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Residual mechanical strength of concrete exposed to high temperatures -

international standardization and influence of coarse aggregates

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DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122843

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 Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Residual mechanical strength of concrete exposed to high temperatures

– international standardization and influence of coarse aggregates
M.B.S. Sollero ⇑, A.L. Moreno Junior, C.N. Costa
School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil

h i g h l i g h t s

 Controversies in the classification of siliceous aggregates were found.

 Latin American concretes tend to use granite and basalt as siliceous aggregates.
 Granitic and basaltic concretes performed better than other siliceous concretes.
 Factors such as porosity and the type of silica change the aggregate behavior.
 It is necessary to include more data of structures after fires in the standards.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The exposure of concrete to high temperatures affects its mechanical properties, reducing its compressive
Received 17 August 2020 strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity. The reduction factors of these properties have been
Received in revised form 12 January 2021 the target of several studies over the years, producing conflicting results. This article addresses the key
Accepted 23 February 2021
factors related to such disparity, highlighting the influence of standardization and types of coarse aggre-
gates, as well as an overview of the study of the mechanical properties of concrete exposed to high tem-
peratures in the last years, foregrounding research in several countries and Latin American experience.
Keywords:
This article also shows results from a Brazilian experimental study concerning the residual mechanical
Concrete
Mechanical properties
strength of concrete (NSC and HSC) exposed to temperatures from 100 to 900 °C at 1 °C/min, with or
High temperatures without preheating, in which three types of coarse aggregates—basaltic, granitic and limestone—were
Fire used, as well as RILEM recommendations. There is no precedent in Latin America for a study conducted
Aggregates for this purpose and which has applied such international recommendations. Through comparison with
Compressive strength bibliographic references and statistical analysis, the effects of the type of coarse aggregate, preheating of
Modulus of elasticity samples and types of addition being used were evaluated, contributing to the structural analyses of
Tensile strength burning structures.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The exposure of concrete to high temperatures changes the
micro and macro structural properties of the material, be it by acci-
dental conditions such as fire or by thermal project actions.
Heating concrete induces physicochemical changes which ini-
tially affect the hardened cement paste and, in a second moment,
the aggregates being used, according to its type, besides affecting
the resistance of the transition zone between paste and aggregate
[1,2].
When subjected to fire, concrete loses its free or capillary water
through evaporation, from 100 °C up to the range of 200 to 300 °C.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m162909@dac.unicamp.br (M.B.S. Sollero).
When this temperature is exceeded, there is cement gel water loss
and emergence of superficial cracks. At 400 °C, part of the calcium
hydroxide turns into calcium oxide, and up to 600 °C, concrete
spalling and superficial cracks become noticeable [3,4], evidenced
by material friability and easy detachment of aggregates. Cracking
is pronounced at 800 °C, when mass loss is gradual, significantly
increases at 1000 °C, and at 1200 °C the concrete is completely
decomposed [4].
The changes undergone by concrete exposed to high tempera-
tures are reflected in the reduction of the mechanical properties
of the material, implying changes in its structural behavior and
durability. Therefore, characterization of the variation of these
properties is fundamental to evaluate the performance of the
structures during or after fires.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122843
0950-0618/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa
This article reviews changes in concrete mechanical properties in
fire situation, normative precepts and research by international
authors. Also presented are the results of a Brazilian Experimental
Program which evaluated the residual compressive strength of con-
crete specimens with normal strength (NSC) and high strength
(HSC), performed with three different types of coarse aggregates
(granite, basalt and limestone), with and without preheating, exposed
to temperatures of up to 900 °C. Also studied were residual indirect
tensile strength and residual modulus of elasticity, as well as the influ-
ence of aggregate type, addition type and preheating of concrete.
A noteworthy fact is the importance of using basalt, a coarse
aggregate known for its thermal stability and widely used in Brazil
and several other countries, but which is not directly addressed by
standards related to structures in fire situations.
In Brazil, 96% of the crushed rock production is composed of
granitoids (granite, gneiss and others), basalt and diabase [5]. In
Brazilian studies concerning concrete in fire situations, it is com-
mon to use granite [6–10], expanded clay [11], basalt
[12,11,7,13–16] and limestone [17,11,18].
For comparison purposes, in the USA, 68% of coarse aggregate
produced during 2018 corresponded to limestone and dolomite,
15% to granite, 6% to traprock – a term used in the industry to refer
mainly to basalt – 11% to other rocks, with 75% of crushed rock
destined for the construction industry [19]. In Great Britain, 52%
of crushed rock produced in 2014 originated from limestone and
dolomite, 39% from igneous and metamorphic rocks (granite,
dolerite, diorite, basalt, gneiss, schists and quartzites, among
others) and approximately 10% from sandstone. Great Britain is
also known for its huge industry of gravel with different composi-
tions, including quartz, quartzite and flint [20].
2. Changes in mechanical properties of concrete exposed to
high temperatures
Compressive strength, tensile strength and modulus of elastic-
ity of concrete can be significantly affected by temperature rise.
Given that the stability of concrete structures is strongly related
to these material properties, knowledge of their reduction factors
due to temperature increase is very important for designing struc-
tures which must withstand a fire for a period of time and for the
assessment of structures after the occurrence of such phenomena.
ABNT NBR 15200 [21] Brazilian Standard, Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22]
European Standard and ACI 216.1 [23] American Standard show tables
and graphs relating the temperature reached by concrete to the reduc-
tion of concrete mechanical properties, admitting some variations
according to the concrete strength class and, for normal strength con-
crete, according to the type of coarse aggregate being used.
As a distinctive factor, ACI 216.1 [23] also shows reduction fac-
tors of compressive strength achieved in hot unstressed, hot
stressed and unstressed residual conditions. Eurocode 2 part 1–2
Fig. 1. Coefficient kc ; h allowing for decrease of compressive strength (f cj ) of normal strength concrete (NSC) at elevated temperatures – review.
2
Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843
[22] shows reduction factors of tensile strength and stress/strain
ratio of normal strength concrete, as well as compressive strength
of high strength concrete. The Brazilian standard [21] replicates the
reduction factors of compressive strength and stress/strain ratio of
Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22] for specific normal mass concrete—it also
includes that of usual compressive strength, lower than 50 MPa—
and recommends consulting Eurocode 2 part 1–2 for other
situations.
In the case of Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22], it is important to note
that all results supporting the definition of mechanical property
reduction factors were probably obtained through elements tested
under hot stressed condition [24], although they bears greater
resemblance to hot unstressed tests of ACI 216.1 [23].
The mechanical properties of concrete exposed to high temper-
atures have been studied by researchers from various countries for
at least 11 decades: the Portland Cement Association publication
ST32 (1938) mentions results by IH Woolson and CL Norton pre-
sented in 1905/1906 and 1911, respectively [25]. Some of the most
relevant studies since then were published by Malhotra in 1956
[26], by Cruz in 1966, whose results were part of ACI 216R [27],
by Abrams in 1977, the results of which were reproduced in ACI
216-1-07 in 2007 [23], by Diederichs, Jumppanen and Penttala in
1988 [28], by Felicetti and Gambarova in 1998 [29] by Phan and
Carino in 2001 [30] and by Hertz in 2005 [24].
Despite this long history of research, such characteristics
become relevant in light of the fact that the complexity of the sub-
ject has resulted in high dispersion of data for the same properties.
Indeed, the variations of references and parameters adopted pro-
duce results that are difficult to interpret and even conflicting
between various works [2,31].
Possible key factors for this high dispersion of data related to
mechanical properties of concrete in fire situations obtained over
the years include insufficient characterization or description of the
concrete type used and differences in the testing regime employed [2].
In fact, the fib 38 Bulletin [2] claims that it is inappropriate to
refer only to ‘‘concrete” rather than ‘‘concrete type” when studying
its properties following exposure to high temperatures because
changes in parameters of its constituents and mix proportions
can radically affect its behavior.
Fig. 1 shows reduction factors of residual compressive strength
of NSC (kc ; h) from international studies published between 2001
and 2015, compared to forecasts of kc ; h factor proposed by Euro-
code 2 part 1–2 and ACI 216.1 (residual) [22,24,23,32,33].
Fig. 2 shows reduction factors of residual compressive strength
of HSC (kc ; h) from international studies published between 2001
and 2017, compared to forecasts of kc ; h factors of high strength
concrete (C55/67, C60/75 e C70/85, C80/95, adopted as hot
stressed), proposed by Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [30,34,12,22,35–37,16].
Through the analysis of Figs. 1 and 2, it should be noted that
residual compressive strength tends to be lower than that obtained
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa
Fig. 2. Coefficient kc ; h allowing for decrease of compressive strength (f cj ) of high strength concrete (HSC) at elevated temperatures – review.
in hot tests in most of the cases, represented by dashed and dotted
lines on the graphs. Also clearly noted is the sharp drop in strength
from 400 °C and the high dispersion of results, with variations of
up to approximately 40% for the same temperature, considering
only residual concrete properties.
It is stated that the NCS and HSC concrete strength class showed
in Figs. 1 and 2, when not directly informed by the author, was deter-
mined based on the compressive strength of its control core. When
the authors presented results of specimens being cooled in a slow
and fast way, this article opted to use values arising from slow cool-
ing in order to reduce data dispersion. ACI 216-1-07 [23], Hertz [24]
and Schrefler [34] do not detail the form of cooling used. Santos and
Rodrigues [32], Carino and Phan [30] and Almeida [16] cooled the
samples to room temperature or about 20 °C naturally, by opening
the oven; Tolentino et al. [12] used the cooling rate from 10 °C/min
to 200 °C and waited for the samples to reach room temperature with
the oven closed. Hager et al. [36] allowed the samples to cool freely in
the oven. Heap et al. [35] used the cooling rate of 1 °C/min.
Due to the extreme difference in materials and methodologies
employed, this study does not include results arising from fiber con-
cretes, ultrahigh-strength concrete (UHSC) or studied under special
conditions, such as confinement, parameters that have been most fre-
quently addressed in recent years, as revealed by state-of-the-art
reviews by Ma et al. [38] and by Caetano, Santos and Rodrigues [39].
The high dispersion of results was also highlighted by Qureshi
et al. [40], in a research developed to quantify uncertainties in
retained strengths of steel and concrete when exposed to fire. Qur-
eshi et al. developed a statistical model based on the analysis of the
results of 10 studies with siliceous concrete and 7 studies with
limestone concrete carried out between 1957 and 2017. The con-
crete had an initial compressive strength of 20 to 55 MPa and
was tested in hot stressed or hot unstressed conditions. The models
were applied in the study of 2 reinforced concrete columns, check-
ing their fire resistance time. It is stated that it was not the objec-
tive of the study by Qureshi et al. to study the resistance to residual
compression of concrete or to verify its variation as a function of
temperature under conditions other than the elements fire resis-
tance limit, conditions that would apply to the evaluation and
the recovery of structures after the fire. The authors noted that
the median of probabilistic models is consistent with the Eurocode
2 deterministic Eurocode assessment and that, for a
450 x 450 mm2 reinforced concrete column, the temperature-
dependent strength distribution would lead to a fire resistance
ranging between 80 to 376 min.
The extremely significant variation shown by Qureshi et al.[40],
in addition to demonstrating the relevance of probabilistic ana-
lyzes, can be related to the present study because it reflects the
dispersion of the compressive strength results provided by even
small variations in the composition and in the ingredients of the
concrete, such as the type of coarse aggregate and the water to
cement ratio, as well as in the test procedure and the duration of
heating.
3
Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843
The modulus of elasticity (kE ; h) of the concrete exposed to high
temperatures is less studied than the variation of its compressive
strength in fire situation. Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22] and ABNT
NBR 15200 [21] do not present reduction factors for the concrete
modulus of elasticity, focusing on the stress/strain ratio for con-
crete, presumably under hot conditions. In Eurocode 4 part 1–2
[41], it is stated that the secant modulus of elasticity of concrete
exposed to high temperatures can be obtained by dividing the
compressive strength of concrete (fc,h) by the deformation (ecu,
h), both at h °C temperature.
Fib Bulletin 38 [2] and Mehta and Monteiro [1] state that mod-
ulus of elasticity is more sensitive to temperature rise than com-
pressive strength because it is more influenced by cracking in the
transition zone between cement paste and aggregates.
Tensile strength of concrete exposed to high temperatures is
notably less studied than compressive strength and modulus of
elasticity and is frequently neglected, despite its role in concrete
cracking strength and, consequently, in material durability and
susceptibility to spalling [2,34,42].
The reduction factors for tensile strength of concrete exposed to
high temperatures presented by Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22] presum-
ably apply to hot tested concrete and do not represent residual
properties. In fact, Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22] and Eurocode 4 part
1–2 [41] indicate that tensile strength of concrete in fire conditions
can be considered conservatively null; ABNT NBR 15200 [21] and
ACI 216-1-07 [23] do not present factors for reducing tensile
strength of concrete at high temperatures.
3. Influence of coarse aggregate type on concrete residual
mechanical properties
The selection and characterization of the coarse aggregate being
used is probably the most important definition when specifying the
concrete, regarding its performance versus high temperatures [43].
It is possible that two kinds of concrete with similar mechanical
strength have distinct behavior under fire due to changes in the
aggregate type [14]. Cánovas [3] states that the higher the coeffi-
cient of thermal expansion of the aggregates, the greater the dam-
age suffered by the concrete when submitted to high temperatures.
This is because aggregates constitute up to about 80% of the
concrete, offer restriction on cement paste creep and shrinkage,
largely rule its thermal strain and thermal conductivity and influ-
ence the thermal stability of the material [2].
ABNT NBR 15200 [21], ACI 216.1 [23] and Eurocode 2 part 1–2
[22] address mechanical properties of normal strength concrete—
siliceous and limestone or carbonate—in a fire situation.
Razafinjato et al. [44] understand that such a distinction focuses
on properties such as thermal expansion, conductivity, heat capac-
ity and thermal mechanical resistance of the aggregate. Addition-
ally, ACI 216.1 [23] also covers reduction factors related to axial
compressive strength for light concrete in a fire situation.
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa
Siliceous aggregates can be defined as those containing mainly
silica (SiO2, silicon and oxygen combination) and silicates (combi-
nation of silicon, oxygen and other elements), with quartz being a
silicate phase in its crystalline form [45].
Regarding siliceous aggregates, the degree of crystallinity of
coarse aggregates governs their thermal properties and evolution
as a function of temperature. Transformation of quartz-a into
quartz-b at 573 °C implies expansion, of the order of up to 5.7%,
which can cause cracking and disintegration of the concrete
[46,6,47], depending on the material tensile strength.
However, the classification of petrographic types of rock as silic-
eous is a controversial issue.
Hertz [24] states that most types of concrete can be divided into
three groups according to their coarse aggregates: siliceous, light
or a main group covering rocks such as granite, basalt, limestone,
and sea gravel, suggesting that he has not considered granite and
basalt as siliceous aggregates.
Kowalski [48] expresses a similar understanding regarding
basalt, stating that transformations undergone by the aggregate
related to temperature are expected at 570 °C concerning siliceous
aggregates and 700 °C concerning basaltic aggregates.
Felicetti and Gambarova [29] also establish differences between
basaltic concrete and siliceous concrete, pointing out advantages of
limestone concrete over concrete made of basalt or siliceous
aggregate.
According to ABNT NBR 6502 [49], which defines terms related
to soils and rocks for geotechnical engineering, basalts have from
45 to 52% of silica and granites have a silica percentage higher than
65%; applying the definition established in ACI 216.1 [23], both
should be considered siliceous.
It should also be noted that the use of flint as a siliceous rock is
frequent in European studies [29,44,50–53]. The thermal instability
of flint at temperatures from 300 °C was reported in several works
[43,44,54], which may be related to aggregates composed of cryp-
tocrystalline silica containing the silanol group and very refined
porosity, which are subjected to higher thermal hydraulic stress
during evaporation of the water contained in their pores [55,56].
Khoury [43] reports that aggregate thermal stability increases
in the following order: flint, Thames gravel, limestone, basalt, gran-
ite, gabbro. Therefore, when putting flint and other siliceous rocks
in the same group, it is possible to assign improper characteristics
to materials with similar chemical composition, but different
behavior under high temperatures.
It should be noted that Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22] and ACI 216-1
[23] do not state which type of siliceous coarse aggregate was used
Fig. 3. Aggregate behavior during heating – adapted from fib Bulletin 38 [2].
4
Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843
as a reference for the compressive strength reduction factors of the
concrete they present.
Robert and Colina [52] presented 8 types of aggregate as repre-
sentative of the French production: 3 alluvial aggregates classified
as limestone, siliceous and siliceous–calcareous, 3 limestone, 1
massive eruptive limestone rock and 1 siliceous. Razafinjato et al.
[57] selected 2 types of quartzite, quartz-feldspathic rock, 2 types
of granite, 3 types of flint, 4 types of limestone, basalt and rhyolite
in a characterization study linked to the French National Union of
Aggregates Producer (UNPG).
Calcareous rock can be defined as sedimentary rock composed
essentially of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), like limestone or dolo-
mite [58].
In ABNT NBR 15200 [21], ACI 216.1 [23] and Eurocode 2 part 1–
2 [22], calcareous concrete presents greater strength retention
when exposed to high temperatures than siliceous concrete. The
conclusions of several authors present divergences related to such
comparison, and results for [59,60] and against [52,54] the norma-
tive indication may be observed.
Such variation may result not only from change in the siliceous
aggregates used, but also from different compositions of calcareous
aggregates, with higher or lower contents of silica and magnesium,
for example. Fig. 3 shows examples of processes related to thermal
stability of different types of aggregate exposed to high temperatures.
It is noteworthy that Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22] and ACI 216-1
[23] do not state whether the calcareous or carbonatic concrete
they address uses siliceous, dolomitic, calcareous, or magnesian
limestone or other aggregates and, as Fig. 3 shows, the thermal
behavior of these rocks is different.
Decarbonation of calcium carbonate begins at approximately
700 °C, peaking around 800 °C and ending at 898 °C, pressure of
1 atm, in a rate depending on the temperature, pressure and
amount of silica. Decarbonation of magnesium carbonate occurs
between 740 °C and 840 °C. The decarbonation reaction is
endothermic, slowing down the heating of the innermost layers
of concrete, whose temperature tends to be lower. This process,
however, besides being followed by concrete shrinkage, generates
calcium oxide, which is greatly expanded after being rehydrated,
causing cracks [2,44].
It is also noted that some studies classify siliceous-calcareous
aggregates, which may reflect the mixture of siliceous and calcare-
ous aggregates or a group of aggregates having properties in com-
mon with siliceous rocks and calcareous rocks, preventing them
from being included in one of these categories based on the tests
and criteria applied [61,52,47,53,51].
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843

4. Influence of testing regime on concrete residual mechanical
properties
The testing regime derives from the combination of the loading
condition of the samples, thermal mode being used, heating regime
and moment in which each action is performed, being also influ-
enced by the humidity conditions of the concrete [2,62].
RILEM recommendations [63–66] and ACI 216-1 [23] address
‘‘stressed” and ‘‘unstressed” testing conditions, representing,
respectively, samples exposed to high temperatures with and
without loading imposition. Through the analysis of reduction fac-
tors of ACI 216-1 [23], it is noted that the residual compressive
strength of concrete in unstressed conditions tends to be smaller
than in stressed conditions.
According to fib Bulletin 38 [2], the thermal modes in which
concrete in a fire situation can be tested are classified as ‘‘cold”
before heating, ‘‘transient” during heating or cooling, ‘‘steady state”
at maximum temperature, ‘‘residual” after cooling and ‘‘post cool-
ing” during a period after cooling, as well as variations related to
repeated heating, such as ‘‘second heating.”.
For the design and analysis of the behavior of structures during a
fire situation, the recommendation is to use mechanical properties
obtained in hot stressed and hot unstressed tests; for the analysis,
repair and reinforcement of post-fire structures, the recommenda-
tion is to use its residual unstressed properties [24,54,60].
The heating regime can be constant (steady state test) or tran-
sient (transient state test or non-steady test).
The steady state test, as proposed by RILEM recommendations,
implies a constant heating rate, usually followed by a threshold for
stabilizing the sample temperature. It is recommended for estab-
lishing compressive strength, tensile strength, modulus of
elasticity, shrinkage, creeping or slow deformation, recoverable
slow deformation and relaxation of concrete samples [66].
The transient state test implies the variation – usually ascend-
ing – of the heating rate during the test, as proposed by the stan-
dard curve of ISO 834 [67], normally associated with load
application. This regime is recommended for determining thermal
deformation, stress caused by material shrinkage during heating
and transient creep of concrete [66].
Due to the technical limitations of the ovens, which make it dif-
ficult to range the heating rate over time, it is common to adopt a
constant heating rate, approximately 27.4 °C/min, calculated based
on the average temperature of the first 30 min of an ISO 834 curve
[67,6,7,13].
Indeed, exposure of concrete to high temperatures in Experi-
mental Programs usually occurs at a constant temperature or at a
constant heating rate. When selecting the heating rate to be used,
it is essential to check its suitability to the final purpose of the
process—low heating rates, like those proposed by RILEM recom-
mendations, achieve a better separation between material and
structural effects [2].
Cooling can be natural or forced, a condition that strongly influ-
ences the residual mechanical properties of concrete, as state Silva
et al. [68] and Souza and Moreno [69]. Rapid cooling, such as from
fire-fighting actions, could result in destructive lime rehydration, a
process in which calcium oxide abruptly expands on contact with
water and may cause additional damage to the hardened concrete,
arising from the internal stresses generated [70].
5. Standardization
Internationally, some of the main standards related to fire
effects on concrete elements or structures are ISO 834 [67],
ASTME119 [71], JIS A 1304 [72], ACI 216-1 [23] and EN 1992-1-2
(Eurocode 2 part 1–2) [22]. Generally, the focus of the cited
standards lies in the design of new structures with appropriate
performance in fire situations. These standards present standard
fire curves, tables or graphs of factors for reducing the mechanical
properties of concrete, parameters for characterizing the thermal
properties of concrete and methods for designing structures in fire
situation.
However, there is a lack of standards that address testing meth-
ods for determining mechanical properties of concrete in fire situ-
ations. RILEM TC 200-HTC [66] and RILEM TC 129-MHT [63–65]
recommendations were developed with that specific purpose, fill-
ing the existing normative gap.
RILEM recommendations detail testing procedures directed to
compressive strength, direct tensile strength and modulus of elas-
ticity, among other properties, characterizing conditions of humid-
ity, thermal modes, geometry and size of cores, cure conditions,
exposure and cooling, loading modes and instrumentation criteria
to be used.
6. Experimental program
6.1. Materials
It was used 7 types of high strength concrete design (HSC) and 3
types of normal strength concrete (NSC) presented in Table 1.
The mix proportions for HSC are 1:1.5:1.5 (cement: coarse
aggregate: fine aggregate), with use of synthetic superplasticizer
additive. The mix proportions for NSC are 1:3:3 (cement: coarse
aggregate: fine aggregate).
The CP II E 32 Portland cement used, standardized by ABNT NBR
11578 [73], is composed of 6 to 34% blast furnace slag. Composite

Table 1
Concrete mix design.

Material Unit Concrete

HSC-1-B HSC-1-C HSC-1-G HSC-2-B HSC-2-C HSC-2-G HSC-2’-G NSC-1-B NSC-1-C NSC-1-G
Cement kg/m3 536 536 536 536 536 536 536 360 360 360
Rice rusk silica kg/m3 54 54 54 – – – – – – -
Silica fume kg/m3 – – – 54 54 54 54 – – –
Water l/m3 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 144 144 144
w/c ratio – 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.45 0.45 0.45
Fine aggregate kg/m3 804 804 804 804 804 804 804 961 961 961
Coarse aggregate (9.5–19 mm)
B – Basalt kg/m3 804 – – 804 – – – 961 – –
C - Limestone kg/m3 – 804 – – 804 – – – 961 –
G - Granite kg/m3 – – 804 – – 804 804 – – 961
Admixture
Superplasticizer % 0.75–1.50 0.75–1.50 0.75–1.50 0.75–1.50 0.75–1.50 0.75–1.50 0.75–1.50 – – –

Preheating temperature C 100 100 100 – – – 100 – – –
Minimum age for test Month 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

5
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa
cements (CP II) represent 58.7% of the Brazilian production [74],
and the type CP II E is largely available in urban centers [75].
The active silica has an amorphous silica (SiO2) content higher
than 85%, average particle diameter of 0.20 lm, specific area of
20 m2/g and specific mass of 2000 kg/m3. The added rice husk silica
has an amorphous silica (SiO2) content greater than 90%, average
particle diameter lower than 8 lm, specific area of 15 to 20 m2/g
and specific mass of 2000 to 2200 kg/m3.
MC Power Flow 4000 from MC Bauchemie, a synthetic super-
plasticizer additive based on polycarboxylate polymers, was used
in HSC.
Medium natural sand (2.36 mm fineness modulus) from the
Campinas region (São Paulo, Brazil) was used as fine aggregate.
Three types of coarse aggregate (maximum size of 19 mm) were
used: basalt from Leme (SP), in the Piracicaba metropolitan area,
Morungaba granite from Valinhos (SP), in the Campinas metropoli-
tan area, and dolomitic limestone from Cajamar (SP), in the São
Paulo metropolitan area. Fig. 4 illustrates the aggregates used.
It was found that the main mineralogy of basalt is composed of
feldspar (plagioclase) and pyroxene, being formed mostly by sili-
con dioxide (quartz/ SiO2) (50%), aluminum oxide (14%), iron oxide
(11%) and calcium oxide (9%), expressed with zero loss on ignition,
as verified by X-ray fluorescence testing.
The main mineralogy of granite is composed of quartz and feld-
spar, being formed mostly by silicon dioxide (72%), aluminum
oxide (13%), potassium oxide (7.4%) and sodium oxide (6%),
expressed with zero loss on ignition, as verified by X-ray fluores-
cence testing.
The main mineralogy of limestone is carbonate. Through X-ray
fluorescence testing it was verified that it is mostly composed of
calcium oxide (75%), silicon dioxide (15%) and magnesium oxide
(5.4%), expressed with zero loss on ignition. Therefore, the aggre-
gate can be classified as dolomitic limestone.
Figs. 5–7 show the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) results and the
diffractogram, obtained through X-ray diffraction testing (XRD),
for basalt, granite and limestone coarse aggregate, respectively.
6.2. Core preparation
The cores were molded according to RILEM TC-129-MHT
[63–65] recommendations, in cylindrical metal molds with dimen-
sions of 10x30 cm for determination of compressive strength and
Fig. 4. Coarse aggregates: basalt (a, d), granite (b, e) and limestone (c, f).
6
Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843
modulus of elasticity and 10x20 cm for determination of indirect
tensile strength.
The cores were stored during 7 days in their own molds, being
covered with plastic after the first 24 h, and stored in ‘‘d” (drying
concrete) humidity conditions from 2 months (mixture 1) to
3 months (mixture 2). The samples were kept exposed to air inside
the laboratory (average room temperature of 18.1 °C to 25.2 °C),
protected from the weather. After 28-day molding as minimum,
the core edges were mechanically ground.
6.3. Testing procedures
The preheated cores were exposed to the temperature of
100  5 °C during 24 h, in a muffle to reduce humidity, and were
kept in plastic film until being heated in the oven. The average
moisture content of these samples after preheating was
1.55  0.44%. The moisture content was measured only in the pre-
heated samples, according to the procedure for its determination,
adapted from the Brazilian standard ABNT NBR 9778: 2005. The
difference between the mass of the samples before and after heat-
ing was divided by the mass before heating and multiplied by 100.
The cores were exposed to high temperatures in a technical
electric oven belonging to the UNICAMP School of Civil Engineering
and Architecture. The heating and cooling rate was 1 °C/min and
monitoring was performed with thermocouples positioned close
to the surface of the specimens. The maximum temperature was
kept during 60 min. After cooling, the cores were stored wrapped
in plastic until testing.
Fig. 8 illustrates the used cores.
Type ‘‘1” of HSC cores to determine residual axial compressive
strength constitutes the main group and was exposed to tempera-
tures of 200 °C, 400 °C and 600 °C.
Type ‘‘2” constitutes a secondary group, exposed to comple-
mentary temperatures for comparison and investigation of other
aspects of concrete behavior.
Given that only one mix proportion for NSC cores was used, the
concrete was heated at temperatures of 200 °C, 400 °C and 600 °C
to determine residual axial compressive strength and, when neces-
sary, at complementary temperatures. NSC cores intended for the
residual tensile strength test were exposed to temperatures of
500 °C and 800 °C and, when necessary, complementary tempera-
tures. The temperature of 800 °C was selected for a better under-
standing of the concrete’s tensile strength reduction curve, as
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843

Fig. 5. XRF (a) and XRD (b) – Basalt coarse aggregate.

Fig. 6. XRF (a) and XRD (b) – Granite coarse aggregate.

Fig. 7. XRF (a) and XRD (b) – Limestone coarse aggregate.

this property was still significant at 600 °C when Eurocode 2 part
1–2 [22] assumes tensile strength as null.
Tests to determine residual compressive strength, the main
focus of the work developed, and residual secant modulus of elas-
ticity were developed as per RILEM TC 129-MHT recommendations
[63,65]. In tests to determine the modulus of elasticity, the length
changes of the specimens during loading were measured with
strain gages. Tests to determine residual indirect tensile strength
were developed as per ABNT NBR 7222 procedures [76].
The results were statistically treated. Two cores whose results
exceeded 20% of the variation from the mean were excluded,
resulting in 343 cores. The number of cores that make up each of
the groups tested is illustrated in the Table 2.
The sum of cores in Table 2 surpasses the 343 total cores
because the results of residual compressive strength and residual
7
secant modulus of elasticity were obtained from the same cores
for concrete types HSC-2-B, HSC-2-C, HSC-2-G, HSC-2’-G, NSC-1-
B, NSC-1-C, and NSC-1-G.
In order to obtain reduction factors, the results of the residual
mechanical properties were compared to properties of cores of
the same group which were not exposed to high temperatures,
identified as ‘‘reference.” These initial values of the mechanical
properties of the concrete are shown in Table 3.
6.4. Results and discussion
The reduction factors related to the residual compressive
strength of concrete (kc ; h) are summarized in Table 4.
Fig. 9 features data presented in Table 4 for HSC, compared to
the selected reference authors [30,34,12,22,35–37,16].
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843

Fig. 8. Cores during molding (a), cores in the oven after cooling (b), cores wrapped in plastic (c) and core before mechanical test (d).

Table 2
Number of tested cores by concrete type

Test Concrete
HSC-1-B HSC-1-C HSC-1-G HSC-2-B HSC-2-C HSC-2-G HSC-2’-G NSC-1-B NSC-1-C NSC-1-G
Residual compressive strength 11 10 12 35 30 39 27 35 42
Residual tensile strength 8 8 8 5 8 6 9 11 9
Residual secant modulus of elasticity 11 8 11 6 8 10 12 10 16

Table 3
Initial values of the mechanical properties of concrete Between 100 °C and 200 °C, we have the peak of the first decom-
position of calcium silicate hydrate from the cement (C-S-H),
Concrete Test
increase in concrete permeability, increased rate of capillary and
Residual Residual Residual secant
free water loss and the beginning of the loss of the chemically
compressive tensile strength modulus of
strength (MPa) (MPa) elasticity (GPa)
linked water.
Up to 200 °C, reduction proved to be of little significance in HSC
HSC-1-B 79.06.3 5.50.1 29.84.0
HSC-1-C 60.35.7 4.90.3 44.07.1
(kc ; h from 0.94 to 0.99), being more remarkable in NSC with basalt
HSC-1-G 71.88.4 5.70.3 42.33.3 and limestone (kc ; h of 0.81).
HSC-2-B 81.83.1 – 39.21.3 After 374 °C, there is no free water in concrete. Between 440 °C
HSC-2-C 66.11.6 6.60.5 42.71.3 and 580 °C, calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in the cement breaks
HSC-2-G 63.51.5 5.10.0 39.90.8 down into calcium oxide (CaO) and water (H2O), with a peak near
HSC-2’-G
NSC-1-B 39.43.7 14.01.4 28.11.5 535 °C [24] and reduction in paste volume.
NSC-1-C 31.34.1 10.20.2 25.30.8 The reduction of residual compressive strength at 400 °C proved
NSC-1-G 29.40.5 14.51.3 26.14.2 to be more pronounced (kc ; h from 0.60 to 0.67) for NSC than HSC
(kc ; h from 0.67 to 0.85), and this is expected due to lower calcium
hydroxide content in HSC, lower w/c ratio and addition of silica
fume or rice husk silica [43].
Up to the temperature of 500 °C, all results obtained for NSC
Similarly, Fig. 10 shows data presented in Table 4 for NSC, com- were compatible with the values proposed by ACI-216.1 [23].
pared to the selected reference authors [22,24,23,32,33]. When this temperature was exceeded, the results of limestone
It was verified that residual concrete compressive strength concrete deviated from ACI-216.1 [23], with considerably larger
gradually drops as the temperature rises, as indicated by the reduction factors. Therefore, it is understood that application of
bibliography. the standard would go against safety in this case. This behavior
8
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843

Table 4
Coefficient kc ; h allowing for decrease of residual compressive strength (f cj ) of concrete at elevated temperatures.

Concrete HSC-1-B HSC-1-G HSC-1-C HSC-2-B HSC-2-G HSC-2-C NSC-1-B NSC-1-G NSC-1-C

Temperature ( C) Reference 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
100 – – – – 1.00 1.00 – – 1.04
200 0.94 0.99 0.94 0.93 – – 0.81 1.03 0.81
300 – – – 1.00 0.86 0.85 – – 0.78
400 0.67 0.85 0.75 0.68 – – 0.60 0.67 0.62
500 – – – 0.50 0.42 0.43 – 0.49 0.46
600 0.47 0.47 0.26 0.37 – – 0.28 0.34 0.26
700 – – – 0.20 0.25 0.21 – – –
800 – – – – 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.17 0.15
900 – – – – 0.12 0.00 – – 0.00

Fig. 9. Coefficient kc ; h allowing for decrease of compressive strength (f cj ) of HSC at elevated temperatures.

Fig. 10. Coefficient kc ; h allowing for decrease of compressive strength (f cj ) of NSC at elevated temperatures.

is probably derived from differences in the types of calcareous
aggregates and in the testing regime, which is not detailed by
the standard.
Between 400 °C and 600 °C, a greater dispersion of the results
was observed; it is noted that increased thermal effects are
expected between 550 °C and 600 °C [2].
In cores exposed to 600 °C, one notices the increase of concrete
cracking and a better performance of the concrete with granite
(HSC-1-G and NSC-1-G) in relation to concretes with basalt and
limestone (HSC-1-B, HSC-1-C, NSC-1-B and NSC-1-C), even consid-
ering the large scatter of material properties, which increases with
the temperature. Again, NSC cores were more affected than HSC
cores, showing kc ; h from 0.26 to 0.34 against 0.26 to 0.47,
respectively.
The two HSC mixtures tested showed greater retention of resid-
ual strength than that exposed in NISTIR 6726 Bulletin [30], where
cores were evaluated at temperatures below 600 °C, given that
many spalling occurrences were found after this threshold was
exceeded. At such a temperature, Tolentino [12] obtained a
residual kc ; h of basaltic concrete 16% lower than that obtained in
this Experimental Program. Pimienta and Hager [50] present a cal-
careous concrete (HSC) with kc ; h 32% higher than that obtained in
this Experimental Program, although their silicon-limestone con-
crete had showed a reduction coefficient of 0.09, being strikingly
affected by the exposition to this temperature.
Results obtained with siliceous aggregates (granite and basalt)
were similar to those obtained by Khoury apud Schrefler et al.
[34] at 600 °C and 700 °C using gabbro concrete in the European
research program (HITECO).
The samples tested in the Experimental Program did not show
explosive spalling, despite the high value of the original compres-
sive strength of the concrete; this is probably due to the low
moisture content of the samples, which were stored for three
months or stored for two months and preheated, and the low rate
of temperature rise.
Temperatures from 700 °C trigger decarbonation of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) from the cement and limestone aggregates.
The second phase of C-S-H decomposition peaks at 710 °C [24].

9
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa
At 700 °C, it is noted that the residual compressive strength related
to HSC-2-C and HSC-2-G are, respectively, around 30% and 17%
below the compressive strength provided by Eurocode 2 part 1–2
[22] based on hot testing. It is also noted that the residual NSC
compressive strength values shown in ACI-216.1 [23] and the ones
obtained in this study for several tested temperatures are up to
62% lower than that exposed in Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22]. These
differences evidence the inadequacy of applying reduction factors
of compressive strength obtained in hot conditions in concrete
after its cooling. At 800 °C, the decarbonation of limestone aggre-
gates became visible to the naked eye, evidenced by the color
change of crushed rock to white. Between 800 °C and 900 °C,
HSC-2-C suffered a strong expansion, implying breakdown under
manual pressure. Fig. 11 illustrates such a condition.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to assess the influ-
ence of some factors on residual concrete compressive strength.
ANOVA was performed with one independent variable (One-Way
ANOVA) and two independent variables (Two-Way ANOVA). The
relationship between variables was considered statistically signifi-
cant for p-values lower than 0.05, implying a 95% confidence interval.
Through analysis of variance (One-Way ANOVA), it was verified
that the minimum sampling for each combination of factors pro-
posed by RILEM 129-MHT [63–65] recommendations had proven
to be appropriate, with low variability within the groups. The same
technique was applied to assess the influence of core preheating on
concrete residual compressive strength, comparing the variance of
the HSC-2’-G (preheated) Subgroup and other cores of the HSC-2-G
(non-preheated) Group. The significance was higher than 0.05,
indicating that concrete preheating was not relevant enough to
change the concrete residual compressive strength, implying sta-
tistically equal means.
The reduction factors related to residual tensile strength of con-
crete (kc;t h) are summarized in Table 5.
Fig. 11. HSC-2-C sample: decarbonation and expansion of limestone aggregates (a) to (d) (900 °C).
10
Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843
Fig. 12 shows data presented in Table 4, compared to the
selected reference authors [22,32,36].
In the absence of normative reduction factors for the residual
tensile strength of the concrete, the results were compared with
the values published by other authors (Santos and Rodrigues [32]
and Hager et al. [36], and with the reduction of tensile strength
(hot conditions) presented by Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22]. Generally,
the residual indirect tensile strength results of the concrete were
higher than the reference values.
Up to 200 °C, the decrease in residual tensile strength was not
relevant. From 300 °C to 400 °C, the dispersion of the results was
high, reaching kc;t h from 0.39 to 0.91. HSC showed excellent perfor-
mance at 600 °C, with reduction factors kc;t h from 0.60 to 0.70,
despite the presence of small width cracks in cores.
The better proportional retention of tensile strength of HSC-1
concretes compared to HSC-2 concretes suggests that rice husk sil-
ica provided improvements in the formation of transition zones
between aggregates and cement paste, compared to silica fume.
At 800 °C, kc;t h factor ranged from 0.16 to 0.38, and NSC-1 cores
showed higher strength retention.
The current versions of Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22] and ABNT NBR
15200 [21] did not directly show reduction factors of residual
modulus of elasticity of concrete. Therefore, the results were com-
pared to Cruz values reproduced in ACI 216R [27] and values pub-
lished by other authors (Santos and Rodrigues [32] and Almeida
[16]).
The reduction factors of the residual modulus of elasticity of the
concrete (kE ; h) are summarized in Table 6.
Fig. 13 shows data presented in Table 5, compared to the
selected reference authors [27,32,36,16].
It was noted that HSC residual modulus of elasticity was more
affected by the rise in temperature than residual compressive
strength and residual tensile strength at temperatures above
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843

Table 5
Coefficient kc;t h allowing for decrease of tensile strength (f tj ) of concrete at elevated temperatures

Concrete HSC-1-B HSC-1-G HSC-1-C HSC-2-G HSC-2-C NSC-1-B NSC-1-G NSC-1-C


Temperature ( C) Reference 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
100 – – – 1.00 0.95 – – –
200 0.98 1.00 0.96 – – – – 1.00
300 – – – 0.81 0.60 – – –
400 0.90 0.91 0.74 – – – – 0.79
500 – – 0.51 0.45 0.53 0.39 –
600 0.70 0.60 0.69 – – – – 0.44
800 – – – – – 0.24 0.16 0.38

Fig. 12. Coefficient kc;t h allowing for decrease of tensile strength (f tj ) of concrete at elevated temperatures.

Table 6
Coefficient kE ; h allowing for decrease of modulus of elasticity of concrete at elevated temperatures.

Concrete HSC-1-B HSC-1-G HSC-1-C HSC-2-B HSC-2-G HSC-2-C NSC-1-B NSC-1-G NSC-1-C
Temperature ( C) Reference 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
100 – – – 1.00 1.00 1.00 – – –
200 0.90 0.71 1.06 – – – 0.83 0.83 0.81
300 – – – 0.93 0.55 0.54 – – –
400 0.59 0.54 0.31 – – – 0.71 0.75 0.16
500 – – – 0.36 0.19 0.30 – 0.17 –
600 0.29 0.15 0.16 – – – 0.23 0.07 0.04
700 – – – – 0.05 – – – –
800 – – – – 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.03

Fig. 13. Coefficient kE ; h allowing for decrease of modulus of elasticity of concrete at elevated temperatures.

200 °C. It was also observed that the dispersion of the results was
high from 200 °C.
Dolomitic or limestone HSC cores tested in the Experimental
Program and reference studies showed clear acceleration of the
decrease of the elasticity modulus between 300 °C and 400 °C,
when compared to concrete made with other aggregates.
It was found that the elasticity modulus of concretes made with
basalt suffered a slightly smaller reduction than the modulus of
concretes made with granite and that limestone concretes showed
a greater reduction than both. Such behavior is due to the
11
influences of the internal structure of the rock and characteristics
such as its density and porosity [77].
7. Conclusions
Appropriate knowledge of the mechanical properties of con-
crete exposed to high temperatures is essential for the optimiza-
tion of fire structure designs, post-fire analysis of structures and
later restoration or reinforcement.
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa
The analysis of studies focused on the evaluation of the
mechanical properties of concrete exposed to high temperatures
reveals divergences in the results obtained by several authors
due to insufficient characterization of the type of concrete being
used and incomplete registration of the test regime.
Lack of standardization of test regimes and specimens was
identified. Regarding the standard fire curves and heating and cool-
ing rates used, the most frequent option for fitting the curve
showed by ISO 834 [67] is observed, adopting a constant tempera-
ture rise rate based on a mean value, which indicates the probable
difficulty of reaching the curve temperature thresholds at the indi-
cated speed in its development with available equipment.
Therefore, RILEM 200 HTC [66] and RILEM 129 MHT [63–65]
recommendations are indicated for testing concrete mechanical
properties, specifically developed for the performance analysis of
material in fire situations.
Regarding aggregates, it was found that Latin American studies
prefer to use coarse granitic and basaltic aggregates, although con-
crete made with these aggregates does not have a reduction curve
of its mechanical properties in any of the major international nor-
mative codes or Brazilian standards. It is important to note that the
basaltic aggregate has remarkable thermal stability and is used in
several countries besides Brazil and that the curves obtained for
the basaltic and granitic concrete presented similarities. Further
studies are recommended to analyze the difference between the
behavior of concretes made with these two types of aggregates.
It was found that there are controversies in the classification of
siliceous aggregates, and rocks with the same type of chemical
composition—in this case, rich in silica—were classified in distinct
groups according to the author searched. It should be noted that
flint, a siliceous aggregate whose behavior in a fire situation
is markedly different from that expected for granite and basalt, is
used in several European studies, for instance; however, flint is
not used in Brazil as a coarse aggregate in construction. It is also
noteworthy that studies on concrete mechanical properties or con-
crete structural elements usually do not show the petrographic and
mineralogical characterization of coarse aggregates being used.
It was evident that the residual mechanical properties of con-
crete exposed to high temperatures tend to present values lower
than those properties obtained in hot condition.
It is remarkable that although ABNT NBR 15200 [21] highlights
the need to check the strength capacity of concrete structures after
the occurrence of fire and gives estimated reduction factors for
material compressive strength as a function of temperature, there
is no mention of the difference between hot or residual mechanical
properties in that standard or in Eurocode 2 part 1–2 [22], where its
data comes from, which can induce the user of the standard to error.
Therefore, an Experimental Program was developed aiming to con-
tribute to reducing the observed gaps. The main conclusions were:
 Concrete with siliceous (granite and basalt) aggregates showed
higher performance than concrete with dolomitic limestone
aggregate, whose reduction of mechanical properties at the
same temperatures was more pronounced;
 Residual compressive strength of NSC made with limestone
aggregate proved to be compatible (lower or almost equal) with
the values in ACI 216.1 [23] up to 500 °C only. When these tem-
peratures were exceeded, the drop in strength was steeper than
that expected in the standard, indicating that its use could go
against safety;
 Regarding residual tensile strength, its drop was not significant
up to 200 °C. The dispersion of the results obtained with differ-
ent aggregates was high for tensile strength from 300 °C to
400 °C, with kct,h from 0.39 to 0.91. At 600 °C, HSC with rice
husk silica was less affected than HSC with silica fume at
500 °C, showing kct,h from 0.60 to 0.70 against 0.45 to 0.51;
12
Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843
 Concerning residual modulus of elasticity, the dispersion of
results related to concretes with different aggregates was high
from 200 °C. At that temperature, NSC showed a tendency to
greater sensitivity than HSC; between 300 and 400 °C, concretes
with limestone or dolomitic aggregates from the Ex perimental
Program and reference studies showed acceleration in their
degradation when compared to concretes with other aggre-
gates; residual modulus of elasticity of the dolomitic limestone
concrete was lower than the modulus of elasticity of granitic
and basaltic concretes at all temperatures assessed;
 Significant cracking was noted in concretes with siliceous
aggregates compared to concretes with limestone aggregates
at temperatures higher than 573 °C, characteristic of the trans-
formation of quartz-a into quartz-b, followed by expansion.
This may be due to the fact that the three types of aggregate
contained quartz in their composition, in different contents,
the different expansion rates reported and the shrinkage pro-
voked by calcium hydroxide dehydration;
 There was no statistically significant difference between the use
of basaltic aggregate and granitic aggregate in the study devel-
oped. When analyzing the reduction factors obtained, however,
it was noted that granitic concrete showed a tendency to higher
strength retention after being exposed to high temperatures;
 Preheating of cores at 100  5 °C did not affect their residual
compressive strength in a statistically significant way. Such a
resource, therefore, proves to be a viable alternative to be stud-
ied for reducing the latency time between core molding and its
exposure to high temperatures when adapting RILEM 200 HTC
[66] and RILEM 129 MHT [63–65] recommendations to national
scenarios;
 There was no occurrence of explosive spalling in the Experi-
mental Program developed, even in the silica fume HSC speci-
men. It is understood that such a condition is due to concrete
humidity reduction during the latency time after molding
(3 months) or due to the preheating performed.
Based on what was presented, this study reinforces the impor-
tance of standardization of testing procedures related to mechani-
cal properties of concrete in fire situations and core
characterization so that all results obtained are reproducible and
applicable in other research and studies. Therefore, the adoption
or adaptation of RILEM 200 HTC [66] and RILEM 129 MHT [63–
65] recommendations is indicated.
In addition, it defends the need to update Brazilian and interna-
tional standards to include reduction curves of mechanical proper-
ties of concrete made of different types of coarse aggregate and
tested in unstressed residual conditions. Given that the type of
coarse aggregate is a main factor that determines the behavior of
concrete at high temperatures and that its properties are strongly
influenced by more specific characteristics than the simple classi-
fication as siliceous or limestone can cover, it is suggested the
exposure of the types aggregate used in the tests that make up
the normative curves and the elaboration of national annexes pre-
sented curves for the reduction of the mechanical properties of
concrete made with regional aggregates, following the same test
standards. The inclusion of tested concrete data in unstressed
residual conditions, in turn, is important for evidencing their dif-
ference in relation to hot stressed and hot unstressed conditions
and in the application of these data in the assessment of concrete
structures during or after a fire.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
M.B. S Sollero: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing -
M.B.S. Sollero, A.L. Moreno Junior and C.N. Costa Construction and Building Materials 287 (2021) 122843

original draft, Writing - review & editing, Project administration. [17] E.F.T. de Carvalho, Contribuição ao estudo da resistência residual do concreto
submetido ao tratamento térmico padrão para situações de incêndio, Master’s
A.L. Moreno Júnior: Conceptualization, Resources, Writing -
thesis, School of Mines - Federal University of Ouro Preto (2001).
review & editing, Supervision, Project administration. C.N. Costa: [18] M.F. Gabrich, Estudo da influência das adições minerais no comportamento do
Writing - review & editing, Supervision. concreto sob a ação do fogo, Master’s thesis, School of Civil Engineering -
Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG) (2008).
[19] U.G. Survey, Mineral commodity summaries 2019, Tech. rep., U.S, Geological
Declaration of Competing Interest Survey (2019), https://doi.org/10.3133/70202434.
[20] T. Brown, D. Highley, D. Harrison, D. Cameron, P. Lusty, J. Cowley, Mineral
planning factsheets: Construction agrregates, Tech. rep., British Geological
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
Survey (2019).
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared [21] ABNT, ABNT NBR 15200.Projeto de estruturas de concreto em situação de
to influence the work reported in this paper. incêndio (Fire design of concrete structures), Brazilian Association for
Technical Standards, 2012.
[22] CEN, EN 1992-1-2. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures – Part 1. 2:
Acknowledgements General Rules – Structural Fire Design, European Committee for
Standardization, 2004.
[23] ACI, ACI/TMS 216.1-07. Code Requirements for Determining Fire Resistance of
The authors are grateful for the support of CONCREMAT Engi- Concrete and Masonry Construction Assemblies, American Concrete Institute,
neering and Tecnology, EPT Engineering and Technology Research, 2007.
the Brazilian Portland Cement Association (ABCP - Associação Bra- [24] K.D. Hertz, Concrete strength for fire safety design, Magazine of Concrete
Research 57 (8) (2005) 445–453.
sileira de Cimento Portland), MC-Bauchemie, São Jerônimo Crush-
[25] PCA, Effect of long exposure of concrete to high temperatures - concrete
ing Plant (Usina Paulista de Britagem Pedreira São Jerônimo), information st 32–1938, Tech. rep., Portland Cement Association (1938).
Basalt Quarry of Estrutural Group (Pedreiras Basalto do Grupo [26] H.L. Malhotra, The effect of temperature on the compressive strength of
concrete, Magazine of Concrete Research 8 (23) (1956) 85–94.
Estrutural), LafargeHolcim Brasil and the FEC/ UNICAMP team.
[27] ACI, ACI/TMS 216R-89. Guide for determining the fire endurance of concrete
elements. American Concrete Institute, American Concrete Institute, 1989.
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concrete at elevated temperatures, in: IABSE 13th congress, Helsinki, 1988, pp.
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