BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT

Environmental Science Module No. 6

Figure 6.1Google Earth Image of Common Tree Planting site of the De La Salle Philippines in 2010 (photo below) at Mts. Palay-palay
National Park, Cavite, PH (photo above).

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Environmental Science Module No. 6

Module Authors:
Cristina C. Salibay, Ph.D.
Jocelyn P. Luyon, MSc.

Biological Sciences Department

College of Science & Computer Studies
De La Salle University - Dasmariñas

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Title Page
6.0 Gospel Reflection 3
6.1 Module Learning Outcomes 4
6.2 Introduction 4
6.3. Understanding Biodiversity, Health, and Ecosystem Stability 4
6.4 Monitoring Philippine Biodiversity 15
6.5. Key Take-Aways 23
6.6 References 25
6.7 Formative Assessment 26
6.8 Summative Assessment 28

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Environmental Science Module No. 6

6.0 GOSPEL REFLECTION

Job 12:7-10
"But ask the animals, and they will teach you, or the birds of the air, and they will
tell you; or speak to the earth, and it will teach you, or let the fish of the sea inform
you. Which of all these does not know that the hand of the LORD has done this?
In his hand is the life of every creature and the breath of all mankind.

INSTRUCTION:

Using the space below, write a reflection essay based on the passage from the Bible. How do
you relate the bible verse into your study of biodiversity? How do you connect this verse to this
module?

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Environmental Science Module No. 6

6.1 MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Cognitive Objective: Understand the connection among biodiversity, health and ecosystem
stability and identify governing bodies that implement laws, policies, and regulations to monitor
the status of biodiversity in the Philippines
2. Affective Objective: Contribute to the conservation of natural resources through conscious
effort on proper care of the environment
3. Psychomotor Objective: Develop a sense of commitment to protect the resources that
support him/her.

6.2 INTRODUCTION

The practice of conserving and preserving the variety of genes, species, habitats, ecosystems
and even culture is as great as keeping your wealth intact. This is because biodiversity is for
everyone’s survival since everything necessary for health, food, fuel, and services comes from
it.

6.3 UNDERSTANDING BIODIVERSITY, HEALTH, AND ECOSYSTEM

STABILITY

What is Biodiversity?

In this topic, you will be connecting biodiversity, health, and ecosystem stability by
understanding their definitions. The term biodiversity or biological diversity notably
has been defined in many ways, but the two most acceptable definitions will be
presented here accordingly:

1. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992:

“The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial,
marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they
are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.”
2. E.O Wilson 1998:
“The variety of life at every hierarchical level and spatial scale of biological
organizations: genes within populations, population within species, species within
communities, communities within landscapes, landscapes within biomes, and biomes
within the biosphere”.

Hence, biodiversity encompasses variety of biological life at more than one scale (see
also Fig. 6.2A).

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Environmental Science Module No. 6

A. Levels and Values of Biodiversity

BIODIVERSITY

Genetic Species Ecosystem Functional

Goods and Services

Cultural
Provisioning
Services
Services
• recreational
• food • spiritual
• water • religious
Health • other non-
material
benefits
• D

Regulating Supporting
Services Services
• Regulation of • Soil
floods,
formation
drought, land
degradation • Nutrient
and disease cycling

B. Direct Drivers of Biodiversity

Loss
Invasive
Land-use Habitat Loss
Species
Change

Biodiversity
Overexploitation Population
Loss Growth

Climate Environmental
Change Pollution
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Figure 6.2. A. Levels and Values of Biodiversity; B. Drivers of Biodiversity Loss
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Environmental Science Module No. 6

The different levels of biodiversity are the following:

1. Genetic Diversity – the variety of genetic material within a species or a

population
2. Ecosystem Diversity – the variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in
an area or on the earth
3. Species Diversity – the number and abundance of species present in different
communities
4. Functional Diversity – the biological and chemical processes such as energy
flow and matter recycling needed for the survival of species, communities, sand
ecosystems

What is health?

Health, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), is a state of complete

physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
It is also:

1) one of the most basic human rights,

2) one of the most important indicators of sustainable development and,
3) the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is vital for the continued
functioning of ecosystems at all scales as well as for the delivery of ecosystem services
that are essential for human health.

The links between biodiversity and health are manifested at various spatial and
temporal scales. In fact, the interconnection of biodiversity, human health and the
respective policies and activities can be traced from planetary-scale biomes to human-
microbial interactions:
1. At planetary scale- biodiversity and ecosystems play a critical role in determining the
state of the Earth System, regulating its material and energy flows and its responses
to abrupt or gradual change.
2. At a more intimate level, the human microbiota – the symbiotic microbial communities
present on our gut, skin, respiratory and uro-genital tracts, contributes to our nutrition,
can help regulate our immune system, and prevent infections.

What is ecosystem stability?

Ecosystem

Biodiversity at the ecosystem level refers to the variety of living organisms interacting
with each other and their physical environment and conservation of biodiversity at the
ecosystem level deals with the management of these interactions.

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• An ecological system (or ecosystem) is a network of interactions among living

organisms and between these organisms and their local environment.
• As the basic unit of interest in the study of ecology, an ecosystem has often been
referred to as one of the larger entities in the biological hierarchical scale or ascending
levels of organization in biology (e.g. cells-tissues-organs-organisms-populations-
species-communities-ecosystems-landscape-biosphere).

Characteristics of an ecosystem:

• Ecosystems have structures with physical (abiotic) and biological (biotic) components,
spatio-temporal patterns (e.g. vertical layering seasonal changes) and some degree of
predictability (e.g. ecological succession, seasonal migration).
• Ecosystems carry on multiple, interdependent processes (e.g. photosynthesis,
decomposition, nutrient cycling, interactions among trophic levels in the food chain.
• Ecosystems are dynamic. They are regulated by biological, physical, and social agents
of change

Accordingly, the classification of ecosystems is affected by people’s perception of the

natural world. Thus, any classification must take context into account, clearly
articulating parameters and criteria for setting objectives and delineating the scope of
an investigative study or management strategy.

Biodiversity and ecosystem stability

The state or condition of an ecosystem is often described within the context of ecological
integrity, ecosystem health, or level of degradation:

1. Ecological Integrity
• An ecosystem with ecological integrity is one that has persistence (i.e capable of
sustaining the functioning of the communities) and adaptability (i.e capable of
enduring stress through recovery,regeneration or modification
• Ecosystems that have lost their ecological integrity are considered “biologically
dead”

2. Healthy Ecosystems
• A healthy ecosystem has the ability to maintain itself with minimum human
intervention and repair itself when some natural or anthropogenic disturbances
occur
• An ecosystem is said to be healthy if it can maintain its structure and functions
over a period of time even in the presence of environmental stress

3. Degraded Ecosystems
• A degraded ecosystem is often referred to as the one that is “unhealthy” or
“deteriorated”
• An unhealthy ecosystem is one that is incapable of maintaining its integrity over
time

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What are the signs of unhealthiness in terrestrial ecosystems?

1. Decline in species diversity and a shift in species composition to more stress-
tolerant species i.e. displacement of native by alien species
2. Disease outbreaks and pest infestations e.g. pantropical disease (which could be
due to monoculture)
3. A decrease in the symbionts of plant roots (e.g. mycorrhizae)

Environmental Indicators:
• Environmental indicators are biological, physical, chemical and socio-economic
parameters or measures used in assessing the quality and sustainability of a given
ecosystem
• It gauges the condition and vitality of an ecosystem

Benchmark Sites:
• A yardstick against which comparisons can be made
• Attributes of a pristine or minimally disturbed natural area are commonly used in
setting the standards for a healthy ecosystem

Therefore, the definition of an ecosystem integrity, stability or health is focused in general

on a healthy ecosystem:
• one that performs its various functions well
• where equilibrium is maintained
• dependent upon biodiversity

Ecosystem Approach (EA)

The Ecosystem Approach according to the Convention on Biological Diversity (2000) is a

strategy for the integrated Management of land, water and living resources that promotes
conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. It further states that it is based on the
application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization,
which encompasses the essential structure, processes, functions and interactions among
organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an
integral component of many ecosystems.

Ecosystem Services

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005 defined Ecosystem services as benefits people
obtain from Ecosystems. There are different types of ecosystem, services and they include the
following (see Fig.6.2A):
1. provisioning services- the products people obtain from ecosystems
Examples: food, freshwater, timber, fibers, medicinal plants
2. regulating services- benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes

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Examples: regulation of climate, water and some human diseases

3. supporting services – that are necessary for the maintenance of all other
ecosystem services
Examples: biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation
and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning of habitat
4. cultural services- the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems
Examples: spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and
aesthetic experience such as knowledge systems, social relations and aesthetic
values

Ecosystem services can be also classified into two based on the benefits and functions we
derived from biodiversity:

Direct benefits: Indirect benefits: Ecosystem/Nature’s services

Ecosystem/Nature’s
goods
• food • Maintenance and stabilization of water
• clothing functions
• shelter • Regulation of climate
• medicine • Soil protection and production
• Maintenance of essential life processes
• Recreational, scientific, educational, spiritual
and aesthetic values

The idea of ecosystem services, in a form of natural capital has been included in the continuous
evolution of biodiversity concept; and generally, it is considered more as support to
environmental functions. The ecosystem’s functions and provision of goods and services that
are essentials to human health and well-being, are fortified by biodiversity.

Deforestation and Forest Management

Deforestation is the natural or anthropogenic that converts forest land to non-forest (IPCC
2012). Rehabilitation cannot fully restore the original or former condition of a degraded
ecosystem. However, it can provide substantial opportunities for conserving biodiversity and
improving ecosystem functions, including water management.

1. Rehabilitation through Reforestation in the Philippines

Has been used in the Philippines to revitalize marginal and degraded public areas.
Performance success in reforestation by civil society is not fully monitored but can
potentially contribute to forest rehabilitation, if properly implemented.

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2. Use of Exotic Species in Reforestation

The Philippine forestry statistics revealed that the tree species used in reforestation were
mostly exotic species. Examples are the following:
Gmelina arborea (47%)
Acacia auriculiformis (9%)
Amazinia mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla (9%)
Philippine Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) (12%)

Extent and mechanisms of displacement of native species in reforestation areas planted to

exotic species are unknown.

The use of fast-growing species in place of native species in reforestation has persisted because
of several reasons:

a. inadequate supply of native seeds/seedlings for reforestation

b. slow regeneration and growth rates of native species
c. poor appreciation or understanding of the watershed value of natural forest stand
against that of a reconstructed forest or tree plantation
d. misguided notion of the general public that simply greening an area is as good as
ecosystem restoration
e. absence of adequate data on forest biodiversity

3. Natural Regeneration
Pertains to the process of allowing an ecosystem to recover on its own through natural
succession. From the biodiversity point of view, natural regeneration is the most
appropriate rehabilitation method but only when the protection of the rehabilitation is
sustained.

4. Ecological enrichment through agroforestry

Ecological enrichment is a method used to repair/rebilitate degraded areas through
certain approaches, such as agroforestry.

5. Rehabilitation of forest reserves and Protected areas

Planting native wild food plants in the rehabilitation of protected areas in the Philippines
can attract seed-dispersing birds and mammals. It can also serve as a physical barrier to
the influx of unwanted species into the forest interior.

Slash-and Burn Agriculture-deforestation in Philippine uplands often begins with commercial

logging, frequently followed by slash-and-burn agriculture. This traditional form of farming is
referred to as “swidden farming” or “shifting cultivation” or locally known as “kaingin” .It usually
involves 3 basic steps: 1.) felling of trees ( usually in second-growth forests and logged-over
areas), 2.) burning of forest debris, and 3.) clearing the site for crop production.

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Forest Ecosystem in the Philippines

The Philippine forest ecosystem currently consists of patches of old growth (primary) and
second-growth forests, ranging in size from small to quite large. The old-growth forests,
sometimes referred to as “virgin forests”, is not in the true sense “untouched” because it has
actually been used and modified for hundreds of years by indigenous peoples.

a. Lowland rainforest -supporting more than 200-300 woody species and numerous other
species of plants and animals, covering about 60-70% of the land area of the country in
the early 1900s.
• It is now the most degraded forest type in the Philippines because of over-harvesting
of the highly prized timber (Philippine Mahogany) and associated non-timber products
(e.g. rattan, wildlife) as well as the conversion of forests to agriculture and other uses.
• Because lowland tropical rainforests have thin topsoil and low nutrient content, the
removal of vegetation makes them highly vulnerable to soil erosion, esp. during heavy
rainfall.

b. . Montane (mossy) forest

• Located at about 1000-3,000 meters in elevation
• Dominated by tree species in the oak and laurel families
• With numerous ferns and epiphytes
• With high rainfall and the trees and the forest floor are shrouded with thick mats of
moss that excel at receiving and slowly releasing rainwater forming the headwaters of
most of the rivers in the Philippines and play an especially important role in hydrology
• Removal of forest often causes catastrophic floods and landslides at this elevation but
severe drought at lower elevation.
• Grades into mossy forest or upper montane forest.
• This forest type is sometimes called “cloud forest” because it is often covered with rain
clouds
• Trees are stunted (2-8 meters) and twisted due to high winds and steep terrain
• The leaves of trees are usually smaller, harder, and thicker than those found at the
lower altitudes; forest floor is covered with slowly decomposing organic matter.

c. Pine Forest
• Pine forests in the Philippines are of two-types-one type is dominated by Benguet Pine
(Pinus insularis) in the Central Cordillera) at 1,000-2,5000 meters elevation, and the
other type is dominated by Mindoro Pine (Pinus merkusii) in northwestern Mindoro.
• These species are fire tolerant.

d. Coastal forests
• These include mangrove, beach, and karst forests:
• The mangrove forest is dominated by evergreen, woody trees (e.g. Rhizopora,
Avicennia), which adapt to varying levels of salinity.
• The mangrove forest forms an interphase between the terrestrial lowland forest
ecosystems and the marine notably seagrass beds and coral reefs.

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e. Beach forest is found along sandy and gravely beaches along the seacoast.
• It forms a narrow strip of vegetation dominated by widely distributed species such as
Terminalia cattapa, Casuarina equisetifolia, Acasia farnesina.
• Much of the beach forest in the country has been indiscriminately removed to give
way to tourism and human settlement.

f. Karst forest is a special forest type found in several coastal areas in the country.
• Karst is a limestone landscape formed by minerals in solution in natural waters
• Because soil moisture and nutrients are limiting, only a few but highly distinctive
species survive on coastal mountains

Species Approach

Didi you know that species can be used as indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem condition?

• A single species/taxon or a species assemblage (functional group/guild) has

often been used as indicator of the conditions of natural ecosystem
• Species richness is sometimes preferred as an ecological indicator because of
its high level of precision

Biodiversity Indicators:

1. Keystone species-is one upon which many other species depend for biological
necessities (food, shelter, etc.). Such organisms have a vital role in ecosystem processes
because their loss or decline could result in the collapse of biological integrity
Examples are fruit bats and forest birds, insect pollinators, snake, burrowing crabs
2. Sensitive species-the disappearance of certain organisms from a site could be an
indication of their sensitivity to habitat degradation
Examples are Haplonycteris fischeri (bat species), Cynopterus brachchyotis
3. Tolerant Species-species that can be used to assess the extent of pollution
Examples are green mussels
4. Endemic species-indicators of the status of habitats and ecosystems
Examples are endemic birds

Other Useful Indicators:

1. Umbrella Species-usually one with large habitat or range and which exerts a major
ecological influence on the community (e.g. Pithecophaga jefferyi)
2. Flagship species- either plants or animals that have captured the support and
sympathy of the general public; used as rallying calls for conservation. (e.g Bubalus
mindorensis)
3. Charismatic species-also nominated as flagship species because of their appeal to
the general public; many tend to be large, brightly colored or endowed with unique
and interesting features (e.g. Pithecophaga jefferyi).
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What are the threats to Species?

The following are considered threats to species and are also considered as drivers to the
loss of biodiversity. An acronym ‘HIPPCO’ will be used for you to easily remember them.
Again, these also affect human health directly and through their impacts on biodiversity
(see also Fig.5.2B):

H – is for Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation

• Rate of biodiversity loss is closely linked to the rate and extent of deforestation
• Loss of habitat has been identified as a primary threat to about 85-90% of the birds,
mammals and amphibians listed as threatened with extinction
• Habitat loss in the Philippines is caused mainly by the extensive removal of vegetation
and fragmentation of forests
• The country is considered one of the most critical areas of global conservation concern
because of the rapid loss of vegetation cover.

I- is for Invasive Species

• An invasive species is an introduced foreign species that has successfully established
itself in a new habitat and subsequently displaced native populations due to
competition or predation
• They are also called as alien species, exotic or non-native species of plants and
animals introduced, accidentally or deliberately to a place that is not part of their
natural habitat or distributional range. Exotic species, esp. those that were introduced
to an area with no natural predators or competitors, will flourish in their new habitats.

What are Alien Species in the Philippines?

Invasion by alien species in the Philippines may be attributed to one or any combination
of the following mechanisms:

a. Transport of organisms to a new habitat-this could be between islands or countries.

b. Establishment and propagation of the alien species in the new habitat-either
natural or man-made habitats, such as enclosures, artificial ponds, reforestation areas,
and gardens.
c. Uncontrolled spread from initial population over large area-either through
deliberate release or accidental escape.

1. Alien plants the replacement of endemic plants by alien species, usually closely
associated with deliberate vegetation clearing, is one of the major causes of
biodiversity loss in the Philippines.
Examples:
hagonoy (Chromolaena odorata)
ayam (Lantana camara)
water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes)
cogon (Imperata cylindrica)

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2. Alien terrestrial animals to enhance the Filipino diet with animal protein as well as
supplement the meager income of lowland farmers, exotic animals have been
introduced in the Philippines.
Examples:
Americal bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana)
Golden apple snail (Pomaceae canaliculata)
Central American cane toad (Bufo marinus)
House mouse (Mus musculus)
Ricefield rat (Rattus exulans)

3. Alien Freshwater Fish - with limited information

Examples:
catfish from Thailand (Clarias batrachus)
molly fish (Mollienesia latipinna)
common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
janitor fish (Hypostomus plecostomus)

4. Insect Pests-suspected to have been accidentally introduced into forest plantations

Example:
shoot borer (Hypsipyla robusta)

P- is for Population growth (human pressure)

• Population size increases through births and immigration and decreases through
deaths and emigration.
• The average number of children born to women in a population (total fertility rate) is
the key factor that determines the size of population.
P- is for Pollution
• Pollution comes in different forms (solid, liquid, gaseous) and composition (organic,
inorganic) and causes a wide range of direct and indirect effects on ecosystems and
living organisms including humans (plastics, organochlorines).

C- is for Climate Change

• Global warming has the potential of generating large-scale and long-term changes in
the climate. The vulnerability of small islands is often associated with increased
occurrence of extreme weather conditions.

O- is for Overexploitation
• Exploitation of plant and animal resources is a major direct cause of species
extinctions
* Over-exploitation of forests for timber and other non-timber products, either
legally or illegally, has decimated the native vegetation cover
* Over-harvesting of marine and freshwater resources
* Wild animals are over-collected for domestic and international trade:

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a. Domestic use and trade in wildlife-biodiversity loss due to over-utilization of

and trade in many species
* Trend may be attributed to increasing poverty, and human population pressure,
ignorance about the limits of nature, improved hunting technology, efficiency in
transportation and travel.
b. International trade in wildlife
* A lucrative business
* Wild plants and animals are sold on market either dead or alive.
c. Regulation of international trade through CITES
* Primary global mechanism that regulates the trade in wildlife across
international borders

6.4 MONITORING PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY

The vast destruction of forest and natural water habitats, environmental pollution and
overexploitation of the resources, usually anthropogenic in nature, has threatened a big loss of
biodiversity in the country. The loss of biodiversity consequently results to endangerment of
species.

To prevent from further destruction, and in the hope of recovering what have been lost,
the Philippines have formulated, implemented or joined international agreements and convention
to monitor its biodiversity. Below are some important governing bodies for the protection,
preservation and conservation of natural resources of the country:

National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS)

(Excerpt from https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/ph/ph070en.pdf )

Nature. The National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 1992 (Republic Act No.
7586, NIPAS Act) was enacted “to secure for the Filipino people of present and future
generations the perpetual existence of all native plants and animals through the
establishment of a comprehensive system of integrated protected areas within the
classification of national park as provided for in the Constitution” (Section 2, NIPAS Act).

The NIPAS Act provides the legal framework for the establishment and management of
protected areas (PAs) in the Philippines, and that the use and enjoyment of these
protected areas must be consistent with the principles of biological diversity and
sustainable development. It is the classification and management of all designated PAs,
in order to maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems, preserve
genetic diversity, ensure sustainable use of resources found therein, and maintain their
natural conditions to the greatest extent possible.

Purpose. To secure for the Filipino people of present and future generations the
perpetual existence of all native plants and animals through the establishment of a
comprehensive system of integrated protected areas within the classification of national
park as provided for in the Constitution.

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Scope. All areas or islands in the Philippines proclaimed, designated or set aside,
pursuant to a law, presidential decree, presidential proclamation or executive order as
national park, game refuge, bird and wildlife sanctuary, wilderness area, strict nature
reserve, watershed, mangrove reserve, fish sanctuary, natural and historical landmark,
protected and managed landscape/seascape as well as identified virgin forests before
the effectivity of NIPAS dated June 10, 1992.

Protected Areas. NIPAS shall encompass outstandingly remarkable areas and

biologically important public lands that are habitats of rare and endangered species of
plants and animals, biogeographic zones and related ecosystems, whether terrestrial,
wetland or marine, all of which shall be designated as "protected areas".

Categories of Protected Areas (PA)*

Category Description
Strict nature reserve An area possessing some outstanding ecosystem, features and/or species of
flora and fauna of national scientific importance maintained to protect nature
and maintain processes in an undisturbed state in order to have ecologically
representative examples of the natural environment available for scientific
study, environmental monitoring, education, and for the maintenance of genetic
resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state.

Nature Park Purpose A relatively large area not materially altered by human activity where extractive
resource uses are not allowed and maintained to protect outstanding natural
and scenic areas of national or international significance for scientific,
educational and recreational use.

Natural Monument A relatively small area focused on protection of small features to protect or
preserve nationally significant natural features on account of their special
interest or unique characteristics.

Wildlife sanctuary An area which assures the natural conditions necessary to protect nationally
significant species, groups of species, biotic communities or physical features
of the environment where these may require specific human manipulations for
their perpetuation.

Protected Areas of national significance which are characterized by the harmonious

Landscapes and interaction of man and land while providing opportunities for public enjoyment
seascapes through the recreation and tourism within the normal lifestyle and economic
activity of these areas.

Resource Reserve An extensive and relatively isolated and uninhabited area normally with difficult
access designated as such to protect natural resources of the area for future
use and prevent or contain development activities that could affect the resource
pending the establishment of objectives which are based upon appropriate
knowledge and planning.

Natural Biotic Areas An area set aside to allow the way of life of societies living in harmony with the
environment to adapt to modern technology at their pace.

Other categories Any category established by Law, conventions or international agreements

which the Philippine government is a signatory

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International Union for the Conservation of Nature

IUCN is a membership Union composed of both government and civil society
organizations. It harnesses the experience, resources and reach of its more than 1,300
Member organizations and the input of more than 15,000 experts. This diversity and vast
expertise makes IUCN the global authority on the status of the natural world and the
measures needed to safeguard it.
Vision: A just world that values and conserves nature.

Mission: Influence, encourage and assist societies to conserve the integrity and
diversity of nature and ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and
ecologically sustainable.

Governance: IUCN's strength and mandate come from its diverse and powerful
membership; more than 1,300 Member organizations which provide the vision and
oversight for the Union and its work.

Operation: UCN is a democratic Union that brings together the world’s most influential
organizations and top experts in a combined effort to conserve nature and accelerate the
transition to sustainable development.

What is the IUCN Red List?

Established in 1964, IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species has evolved to become the
world’s most comprehensive information source on the global conservation status of animal,
fungi and plant species.

The IUCN Red List is a critical indicator of the health of the world’s biodiversity. Far more than
a list of species and their status, it is a powerful tool to inform and catalyze action for biodiversity
conservation and policy change, critical to protecting the natural resources we need to survive.
It provides information about range, population size, habitat and ecology, use and/or trade,
threats, and conservation actions that will help inform necessary conservation decisions.

The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (Figure 6.3; Table 6.1) are intended to be an
easily and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction.

The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria aims to:

1. Provide a system that can be applied consistently by different people;

2. Improve objectivity by providing users with clear guidance on how to evaluate

different factors which affect the risk of extinction;

3. Provide a system which will facilitate comparisons across widely different taxa;

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4. Give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual
species were classified

Figure 6.3. Structure of the Categories

.

Table 6.1. The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria

Red List Criteria

Category
A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has
Extinct (EX) died. A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or
expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its
historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time
frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form.

A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in

Extinct in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past
the Wild range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when exhaustive surveys in
(EW) known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual),

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throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should
be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form.

A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that
Critically it meets any of the criteria A to E (See Appendix ___) for Critically Endangered,
Endangered and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in
(CE) the wild.

A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets
Endangered any of the criteria A to E for Endangered, and it is therefore considered to be
(EN) facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets
Vulnerable any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable, and it is therefore considered to be
(VU) facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

Near A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but
Threatened does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is
(NT) close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near
future.

A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and
Least does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near
Concern Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.
(LC)
A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct,
Data or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or
Deficient population status.
(DD)
A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but
appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is
therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that
more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future
research will show that threatened classification is appropriate.

It is important to make positive use of whatever data are available. In many

cases great care should be exercised in choosing between DD and a threatened
status. If the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed, and a
considerable period of time has elapsed since the last record of the taxon,
threatened status may well be justified.

Not A taxon is Not Evaluated when it has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.
evaluated
(NE)

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Convention in the International Trade of Endangered Species of flora and fauna (CITES)*

It is an international agreement between governments. The negotiations for the

convention were completed in 1973 and it came into full force in 1975 after being signed by 132
countries. It was the first broadly accepted global environmental agreement to use trade
measures as a way to protect the environment.

Table 6.2. Convention in the International Trade of Endangered Species of flora and fauna (CITES)
CITES Description
Purpose To protect wild animals and plants that have been designated as
endangered under the convention. Further, it ensures that
international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten their survival, thus preventing extinction.
Operation It subjects international trade in specimens of selected species to
certain control. This means that all import, export re-export and
introduction from the sea of species covered by the convention has
to be authorized through licensing system.

Each Party to the Convention must designate one or more

management authorities in charge of administering that licensing
system and one or more Scientific authorities to advise them on the
effects of trade on the status of the species.
Structure

*Source:

6.5 KEY TAKEAWAYS

1. Biodiversity is generally referred to as the totality of ecosystems, species, and genes
within the area and described at different levels: genetic, species, ecosystems and
functions.

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2. There is a strong evidence on the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem

functioning which can be directly linked to ecosystem services necessary to sustain
human health.

3. The continued decline of biodiversity such as loss or degradation of ecosystems, is

reducing the ability of biodiversity and ecosystems to provide essential life-sustaining
services and in many cases, leads to negative outcomes for health and well-being.
Ecosystem degradation may lead to both biodiversity loss and increased risk from
infectious diseases. In turn the indirect drivers of biodiversity loss are demographic
change and large-scale social and economic processes. Social change and development
trends such as urbanization, poverty and gender also influence these drivers of change.
Macroeconomic policies and structures and public policies that provide perverse
incentives or fail to incorporate the value of biodiversity often compound the dual threat
to biodiversity and public health.

4. Joining the CITES requires the government of a state or a regional economic integration
organization to submit its formal declaration to this effect in writing to the Depositary
Government (the Government of Switzerland). Once a document containing this
declaration has been received by the Depositary, through the diplomatic channel, the
Convention enters into force for the State concerned 90 days later. The Philippines joined
CITES on August 18, 1981 and the Convention enters into force for the Philippines on
November 16, 1981.

5. The Philippines being located in the Coral Triangle region, is considered to be at the
center of marine biodiversity in the world. Our country is a home of the most diverse coral
faunas, with reefs having more than 400 species and 70 genera of hard corals. Among
the places in the Philippines with highest percentage of coral reefs are Palawan and the
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), particularly Sulu, Tawi-Tawi Islands
and Turtle Islands.

6. Conservation International, a nonprofit environmentalist group founded in 1987,

recognizes the Philippines as one of only 17 mega-diverse countries in the world. This
means that Philippines is one of the nations that shelter the bulk of Earth's animal and
plant life, a number of which have high endemism. The country, being a home to
exceptionally high numbers of plants and animals, provide a high index of genetic
diversity. Such characteristics are rich sources of genetic material for potential use for
the development of new products for food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, bioremediation,
biological control of pests and diseases and other applications in agriculture and industry.

7. The Philippines is also known as one of the world’s most threatened hotspots. From more
than 85% of its original forest cover, it has left a mere 7.0% of its old-growth, closed-
canopy forest as a result of illegal logging activities, mining and land conversion.
Consequently, biodiversity loss in the Philippines stems from these habitat destruction
and overexploitation. Pollution of different types (chemical, environmental and biological)
and weak institutional and legal capacities are also contributory to biodiversity loss.

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6.6 REFERENCES

On-site Books:

Online References:

The Ocean-Impact of Seafood. National Geographic. www.nationalgeographic.org

Wilkie ML, Homlgren M, and Castaneda F. 2003. Sustainable Forest Management and
Ecosystem Approach: Two concepts, One Goal. Forest Management Working Paper. Forestry
Department. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. www.fao.org/fo.

World Health Organization and Secretariat of the Convention on biological diversity, 2015.
Connecting global priorities: biodiversity and human health: a state of knowledge review. ISBN
978 92 4 150853 7 https://www.cbd.int/health/SOK-biodiversity-en.pdf

Miller GT and Spoolman SE. 2010. Environmental Science. 13th International edition.
Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning (e-book).

6.7 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

ASSESSMENT TITLE Flora and Fauna Species Diversity, Anthropogenic Threats, and
Conservation Status
ASSESSMENT TYPE Journal article No. 1 Est. Duration 1.0 to 1.5hrs
analysis
OUTCOMES
ASSESSED

INSTRUCTIONS:

Individual Work

A. Journal article analysis:

Please refer to the published journal article of our very own DLSU-D Faculty members
(CSCS-BSD) titled “Tree Species Diversity of the remaining forest fragments in Cavite,
Luzon Island, Philippines (Causaren et al., 2017). An electronic copy of this will be
provided by your instructor or you may download this directly from the internet.
Answer the following questions:
1. What are the different forest fragments in Cavite as identified by the researchers?

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2. List down the mentioned tree species and describe their conservation status. Can
you name also the plant species which can be found only in Mts. Palaypalay
National Park and was named after the province of Cavite?
3. For each forest fragments, identify the different anthropogenic threats.
4. The Philippine government’s National Greening Program (NGP) and De La Salle
Philippines’ One Million Trees and Beyond (OMTB) project have both set to target
planting one billion and one million trees respectively in the whole country. In this
regard, what do you think are the benefits that we can get from participating to this
program in relation to the researchers’ recommendation?
5. Why do you think Mts. Palaypalay was declared a national park in the province of
Cavite?
6. Give at least 10 or more concrete examples of notable flora and fauna unique or
endemic to the Philippines. For foreigner students, you may list down those from
your country.

B. Give the description of the representative animals and assess their status based on
IUCN Red list category and criteria

Philippine endemic species

Philippine The Mindoro Roufous- Hawksbill Red-Vented
freshwater Bleeding Headed Sea Turtle Cockatoo
crocodile Heart Hornbill
Description
Scientific Crocodylus Gallicolumba Aceros Eretmochelys Cacatua
name mindorensis platenae waldeni Imbricata Haematuropygia

Other
name/s
(common
name, local
name)

Location
(province
and habitat)

What is its
role on the
environment
or particular
niche

IUCN
Category

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Major
reason for
the category

6.8 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Essay: Give what is being asked. 10 points each.

A. The Ocean – Impact of Seafood

Fishprint: area of ocean needed to sustain the consumption of an average person, a
nation, or the world.
1. Identify some important fishing regions as well as their geographic and ecological
features. Draw a map to show these regions or you could label/mark the global map
instead.
2. Discuss the relationship between fisheries regions, fish ecology and human
consumption of seafood.
3. What do you mean by global fisheries crisis? What is the role of consumer awareness
in the prevention of overfishing of marine animals?
4. Give the importance of a community-based biodiversity conservation/ecosystem
management program over the issue of overfishing.

B. Endemic Species of the Philippines

1. Each group is assigned a particular endemic species of the Philippines under
threatened category.

2. Familiarize yourself with the description, habitat, behavior and other relevant
information about the assigned species.

3. Come up with a promotional or campaign material to save the species from

extinction. This may be in the form of brochures, poster, Video clip and the like.

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