Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prepared by:
ARNOLD B. FONOLLERA, PhD
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BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Title Page
2.0 Gospel Reflection 2
2.1 Expected Learning Outcomes 3
2.2 Introduction 3
2.3 Environmental Science and Ecology 4
2.4 Environmental Principles 5
2.5 Environmental Ethics 6
2.6 Environmental Attitudes 8
2.7 Relevant Environmental Attitudes and Behavior 9
2.8 Environmental Justice and Governance 11
Key Takeaways 12
Available Books and Online Resources 13
Formative Assessment 14
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BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT
Genesis 1:1-31
“In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was without
form and void, and darkness was over the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God
was hovering over the face of the waters. And God said, “Let there be light,” and
there was light. And God saw that the light was good. And God separated the
light from the darkness. God called the light Day, and the darkness he called
Night. And there was evening and there was morning, the first day. ...”
INSTRUCTION:
Using the space below, write a reflection essay based on the Bible verse above. In your essay,
how do you relate the bible verse into your study of environmental science? How do you think
this bible verse connect to this module.
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2.2 INTRODUCTION
The word environmental usually refers to the conditions around which affects people and
other organisms. In a broader context, environmental science is the study of the interactions
between humans, other organisms, and their surroundings and how these interactions affect
their surroundings. Thereupon, environmental changes from these activities will eventually
have repercussions on humans and other organisms.
Ecology on the other hand, is a branch of biological science that deals with the relationships
between living things and the non-living components of the environment and plays an
important role in environmental science. Its focus of study is the ecosystem. An ecosystem
occupies an important hierarchy in the level of organization in nature, more complex than a
community, consisting of organisms interacting with one another and with the nonliving
matter and energy within a defined area. An example is a forest ecosystem consisting of
plants (mostly trees), animals and microorganisms that decompose, all interacting with each
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other and interacting with the physical and chemical components of the air, water and soil,
driven by the life-sustaining energy of the sun.
The study of environmental science deals with interactions and relationships existing in
nature in which man has a profound influence in many of its processes. We do not only deal
with relationships between the biotic and abiotic factors, but we also deal with people – the
culture, politics, economics and social life. Many environmental problems are rooted within
the various structures of society, and unless we look into the socioeconomic and political
aspects of our society would we be able to solve these environmental problems.
With millions of years of evolution, nature has established stability and homeostasis that
allowed life to flourish in relative harmony. From this viewpoint, a number of so-called
‘environmental principles’ can serve as a guide on how society can establish its harmonious
relation with nature.
The food chain and food web are prime examples to illustrate the interdependence and
interconnectedness between the many biotic components of the ecosystem. Moreover, it is
not limited to living things alone but also the connection of the biotic factors with the physical
factors. For example, how the type and distribution of soil, chemical characteristics of the
water affects the distribution of organisms.
Materials in the environment undergo cyclic changes, passing through geologic and
biological systems. Likewise, when energy flows through nature, it is neither created nor
destroyed, but changes from one form to another.
“Everything in Nature has to go Somewhere”. Materials are natural resources, but when
placed in the wrong place at the wrong time become wastes and pollute the environment,
diminishing the utility of a resource. We have to remember that the Earth is a closed system,
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and that its self-cleaning capacity is limited. Many would argue that pollution is a necessary
evil, that while it is inevitable in many circumstances can be efficiently controlled using
innovative, environment-friendly approaches.
f) Finiteness of Resources
“Ours is a finite Earth”, means that most resources are nonrenewable, vulnerable to
depletion and degradation unless it is used prudently and wisely. But as populations increase
and the demand for resources increase, bear in mind that Nature has limits beyond which its
resources can no longer sustain overpopulation. The use of resources must ensure
maximum benefits not only for the present but for future generations for an indefinite period
of time. Shifting to an environment-friendly lifestyle can reduce the demand for resources
and environmental stress.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy which transcends all cultural and religious boundaries to
discern fundamentally what is right and what is wrong. Most cultures have a reverence for
life and hold that all humans have a right to live, and therefore considers unethical to deprive
an individual of life. In contrast to morals, morals reflect the predominant mindset of a society
about ethical issues at a distinct time period. Although most cultures share the same view
that it is certainly unethical to kill a person. However, when circumstances compel a country
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to declare war against a hostile state, majority of the population accept the necessity of killing
the enemy, as an act of self-defense or a means of self-preservation. During a state of war,
killing the enemy is a moral thing to do even though ethics says that killing is wrong. No
nation has ever declared an immoral war. Even Adolf Hitler view the necessity of war as a
moral act of delivering the German nation from the oppressive conditions set forth by the
Treaty of Versailles after the First World War, which left Germany in ruins, politically and
economically.
Resolving environmental issues require a consideration of both ethics and morals. When the
government imposed a nationwide enhanced community quarantine during the COVID-19
Pandemic and people were required to stay indoors for a certain period, local food supplies
were adequate enough to feed the population. It would be unethical to allow some people,
particularly the poor to starve during the quarantine period while others have more than
enough. Lamentably, a pervasive social problem among those in the higher social classes
is one of indifference. They don’t feel morally obligated to share what they have with others.
The situation reveals the grim reality that this indifference makes it permissible to allow poor
people to starve while urging them to stay indoors so as not to pose a risk to others. This
moral stand is not consistent with a purely ethical one.
Ethics and morals are not always on the same plane of thought. Because of this ambiguity,
it is often difficult to define what is right and what is wrong. Some people view that global
warming as serious and have reduce their fossil fuel consumption. Others doubt that there
is a problem and so have not modified their energy use. Still others do not care what the
situation is. They will use fossil fuels as long as it is available.
Other issues are population and pollution. With world population at 7.8 billion in 2020 and
the Philippine population at 109.5 million, is it ethical to have more than two children in a
world beset with overpopulation? Is it ethical for the plastics industry to lobby to legislators
to vote no on a bill banning plastics because it might reduce profits, even though its passage
would improve the environment? The stand we take on such issues often depends on our
position. For example, government does not look upon mining as negatively as indigenous
people who are displaced do as a result of mining activities. In fact, many business leaders
view the behavior of hard-core environmentalists as immoral because it restricts growth and,
in some cases, causes unemployment.
Many ethical questions are very complex. Ethical issues concerning the environment is no
different and has to be dealt with objectively. It is important to explore environmental issues
from several points of view before taking a stand. When we decide to take an ethical stand,
we become prey to attack from
those who disagree with our stand, and have to endure the stigma of being portrayed as
villains for pursuing a course of action against which the opposing party consider righteous.
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Environmental ethics is a topic of applied ethics that examines the moral basis of
environmental responsibility with the end goal focused on the moral foundation of
environmental responsibility and how far this responsibility extends. There are three primary
theories of moral responsibility regarding the environment, all of which supports
environmental responsibility but whose approaches are different:
b) Biocentric. This is a widely embraced view that all forms of life have an inherent right to
exist. Some biocentric advocates give species a hierarchy of values, where they contend
that we have a greater responsibility to protect animal species than plant species, while
others say that the rights of certain species are denied from where the rights of humans
begin. For example, when rats and mosquitoes are labelled as pests, they see nothing wrong
in exterminating them. Extreme biocentrists believe that each individual organism, not just
each species, has a basic right to survive. On a different note, animal rights advocates put
more value on animals than on plants. Trying to decide which species deserve protection
from death or early extinction due to human activities is an ethical dilemma, where, it is very
difficult to be ethically consistent.
c) Ecocentrism. This is a holistic view that maintains that the environment deserves direct
moral consideration and not one that is merely derived from human and animal interests.
This comes with a view that the environment has direct rights, which entitles it with moral
personhood, deserving of a direct duty to be protected, and that it has inherent worth. The
environment, by itself, is considered morally at par with humans.
Planetary health advocates argue that the “right” of the planet is a natural extension of the
concept of human rights and therefore entitled to a similar degree of environmental
protection. Moreover, environmental ethics consider one’s actions towards the environment
as a matter of right and wrong, rather than one of self-interest.
There are many different attitudes about the environment, most of which fall under one of
three heading: a) the development ethic, b) the preservation ethic, c) the conservation ethic.
Each of these ethical positions has its own code of conduct against which ecological morality
may be measured.
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from the Old Testament, Genesis 1:26 where God said, “Let Us make Man in Our image,
after Our likeness, to rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock,
and over all the earth itself and every creature that crawls upon it.” and Genesis 1:28 where
God blessed them and said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill
the earth and subdue it; rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and every
creature that crawls upon the earth.
This view is further reinforced by the work ethic, which dictates that humans should
continuously effect change and that resources utilized represent “progress and prosperity”,
which itself is good. The idea that “if it can be done, it should be done” is the motivating
factor that drives our actions and energy when engaged in creative work.
b) The preservation ethic considers nature special in itself. Nature, it is argued, has intrinsic
value or inherent worth beyond human appropriation. Preservationists have diverse reasons
for wanting to preserve nature. Some hold an almost religious belief regarding nature. They
have a reverence for life and respect the right of all creatures to live, no matter what the
social and economic costs.
a) Tragedy of the Commons. The worldview that the Earth, since time immemorial had
been able to sustain us led most of us to believe that its resources are easily replenished
and abundant enough for everyone to enjoy. This idea of commonly shared resources where
most are renewable had led to its overexploitation and eventual degradation, mainly due to
its open-access nature. Examples of these are the atmosphere, the open ocean and its
fishes. This phenomenon was first described in 1968 by economist/biologist Garret Hardin,
in an essay entitled the “Tragedy of the Commons”. Hardin explained that each user of a
shared common resource reasons that, “If I do not use this resource, someone else will”
or “a small amount used or pollute is not enough to matter, anyway, it’s a renewable
resource”.
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This reasoning can be presumed to be logical if the number of users is small, assuming that
with such small impact, nature can indeed renew itself. However, the collective effect of many
users exploiting a shared resource can eventually degrade and exhaust it irreversibly and
consequently everyone suffers in the end. Thus, the shared resource or “commons” had met
its tragedy.
self-actualization at the top of the pyramid would it open him to engage in altruistic endeavors
such as environmental protection.
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BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT
Environmental justice is defined as fair treatment, meaning that “no group of people,
including racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic groups should bear a disproportionate
share of the negative environmental consequences resulting from industrial,
municipal and commercial operations or the execution of national and local policies.”
a) Polluter-Pays Principle. This is one of the oldest principles of environmental law and also
one of the most intuitive, which traces its origins among the celebrated passages of the Greek
philosopher Plato in ‘The Dialogues of Plato’ which stated that, “If anyone intentionally
spoils the water of another…let him not only pay for damages, but purify the stream
or cistern which contains the water.” It makes practical and moral sense to make the
polluter pay for its wrongs and is expected to deter would-be polluters in the future. In the
interest of environmental justice, it seems fair that “if you make a mess, it is your duty to
clean it up”.
b) Intergenerational Equity. This principle is deeply rooted in various cultural and religious
traditions, built upon the use of equity. Initially formulated by the Greek philosopher Aristotle,
intergenerational equity serves as the guiding principle in international law for formulating
standards in allocating and sharing resources and for distributing the burdens of caring for
the resources and the environment in which they are found. The principle of intergenerational
equity became the foundation for the concept of sustainable development, during the 1987
UN World Commission on Environment and Development, contained in the Brundtland
Report which defined sustainable development as “meeting the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
c) Writ of Mandamus and Writ of Kalikasan. Article II Section 16 of the 1987 Constitution
provides that “The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced
and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.” This provision
was put to the ‘acid test” in the Oposa vs. Factoran Case, where the Supreme Court of the
Philippines, in a landmark decision on July 30, 1993 upheld the Doctrine of
Intergenerational Responsibility on the environment in Philippine jurisprudence. It was a
milestone case heralded not only in Philippine legal system but also in international
environmental law. Appalled by the state of the Philippine forest in which only 4% of the
country’s original 800,000 hectares remains in 1990, due to the government’s reckless
issuance of logging permits to logging concessionaires for an absurd 3.9 million hectares, an
area five time as much forest that actually exists, Attorney Oposa sued DENR Secretary
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Fulgencio Factoran, acting on behalf of 43 children, including his own, and on behalf of
children not yet born. The plaintiffs demanded that all existing timber concessions be
cancelled, and that no new ones be issued. The lower court upheld the DENR’s position on
the grounds that people who didn’t yet exist had no right to sue. Upon appeal, the Supreme
Court ruled in favor of Oposa, where the high court agreed that “the rhythm and harmony of
nature” undoubtedly required the “management, renewal and conservation” of natural capital,
and imposed on each generation a responsibility to preserve nature for succeeding
generations. This is “intergenerational responsibility,”and became known as the “Oposa
Doctrine,” where its echoes can be heard in courtrooms around the world. This ushered in
a new era in legal jurisprudence, where, in another landmark case of Oposa vs MMDA, the
Supreme Court again ruled in favor of Oposa, issuing the Writ of Mandamus, which led to
the massive cleanup of Manila Bay. The writ is a legal instrument in the form of a court order
commanding a dilatory organization or individual, in this particular case, several government
agencies, to perform its legal duties and obligations, or be penalized for contempt of court.
Oposa also judiciously made use of another legal instrument unique to the Philippines, the
“Writ of Kalikasan” (“kalikasan” means “nature”), a court order which can be enforced to
deal swiftly with environmental threats affecting life, health, or property that may cover two
or more municipalities or provinces.
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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
INSTRUCTION:
This is an ESSAY type of assessment. Use the space below and the next page to write
something about yourself. Specifically, answer the following questions: (1) What sparked your
interest in studying Environmental Science? (2) What are the different environmental ethics
and attitudes would you advocate? (3) Are you living a life that conforms with all the
environmental principles in your learning journey as a student? Which of the principles do you
find challenging to follow? Explain.
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