, which requires energy to transform from
liquid to gas. In addition, at this point the water from the cooler
inner layers travels to the outside layer, thereby reducing the
heat energy at the outer layer. The results show that specimen
HSC walls failed due to a loss in axial load capacity. There was
a significant loss of cross-section at the point of fracture because
of spalling.
Figure 7: Spalling observed in the HSC specimens.
42 Concrete in Australia Vol 40 No 3
0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
35-40 80-90 90-100 100-110 110-120 120-130 130-140 140-150
Observations on spalling are also applicable to high-strength
concrete columns. Although not covered in this test program,
it has been found that the combination of polypropylene (PP)
fibre and steel fibre (hybrid) exhibited the best performance
for spalling reduction. The hybrid fibre reduced the spalling
activity to minor non explosive occurrence with the degree of
spalling between 8.6-12.4% of the initial column weight. It is
believed that this reduction can be attributed to the steel fibre
resisting the initiation and expansion of cracks in the concrete
matrix while the melting action of the polypropylene fibre
created micro channels in the concrete mass which alleviated
vapour tension. Kodur et al.15 concluded that spalling occurs
only outside the reinforcement cage when the ties are bent at
135° into the concrete core. They also found that the extent
of spalling is dependent on the type of aggregate, and spacing
of ties. The extent of spalling is higher (100%) in the siliceous
aggregate HSC than that for carbonate aggregate HSC (40%).
A research team led by Prof Jannie Van Deventer at the
University of Melbourne has conducted several studies to show
that Geopolymer Concrete possesses superior fire-resistant
properties. Four half-scale E-CreteTM panels (produced by
Zeobond) with dimensions of 1200 x 1200 x 150 mm
(5 panels) and a full-scale 3300 x 3300 x 150 mm were tested
at Victoria University’s fire facility. None of the E-CreteTM
panels showed any evidence of spalling. This is due to the fact
that geopolymer concrete has more connected pores, than
Portland cement concrete when compared at the same strength
level. Hence, the water vapour can escape from the geopolymer
matrix quicker than in Portland cement concrete, resulting in
lower internal pore pressure.
• A very efficient way of designing concrete walls is using
advanced computational dynamics techniques to find the
exact temperature predictions. A computational model
developed by the authors for a typical floor area in a high-
rise building is shown in Figure 8. A natural fire is developed
through the burning of furniture and the ignition point is
indicated in Figure 8. The maximum temperature in the
HSC wall reached only about 700 °C (Figure 9), although
the maximum temperature in a standard fire is more than
1000 °C. Therefore the wall can be designed for a lower
maximum temperature. However, as can be seen from
Figure 9, the wall is within the spalling commencement
zone and design for spalling is essential.
 Figure 8: Computational model of fire in a typical high-rise floor area.
3.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The increased use of high-strength concrete (HSC) with
concrete strengths more than 50 MPa, has necessitated more
dedicated research in this area. Designers have to be aware
of the fact that the HSC sections are more temperature-
sensitive than NSC sections. A PhD project conducted at
the University of Melbourne and other research reviewed in
this paper show that the behaviour of HSC walls subjected
to fire showed reasonably different thermal and structural
characteristics when compared to NSC walls. Disintegration
of concrete parts due to spalling can cause serious reduction
in the cross-section of structural elements and could lead to
early catastrophic failure. Whether spalling occurs or not in a
particular situation and the extent of spalling have a random
element in them. Therefore major concrete standards do
not cover specific design rules for spalling. Specifications in
EN1992–1-2 2004 were summarised. Although not based on
systematic research, these rules are useful for designers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The experimental work presented in this paper was partially
funded by the Vietnamese government and IBST, and
conducted as part of the PhD project of Dr Binh Ta.
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View publication stats
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Concrete in Australia Vol 40 No 3 43