Section 3 Water Slides

Water
Moisture Content of
the Atmosphere
Methods of Expressing Humidity
Absolute Humidity (ρv)

• mass of water vapor per volume of air
• g m-3
Mixing Ratio (r)

• mass of water vapor per mass of dry air
• g kg-1
Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Water
Moisture Content of
the Atmosphere
Specific Humidity (q)
• mass of water vapor per mass of air including its
moisture (almost identical to mixing ratio at low
water contents)
• g kg-1
Partial pressure (e)

• pressure that atmospheric water vapor exerts
• mb, kPa, etc.
Water
Moisture Content of
the Atmosphere
• At any given temperature, there is a limit to the
amount of water vapor that can be present in the
atmosphere
• As temperature increases, the amount of water vapor
that can be present in the atmosphere increases
• Saturation vapor pressure (SVP) is the upper limit of
vapor pressure at a particular temperature

SVP as a function of temperature or the dew-point curve (Stull, 2000)
Saturation water content values at various air temperatures (Stull, 2000)
Temperature es rs qs ρvs
(C) (kPa) (g kg-1) (g kg-1) (kg m-3)
-20 0.127 0.78 0.78 0.00109
-18 0.150 0.92 0.92 0.00128
-16 0.177 1.09 1.09 0.00150
-14 0.209 1.28 1.28 0.00175
-12 0.245 1.51 1.51 0.00204
-10 0.287 1.77 1.76 0.00237
-8 0.335 2.07 2.06 0.00275
-6 0.391 2.41 2.40 0.00318
-4 0.455 2.80 2.80 0.00367
-2 0.528 3.26 3.25 0.00422
0 0.611 3.77 3.76 0.00485
2 0.706 4.37 4.35 0.00557
4 0.814 5.04 5.01 0.00637
6 0.937 5.80 5.77 0.00728
8 1.076 6.68 6.63 0.00830
10 1.233 7.66 7.60 0.00945
12 1.410 8.78 8.70 0.01073
14 1.610 10.05 9.95 0.01217
16 1.835 11.48 11.35 0.01377
18 2.088 13.09 12.92 0.01556
20 2.371 14.91 14.69 0.01755
22 2.688 16.95 16.67 0.01976
24 3.042 19.26 18.89 0.02222
26 3.437 21.85 21.38 0.02494
28 3.878 24.76 24.16 0.02794
30 4.367 28.02 27.26 0.03127
32 4.911 31.69 30.72 0.03493
34 5.515 35.81 34.57 0.03896
36 6.182 40.43 38.86 0.04340
38 6.921 45.61 43.62 0.04827
40 7.736 51.43 48.91 0.05362
42 8.636 57.97 54.79 0.05947
44 9.627 65.32 61.31 0.06588
46 10.717 73.59 68.54 0.07287
48 11.914 82.91 76.56 0.08051
50 13.228 93.42 85.44 0.08884
Water
Moisture Content of
the Atmosphere
Relative Humidity (RH)

• water vapor as a percentage of the maximum
amount of vapor the air can hold at that
temperature
• dimensionless
RH = e/es x 100 ≅ q/qs x 100 ≅ r/rs x 100 ≅ ρv/ ρvs x 100

Water
Moisture Content of
the Atmosphere
Dewpoint Temperature (Td)
• Temperature to which air must be cooled at
constant pressure to become saturated at its
current vapor content
• Use in comparison to current temperature
• When air temperature equals dewpoint
temperature, the relative humidity is 100%
• The further that dewpoint temperature falls below
air temperature, the drier the air.
Water
Moisture Content of
the Atmosphere
Wet-bulb Temperature (Tw)

• Temperature to which the latent heat of
vaporization will cool the ambient air
• Use psychrometric table to convert to humidity
• When air temperature equals wet-bulb
temperature, the relative humidity is 100%
• Tw is not equal to Td

Water
Measurement of Atmospheric
Water Content
• Usually measured alongside the air temperature in a
ventilated and shielded enclosure

Principle of a psychrometer
Schematic for a hair hygrograph

The "DewK" Thermo-hygrometer from Hart Scientific
Water
Measurement of Atmospheric
Water Content
• Sensor types
¾ Psychrometer (dry and wet bulb temperature)
¾ Hygrograph (hair)
¾ Dew point hygrometer
¾ Resistance sensor, capacitance sensor
¾ Krypton hygrometer
¾ Laser hygrometer (http://microwave.nsstc.nasa.gov)

Water
The Water Balance
• At any given location, we can construct a water

balance to track the flows of solid, liquid and gaseous
water in and out of a particular location.

Depiction of the water balance for a vegetated surface (Allen et al. 1998)
Water
The Water Balance

∆S = P + I + CR – ET – D – RO – SS
where ∆S – change in soil moisture storage

P – precipitation
I – irrigation
CR – capillary rise from groundwater
ET – evapotranspiration
D – deep drainage below the root zone
RO – net runoff
SS – net subsurface flow
Note: All units in mm

Water
The Water Balance
∆S = P – ET
where ∆S – change in soil moisture storage

P – precipitation
ET – evapotranspiration
Note: All units in mm

Assuming no irrigation, deep drainage, capillary rise, runoff,
runon or subsurface flow.

Water
Creation of Precipitation
• Condensation of atmospheric moisture in the

atmosphere transfers not only water (mass) but also
significant amounts of energy
• All the energy that was needed to evaporate the
water at the surface is released at the altitude at
which the condensation occurs
• CAPE (convective available potential energy)

1988 weekly mean daily increase in the specific humidity of the
atmospheric boundary layer at Winnipeg (Gt) and Swift Current (Ga),
plus average tornado days per week.
Raddatz and Cummine, 2003. Boundary Layer Meterology 106: 283
1993 weekly mean daily increase in the specific humidity of the
atmospheric boundary layer at Winnipeg (Gt) and Swift Current (Ga),
plus average tornado days per week.
Raddatz and Cummine, 2003. Boundary Layer Meterology 106: 283
Water
Creation of Precipitation
• 60% of the prairies has been transformed from

perennial grass to annual crop vegetation
• ET is higher for annual crops compared to perennial
grass during mid-summer but lower in the spring
and fall
• ET adds not only moisture to the atmosphere but
also bouyant energy (causing convective lifting)
• It is possible that the shift in vegetation on the
prairies has increased the number and severity of
thunderstorms during mid-summer and reduced
their occurrence in spring and fall
Modeled estimates of net radiation and latent heat (i.e. ET) for a
native grassland and continuous wheat using Winnipeg
meteorological data (Raddatz, 1998)
Water
Measurement of Precipitation
• Precipitation measurements are expressed as the

depth of liquid that accumulates at a specific point
on the earth’s surface
• Depth is converted to a volume by assuming that the
vertical depth is extended over a known area
(depth x area = volume)

Water
Climatological station (i.e. manual observations)

• Standard for rainfall measurement in Canada is the
Type B rain gauge

Standard Type B rain gauge
Water
• MUST be remote from any object by a distance at
least equal to the height of the object.
• SHOULD be located at a distance four times the
height of the object (ex: l5 m away from a 15 m tree,
if possible 60 m from the tree).
• MUST be mounted on a post or stake
• top rim of the gauge MUST be level, circular and not
dented or chipped.
• The gauge (36cm high) should be mounted so that its
rim will be 40 cm above the ground.
Water

• Snowfall depth is done with a ruler at most manual
observation sites
• Snow depth is reported as water equivalent (a
conversion of 10 : 1 is used when measuring solid
snow)

Water
Snowfall
• A weighing gauge (melts snow with antifreeze or
heat) can also be used with a data logger
• Special shielding is needed with a gauge to prevent
loss of snow catch
• The snow melts in the gauge, therefore, it is
automatically reported as water equivalent

Snow gauge with Nipher shield and adjustable stand
Water
Rainfall rate
• Measured using a tipping bucket rain gauge
• Counts number of tips of known amount in a given
time period
• Best practise is to use a tipping bucket gauge in
conjunction with a standard rain gauge

Schematics of (A) a tipping bucket rain gauge and (B) a weighing gauge
Water
Precipitation Gauges
• Rainfall
¾ Manual, non-recording
¾ Tipping bucket
¾ Radar
• Snowfall
¾ Nipher shielded snow gauge
¾ Ruler
• All
¾ Weighing gauge

Water
Evapotranspiration Fundamentals
• ET occurs whenever energy is supplied to a free water

surface.
• Energy required to break the intermolecular water
molecule attraction is the latent heat of vaporization.
• Energy requirement varies inversely with temperature
(2.50 MJ kg-1 at 0oC, 2.45 MJ kg-1 at 20oC)
• The energy used to evaporate water is perceived as a
heat loss in the surroundings.
• The mass of liquid water converted to vapor can be
transformed to an energy level by multiplying by
2.45 MJ kg-1
Water
Evapotranspiration Fundamentals
• Even when the air is saturated, ET is occurring if

energy is available to drive the process.
• At the saturation point of the air, the rate of
condensation occurs at the same rate as evaporation.
• The net loss of water from ET is zero, however, the
process of ET has not stopped.

Water
Factors Affecting ET Rate
• There must be a source of water in order for ET to

occur.

Water
Fundamental Factors
Affecting ET Rate
1. Net radiation (Energy)
• The most important factor affecting ET.
• Closely follows the diurnal and seasonal distribution of solar
radiation.
• ET is greatest around solar noon and during the summer.

Water
Fundamental Factors
Affecting ET Rate
2. Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD)
• transfer of liquid water molecules into the air depends on a vapor
pressure gradient
• the water molecules flow from high to low vapor pressure
• the vapor pressure of air over water or leaf surface must exceed
that in the air above for net loss of water by ET
• once the air reaches SVP, there is no further net loss of water
from the evaporating surface
• Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD) is the difference between the SVP
at the temperature of water surface and actual vapor pressure at
the temperature of the surrounding air
• relative humidity (RH), therefore, is said to control the “thirst of
the atmosphere”
Water
Fundamental Factors
Affecting ET Rate
3. Turbulence or Air Movement
• in calm conditions, the air next to an evaporating surface reaches
saturation very quickly
• the saturated air next to the evaporating surface stops further net
loss of water by ET
• in turbulent or windy conditions, the saturated air next to the
evaporating surface is mixed with drier overlying air and
maintains a VPD
• turbulence alone does not cause ET, it only enables ET to
proceed at the rate dictated by the available energy and the VPD

Water
Other Factors Affecting ET Rate
1. Water-Related Factors
i. Salinity reduces vapor pressure (ET decreases about 1% for
every 1% increase in salinity)
ii. Water pollution changes water color and/or turbidity which
changes the surface albedo of the water and the energy balance
of the water body
iii. Water depth influences ET (shallow water bodies cannot
transfer heat to depth and reach higher temperatures in mid-
summer, when the air is also at its warmest i.e. more
evaporation from shallow water bodies)
iv. Water surface area influences the buildup of a protective vapor
“blanket” (larger water bodies have the greatest “blanket”
development)
Water
1. Soil-Related Factors
i. Surface soil moisture level affects ET (when the surface and
root zone become air dry, ET stops)
ii. Subsoil moisture level can affect ET, if there is a shallow water
table which can replenish water at the soil surface by capillary
action
iii. Soil color affects the albedo and the energy balance at the soil
surface
iv. Soil heat capacity affects the soil’s ability to store solar
radiation

Water
1. Plant-Related Factors
i. Variations in the stomata, the cells that control the transfer of
vapor between the plant and the atmosphere, affect how rapidly
plants lose water by transpiration
ii. Plant color changes the albedo of the plant and its energy
balance
iii. Growth stage determines the plant leaf surface area available to
transpire water
iv. Plant health determines whether the tissue is green and actively
photosynthesizing (i.e. transpiring) or whether it is wilted and
not growing actively (i.e. reduced transpiration)
v. Fractional leaf area determines how much of the soil is shaded
by the plant (i.e. reduced evaporation)
Water
Measurement of ET
• expose a free water surface to the elements and

measuring how rapidly the liquid water disappears

Water
Measurement of ET
• Class A Evaporation Pan

• Loss of water expressed as a depth (i.e. inches, mm,
cm)
120 cm non-
25 cm corrosive
metal
wood base

Water
Measurement of ET
• Atmometer
• Loss of water expressed as a volume

Water
Measurement of ET
• Pans and atmometers may not be truly representative

of ET in the surrounding environment
• pan of water heats up more than a lake
• movement of wind over the instruments is different
than it is over the surface of the soil or leaves
• provide ET reference values but must be converted if
the measurements are meant to be used in the water
balance for an environment
• Cannot be used at automated stations (manual
observations and frequent maintenance)

Water
Measurement of ET
• Weighing Lysimeter

Water
Measurement of ET
Using the Energy Balance
Q* = QH + QE + QG
Q* - QG = QH + QE
• Measure the lefthand side (net pyrradiometer and soil

heat flux plates)
• Simplify the righthand side using the Bowen ratio

Water
Measurement of ET
β = H = ρCp KH (∂T/∂z)
LE ρCp KV γ-1(∂e/∂z)
where Cp = specific heat of air
ρ = air density
γ = psychrometric constant
T = air temperature
e = water vapor pressure
KH = turbulent diffusivity for heat
KV = turbulent diffusivity for water vapor
Water
Measurement of ET
β = H = ρCp KH (∂T/∂z)
LE ρCp KV γ-1(∂e/∂z)
β = γ (∂T/∂z) = γ (T2 – T1)/(z2 – z1)

(∂e/∂z) (e2 – e1)/(z2 – z1)

Water
Measurement of ET
Rn – G = H + LE
Rn – G = β LE + LE
(Rn – G) / (β + 1) = LE

Water
Measurement of ET Using Standard

Meteorological Instruments
• Weighing lysimeter and Bowen ratio systems are
complex
• Methods are estimation using standard meteorological
input are needed
• Many methods have been developed but most have
limitations

Water

• Current standard method starts with an estimate of
ET from a defined surface, reference ET (ET0)
• Measures demand of the atmosphere independently of
crop type, crop stage and management practices
• assumed to have an abundant supply of water
• allows direct comparison of atmospheric evaporative
demand from any location on any day because it
assumes the same surface
• only weather conditions affect reference ET0,
therefore, it can be calculated using weather
measurements
Water

• Reference ET method was developed by a working
group under the FAO (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations)
• Resulted in the publication of FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper No. 56, so it is referred to as the
FAO56 method (Allen et al, 1998)

Water

• FAO56 method defines a reference
surface as:
• Short grass (0.12 cm)
• Albedo = 0.23
• Standard aerodynamic
resistance
• Resembles an extensive surface of
green, well-watered grass of
uniform height, actively growing
and completely shading the ground

Water

• FAO56 method uses a standardized form of the
Penman-Monteith equation
• The characteristics of the reference surface were
applied to the Penman-Monteith equation to derive
the FAO56 form

Water

0.408 Δ(Rn - G) + γ [900 / (T + 273)] u2 (es-ea)
ET0 = Δ + γ [ 1 + 0.34 u2)]
where ET0 – reference evapotranspiration (mm d-1)

Rn – net radiation at the crop surface (MJ m-2 d-1)
G – soil heat flux density (MJ m-2 d-1) (daily = 0)
T – mean daily air temperature at 2 m (oC)
u2 – wind speed at 2 m (m s-1)
es-ea – vapor pressure deficit (kPa)
Δ – slope of dewpoint curve
γ – psychrometric constant (kPa K-1)

Water

• FAO56 Reference ET data requirements
• Radiation
• Air temperature
• Humidity
• Wind speed

Reference crop ET0, Standard crop ETc, Non-standard crop ETc adj (Allen et al 1998).
Water

• Standard Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) is ET rate
from a disease-free, well-fertilized crop in a large
field with optimum soil water and achieving full
production
• ETc is identical to crop water demand
• crop coefficients (Kc) are used to relate ETc to ET0
• Variations in crop conditions throughout the growing
season cause Kc to change from sowing through
harvest
ETc = Kc * ET0

Water

• Main crop characteristics of interest affecting Kc
– Crop height
– Albedo
– Leaf age and condition
– Evaporation from soil, especially exposed soil

Typical ranges expected for Kc (Allen et al 1998).
Typical Kc values for various crop at mid-season (Allen et al 1998).
Generalized crop coefficient curve for the single crop coefficient approach
(Allen et al 1998).
Water

• Non-standard Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc adj) is
the ET rate from a crop under non-standard (i.e. real
world) conditions
• Actual crop ET deviates from ETc because of non-
optimal conditions such as presence of pests and
diseases, salinity, low fertility, water shortage or
surplus
• The ETc adj is calculated by multiplying ETc by one
or a series of stress coefficients

Water

• Coefficients
• Soil Moisture
• Salinity
• High stomatal control
• Plastic mulches
• Organic mulches
• Intercropping
• Other management effects

Water

• Example (adjusting for soil moisture)
ETc adj = Ks ETc
where ETc adj = actual crop evapotranspiration (mm d-1)

Ks = soil moisture coefficient (dimensionless)
ETc = potential crop evapotranspiration (mm d-1)

Water

• Soil Water Stress (Ks)
– Water stress begins
when the root zone soil
water falls below RAW
– Calculation of Ks
requires calculation of
a daily water balance
ETc adj = Ks Kc ET0

Water
Measurement of ET Using Limited

Meteorological Data
• ET must sometimes be estimated from weather
records that contain only daily air temperature and
precipitation
• The accuracy of ET estimates from limited data is
poorer than the FAO56 method but there are
methods that have been developed for these
situations

Water
Measurement of ET Using Limited

Meteorological Data
• Hargreaves et al (1985)
ET0 = 0.0023 (Tmax – Tmin)0.5 (Tmean + 17.8) 0.408 Ra
where ET0 = reference evapotranspiration (mm d-1)

Tmax = maximum daily air temperature (oC)
Tmin = minimum daily air temperature (oC)
Tmean = mean daily air temperature (oC), (Tmax + Tmin)/2
Ra = extraterrestrial radiation (MJ m-2 d-1)
• Requires only daily temperature and latitude

Water
Measurement of ET Using
Limited Meteorological Data
• Hargreaves et al (1985)
• Provides a more reliable estimate of ET0 than the 3

parameter method of Baier and Robertson (1965)
even they both use the same input
• Hargreaves et al (1985) will tend to underpredict
under conditions of high winds but otherwise gives
values very comparable to FAO 56.

Water
Soil Moisture
• Soil moisture content is a measure of the mass or
volume of water stored in a defined mass or volume
of soil
• Percentage volume of soil occupied by a volume of
water or percentage mass of soil occupied by a mass
of water

Water
Soil Moisture
• Soil has a limited moisture storage capacity which is
largely a function of soil texture.
• Sandy soils have very few large pores and usually
have 50% pore space or less.
• Clays have extremely numerous small pores and
usually have 50% pore space or more.
• The energy necessary to extract water from the soil
matrix increases as the soil dries out.

Water
Soil Moisture
• Field Capacity (FC) is the upper limit of soil moisture
storage capacity; moisture content when a saturated
soil is allowed to drain by gravity (i.e. it is holding all
it can)
• Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) is the lower limit of
soil moisture storage capacity; moisture content after
a plant has extracted all the water it can (i.e. no more
water for the plant, about 1.5 MPa suction)
Available soil water capacity (%wt) = FC (w/w) – PWP (w/w)

Water
Soil Moisture
• Soil moisture content (%wt) is converted to moisture
content (%vol) when multiplied by soil bulk density
AWC (%vol) = AWC (%wt) x B.D.
• soil moisture content (%vol) multiplied by the depth

of soil being considered is the depth of available water
equivalent to a depth of precipitation or irrigation
Depth of available soil water (mm) = AWC (%vol) x mm soil

Soil water characteristics of some Manitoba soils (Shaykewich et al. 1997)
Depth Sand Silt Clay FC PWP Avail. Bulk Avail. mm Avail.

mm % % % % % Water Density Water per Water to
(% wt) g cm-3 (% vol) horizon 1200 mm
Almassippi
0-475 89 6 5 10.67 1.67 9.00 1.66 14.9 70.8
475-762 84 9 7 11.67 2.34 9.33 1.77 16.5 47.4
762-1200 87 9 4 14.53 2.57 11.96 1.80 21.5 94.2 212
Wellwood
0-254 35 41 24 27.42 8.29 19.13 1.33 25.4 64.5
254-533 39 37 24 22.86 7.23 15.63 1.48 23.1 64.4
533-1200 44 41 15 22.10 7.75 14.35 1.53 22.0 146.7 276
Riverdale
0-254 6 43 51 39.72 22.30 17.42 1.18 20.6 52.2
254-610 4 44 52 36.73 21.40 15.33 1.28 19.6 69.9
610-1200 1 40 59 36.75 21.24 15.51 1.36 21.1 124.4 247
Average plant available water holding capacity in the surface 120 cm of
Manitoba soils (Shaykewich et al., 1997).
Soil Textural Group Plant Available Water (mm)

in 120 cm of soil
Sand 173
Loamy sand 211
Sandy loam 260
Loam 324
Clay loam 324
Clay 312
Water
Soil Moisture
• All water between FC and PWP is available for
plant growth but not equally available
• Wheat is under water stress at about 50%
AWC
• Potatoes are under water stress at about 75%
AWC
• Soil moisture at the bottom of the root zone is
not available to a seedling

Water
Soil Moisture
• The soil moisture stored at planting is limited by
the capacity of the soil
• If a soil has a water holding capacity of 100 mm,
that is its limit. If there is 200 mm of rainfall, the
soil will store only 100 mm. Any more added water
would simply drain out the bottom of the soil
profile (deep drainage) or run off the surface.
• If all soils start out the spring at field capacity with
very little rain after seeding, it will be the coarse-
textured soils that will be the first to dry out.

Water
Soil Moisture Measurement
• http://www.sowacs.com/
• Gravimetric (standard)
(wet weight – dry weight) / dry weight = θw/w
θw/w * soil bulk density = θv/v

Water
Gypsum Block/Electrical Resistance Tensiometers

Water

• Dielectric methods
Time Domain Reflectometry Capacitance Probes

(TDR) (FDR)

Water
Neutron Probe Heat Dissipation

Section 3 Water Slides

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Section 3 Water Slides

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Water

Absolute Humidity (ρv)

Mixing Ratio (r)

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Partial pressure (e)

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Relative Humidity (RH)

RH = e/es x 100 ≅ q/qs x 100 ≅ r/rs x 100 ≅ ρv/ ρvs x 100

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Wet-bulb Temperature (Tw)

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Schematic for a hair hygrograph

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

The Water Balance

• At any given location, we can construct a water

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

The Water Balance

where ∆S – change in soil moisture storage

Note: All units in mm

The Water Balance

where ∆S – change in soil moisture storage

Note: All units in mm

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

• Condensation of atmospheric moisture in the

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

• 60% of the prairies has been transformed from

• Precipitation measurements are expressed as the

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Climatological station (i.e. manual observations)

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Climatological station (i.e. manual observations)

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

• ET occurs whenever energy is supplied to a free water

• Even when the air is saturated, ET is occurring if

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Factors Affecting ET Rate

• There must be a source of water in order for ET to

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Other Factors Affecting ET Rate

Other Factors Affecting ET Rate

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Other Factors Affecting ET Rate

• expose a free water surface to the elements and

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

• Class A Evaporation Pan

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

• Pans and atmometers may not be truly representative

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

• Measure the lefthand side (net pyrradiometer and soil

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

β = γ (∂T/∂z) = γ (T2 – T1)/(z2 – z1)

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Measurement of ET Using Standard

Soil 7170 Pre-class Review Notes

Measurement of ET Using Standard