Envi Sci Module FINAL .Djbramirez

DR. ESMERALDA A.
BURTON
DR. DANIEL JUAN B. RAMIREZ
Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 1

Course Guide
Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary field. Because environmental disharmonies

occur as a result of the interaction between humans and the natural world, we must include both when
seeking solutions to environmental problems. It is important to have a historical perspective,
appreciate economic and political realities, recognize the role of different social experiences and
ethical backgrounds, and integrate these with the science that describes the natural world and how we
affect it.
This 3-unit course deals with the general concepts and principles pertaining to complex
pattern of interaction between the physical environment and biological communities on earth.
Emphasis is also given on the current environmental issues and concerns as well as disaster risk
management techniques.
This Learning Modules is designed to guide undergraduate students of the Ilocos Sur
Polytechnic State College under the Bachelor’s Degree Program in Secondary Education Major in
Science and to develop better understanding of the nature, its pressing problems, and restoration and
conservation mechanisms. Throughout the semester we will attempt to relate man’s activities and its
impact to our environment.
Specifically, this learning material seeks to address the following Course Outcomes:
1. Define the general principles of ecology and its relation to other sciences
2. Demonstrate an understanding of ecological relationships between organisms and their
environment
3. Demonstrate an understanding of structure/function relationships in organisms
4. Discuss population structure, growth and density, and interactions of organisms in a
population
5. Explain the concepts of community ecology in terms of structure and diversity, habitat and
community changes
6. Identify basic applications/conservation measures and the impacts of Human populations
have had in the environment
7. Demonstrate scientific quantitative skills, such as the ability to evaluate experimental design,
read graphs and understand and use information from scientific paper
8. Demonstrate skill in communication of their ideas in writing and in oral presentations
How to learn from this module
As one of part of the flexible learning modality to be used in this course, YOU are
expected to learn from this module by carefully reading and understanding each lesson. There are also
helpful links that you can visit to deepen your knowledge of the topics. Video lessons, presentations
and other resources are also prepared in softcopy. You are therefore advised to get a copy from your
course instructor immediately after the Orientation.
Some topics present new information while others that you may already know. Every block
presents a learning task that requires some response from you. Some can be done orally as the
questions are designed to engage you in the lesson.
There are also prepared several activities for every lesson. And each lesson requires you to
finish in a specific time frame, thus, time management is an essential skill for you to develop. All
required written outputs must be placed in the Google Classroom and be submitted after every lesson.

Utmost creativity and scholarly work is expected from your journal of activities. So you need to
dedicate your time in reading and writing with comprehension and critical thinking. Remember that
the quality of your craft reflects your personality as a future science educator. You also need to be
mindful of your time frame. The given activities are important and carefully planned by your course
instructor because they are programmed to help you learn more efficiently.
Further instruction will be given through online class, group chat, text or call. Do not hesitate
to reach out to your course instructor for any concern of the subject.
Now, are you ready to learn? GOODLUCK!
Module 1 (4Weeks)
INTRODUCTION
Do you know where the word environment came from? Have you heard of the
term ecology? Do you have any idea about it? How do you think is it related to
environmental science? If you are getting curious to know more, then hop in as we
explore the world of ecology.
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, the learners must be able to:
1. Define the terms environment, environmental science and ecology
2. Identify the scope of environmental science
3. Indicate the origin and development of Environmental Science
4. Identify some of the major figures in the field of environmental science
5. Discuss the relationships of Environmental Science to other branches of
science
6. Discuss the importance of Environmental Science
7. Explain the concept of biological spectrum
8. Enumerate the tools used in the study of the environment
1.1 Definition and Scope of Environmental Science

The word environment is derived from French word “environ” which means
surrounding or enveloping. Environmental science is a multidisciplinary science
which combines physics, chemistry, biology, medical, health science, life science,
agricultural science, forestry, public health engineering and so on. The main
objective of environmental science is to protect the environment.
To understand the history of environmental science, we must first understand what

an 'environment' is. In science, the environment is the all the factors and conditions
(biological, chemical and physical) in which an organism lives. So if we are studying
fish, its environment is the water it lives in, the temperature and chemical makeup of
the water, the type of climate of the lake or pond, how much rain it gets, average
daily temperatures, what type of other fish live in the lake, presence of algae or
plants, and the list goes on and on.
All the factors such as physical, geographical, chemical, biological, and ecological
which affects human life and its existence on this planet are called environment. The
environment includes earth, lakes, forests, farms, vegetation and other biological life
such as animals, plants, bacteria and microorganisms etc. All the components of
the environment are basically divided into two categories— the biotic and abiotic
environment. The biotic environment includes all living organisms and biological life
such as animals, birds, forests, reptiles, insects, bacteria and microorganisms like
algae, fungus etc. While the abiotic environment includes all non-living components
such as land, mountains, rivers, air, water, temperature, humidity, water vapour,
sand, dust, clouds etc.
Now, how does environmental science related to ecology? Generally

speaking, environmental science is a broader field that incorporates many
elements of earth and life sciences, whereas ecology is usually more focused on
how organisms interact with each other and their surroundings, and often on a very
specific population of living things.
Our surrounding includes forest, rivers, mountains, desert, or a combination of these

elements. Most of us live in landscapes that have been heavily modified by the
human beings in villages, towns and cities. But even those of us who live in cities get
our food supply from surrounding villages. We use water to drink and other day to
day activities, we breathe air, we use resources from which food is made. Our
dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without protecting
the earth’s environmental resources.
The scope of environmental studies is very wide and it deals with many areas like
i) Conservation of natural resources, ii) ecological aspects, iii) pollution of the
surrounding natural resources, iv) controlling the pollution, v) social issues
connected to it, and vi) impacts of human population on the environment.

What YOU will do…
Activity 1.1
Answer the following questions to test your understanding of the lesson:
1. How do you define environment?

2. Compare environmental science with ecology? How are they related to one
another?
3. What are the parameters covered in the environmental science?
Enrichment
Activity 1.2
Research Work:
Have you heard about an Environmental Planner? What are the specific tasks
of an Environmental Planner and his role in crafting government policies?
1.2 Historical Perspective of Environmental Science
Historical ecology encompasses all of the data, techniques and perspectives from
paleoecology, land-use history from archival and documentary research and long-
term ecological research and monitoring extended over decades (Swetnam, 1999).
Ecology is the study of earth’s living systems and how they interact. It is not
environmentalism, a social and political movement. Ecology is one of the most
complex sciences and is very new. As such we are only at the beginning of our
understanding of how a change in one element might affect a whole system or one
organism in that system.
In 1941, Aldo Leopold took a scientific approach to understanding environmental

phenomena by collecting and analysing data related to the health of the environment
and the organisms in that environment. Aldo is often credited as being "the father of
wildlife ecology and the United States’. He fostered the idea of "land ethics". "Land
ethics" integrated a philo responsible use, conservation and restoration of our most
precious resource; the environment. .
Antoine Lavoisier was a chemist who discovered and named oxygen in 1778 and
carbon in 1783. He also identified these elements as necessary for life. He was the
first to identify that oxygen was indeed a reactant in combustion reactions. This
notion was again contradictory to the prevailing theory of the time, “phlogiston

theory”. The phlogiston theory is an archaic scientific theory that a mysterious "fire-
like element", called phlogiston, was released from substances during combustion.
In 1852, Robert Angus Smith (called the “father of acid rain”) was a chemist who

linked acid rain to the pollution that arose from the industrial revolution. Smith was
active during the middle of the nineteenth century, when the consequences of the
Industrial Revolution and urbanization on public health and the environment was just
beginning to be understood. He made the link between the low pH (acidity) of rain
water here and sulphates derived from the combustion of coal. The acid rain of the
time caused erosion of buildings made of stone, bricks and mortar, and damage to
agriculture.
Ernst Haeckel (1869) was a German biologist, naturalist, philosopher, physician,

professor, and artist who discovered, catalogued and classified literally thousands of
new species in his lifetime. In 1869 Ernst Haeckel coined the term ecology. He
created the phylogenic or genealogical tree that postulated heritage of genetic traits
back to a common ancestor for species sharing similar phenotypes. He coined many
terms in biology, including anthropogeny, ecology, phylum, phylogeny, stem cells,
and Protista.
In 1875, Eduard Seuss defines the biosphere and plate tectonic

theory. Eduard Suess was the first to suggest the idea of a supercontinent that had
since separated due to continental drift. This theory followed his discovery that some
species were found on separate continents. This gave explanation for the discovery
of on his work studying fossils in the Alps and his knowledge of the fossils of
Glossopteris ferns that were found on several different continents. There is even a
crater on the moon and one on mars that are named after him.
In 1877, Albert Bernhard discovers that some species co-evolve to have specific

interactions or relationships. He called this phenomenon "symbiosis" from the Greek
words for "living" and "together". Albert Bernhard first discovered symbiosis through
understanding that mycorrhizae are created by a mutually symbiotic relationship
between a fungus and the roots of a plant. This relationship benefits both partners,
because the plant roots provide nutrients for the fungus, while the fungus allows the
roots to access to important phosphates in the soil.
Charles Darwin created the theory of natural selection after observing many species
that displayed specializations suited to their environments that gave them enhanced
abilities to survive and thrive in that environment. Many of his observation were
written in his book, "The Origin of the Species"
Edward Bagnali Poulton was an English zoologist that took a special interest
in camouflage and write the book, "The Colours of Animals" in 1890.

The Ecological Society of America was founded on December 28, 1915
In 1927, Charles Elton described and characterized the processes energy transfer

from species to species within an ecosystem as the "food chain" or in more complex
examples, the "food web".
The Dust Bowl crisis raised ecological awareness in 1935 after unregulated farming
through the west left severe drought and barren land as a result. Ecology was used
to define practical land usage practices that would help to prevent repeats of the
crisis in future generations.
In 1935, Arthur Tinsley defines the ecosystem as both living and non-living

components of a geographical area that are interconnected either directly or
indirectly.
The Nature Conservancy is founded in 1951.
In 1953, Eugene Odum wrote the first ecology textbook. Ecology begins to be taught

as a discipline.
In 1978, Conservation Biology established as a discipline focusing on environmental

management
A hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica was discovered by scientists in 1980. On

the other hand, new sewage treatment technology and the use of catalytic
converters in automobiles resulted in a reduction of water and air pollution,
respectively.
As today, while all of the eco-friendly modern advances are too numerous to list,

here are just few advances that modern science and technology, along with political
legislation and social activism, have made possible. New desalination plants are
working in developing countries to provide clean water to populations that have
suffered from a long-standing water shortage. The U.S. government approved a plan
to release genetically-modifies mosquitos that exist in areas prone to certain
illnesses and diseases, such as the Zika virus. The result of the genetic mutation is
to reduce the fertility in the mosquito population to decrease the spread of the
disease by them. Cleaner emissions, recycled products, electric and hybrid cars,
and biodiesel fuels, are helping to change the pollution that has plagued our planet.
These advances give the current and future generations hope that we can use our
intelligence and our diligence to work together collectively for the common goal of
health for our world, and, in turn, its inhabitants.
1.3 Related Disciples and Approaches

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical,
biological and information sciences including ecology, biology, physics, chemistry,
plant science, zoology, mineralogy, oceanography, limnology, soil science, geology
and physical geography and atmospheric science to the study of the environment,
and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science emerged from
the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment. Today it provides
an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study
of environmental systems.
Environmental studies incorporate more of the social sciences for understanding

human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment.
Environmental engineering focuses on design and technology for improving
environmental quality in every aspect.
As you have learned from the above historical perspectives, environmental science
is really indeed a multidisciplinary science. The next activity is designed for you to
discuss on the relationships of environmental science to other branches or discipline
in science. Are you ready?
What YOU will do…

Activity 1.3
Take a close look of the illustration below and relate the different disciplines
to environmental science.

1.4 Importance of Environmental Science
For sure you’ve got a lot of ideas from your previous activity about the importance of
environmental science as a field of study. Before we proceed with the discussion,
can you ask yourself with this question, “why is it important to learn environmental
science?”.
Below is a list of the specific importance of environmental studies.
1. To realize that environmental problems are global. Environmental science lets
you recognize that environmental problems such as climate change, global
warming, ozone layer depletion, acid rains, and impacts on biodiversity and
marine life are not just national problems, but global problems as well. So,
concerted effort from across the world is needed to tackle these problems.
2. To understand the impacts of development on environment. It’s well
documented and quantified that development results in Industrial growth,
urbanization, expansion of telecommunication and transport systems, hi-tech
agriculture and expansion of housing. Environmental science seeks to teach the
general population about the need for decentralization of industries to reduce
congestion in urban areas. Decentralization means many people will move out of
urban centers to reduce pollution resulting from overpopulation. The goal is to
achieve all this sustainably without compromising the future generation’s ability to
satisfy their own needs.
3. To discover sustainable ways of living. Environmental science is more
concerned with discovering ways to live more sustainably. This means utilizing
present resources in a manner that conserves their supplies for the future.
Environmental sustainability doesn’t have to outlaw living luxuriously, but it
advocates for creating awareness about consumption of resources and
minimizing unnecessary waste. This includes minimizing household energy
consumption, using disposals to dispose of waste, eating locally, recycling more,
growing your own food, drinking from the tap, conserving household water, and
driving your car less.
4. To utilize natural resources efficiently. Natural resources bring a whole lot of
benefits to a country. A country’s natural resources may not be utilized efficiently
because of low-level training and lack of management skills. Environmental
science teaches us to use natural resources efficiently by:
5. To understand behavior of organisms under natural conditions. Behavior is
what organisms manifest to respond to, interact with, and control their
environment. An animal exhibits behavior as the first line of defense in response
to any change of environment. So, critical look at organism’s behavior can offer
insightful information about animal’s needs, dislikes, preferences and internal
condition providing that your evaluation of those observations firmly hinge on
knowledge of species’-natural behavior.
6. To shed light on contemporary concepts such as how to conserve
biodiversity. Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth. The present rate of
biodiversity loss is at an all-time high.
7. To understand the interrelationship between organisms in population and
communities. Organisms and humans depend on each other to get by.
Environmental science is important because it enables you to understand how
these relationships work. For example, humans breathe out carbon dioxide,
which plants need for photosynthesis. Plants, on the other hand, produce and
release oxygen to the atmosphere, which humans need for respiration. Animal
droppings are sources of nutrients for plants and other microorganisms. Plants
are sources of food for humans and animals. In short, organisms and humans
depend on each other for survival.
8. To learn and create awareness about environmental problems at local,
national and international levels. Environmental problems at local, national and
international levels mostly occur due to lack of awareness. Environmental
science aims to educate and equip learners with necessary environmental skills
to pass to the community in order to create awareness. Environmental
awareness can be created through social media, creating a blog dedicated to
creating awareness, community centered green clubs, women forums, and
religious podiums.
What YOU will do…

Activity 1.4
Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper.
1. How does environmental science teach people to reverse the trend of biodiversity loss?
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2. Cite ways by which environmental science teaches us to use natural resources

efficiently.
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1.5 Biological Spectrum of Life
When was the last time, have you seen a rainbow? Could you remember the
colors you saw? How are they arranged? Did you notice any change in the colors
and in their sequence?
The rainbow is sunlight separated into different colors by droplets of water. The
colors are arranged from the one with the longest wavelength, red (outer portion),
followed by orange, then yellow, green. Blue, indigo, and lastly, violet which has
the shortest wavelength. The colors are in this order have the acronym
ROYGBIV. This is known in science as the spectrum if the sun. The colors are
fixed and their sequence remains the same. In fact, any incandescent solid or
solids at very high temperature gives off the same spectrum of colors.
Similarly, we also have the biological spectrum. This is known as the spectrum of
life. Does it sound familiar to you? It is represented by the acronym
PCTOOPCEB. Like the spectrum of the sun, this must appear in a particular
sequence. The letters of the biological spectrum represents the levels of
organization of life. This means that the biological spectrum tells how life is
organized as shown in the figure 1.

O
P C T O O P C E
In the diagram, the O triangle represents an organism. WithinFig. 1. Theorganism

this Spectrumyou
of Life
will
find the levels of organization: P for protoplasm, C for cell, T for tissue, O for organ
and O for organ system. Outside the triangle you will find cirlcles representing levels
of organization outside of the organism: O for organism, P for population, C for
community, and E for ecosystem. These circles are enclosed by a big square— B for
biosphere.
Figure 2 below shows a brief description of each level of biological spectrum.

Fig. 2. The Levels of Biological Spectrum
What YOU will do…

Activity 1.5
Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Explain why the spectrum of life must appear in a particular sequence.

Dr. Daniel Juan B.population
2. Define Ramirez and community.
Sci163 - Environmental
Give examples. Science Page 13
3. Give an example of an organism interacting with its environment.
1.6 Environmental Management Tools and Techniques
Considering the significance of sound environmental management we are now in

agreement that that environmental management is worth investing. Now there is a
need for a company or an organization to know how to go about it. To undertake any
task one needs appropriate tools. This learning material describes a range of
environmental management tools - tools that a company or an organization can use
to effectively manage its environmental and social affairs.
In the early 1990s the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

recognized the need for standardization in the field of environmental management
tools and in 1993 it set up a committee to write standards relating to the following
environmental management tools:
1. Environmental Management Systems. An environmental management system

(EMS) enables a firm to manage its environmental affairs in a planned and
systematic way and thus identifying ways of improving its environmental
performance that most benefit its business performance. This section focuses on
the requirements of two EMS schemes: 1) ISO 14001, the international
environmental management system standard and 2) EMAS, the European
Community’s ecomanagement and audit scheme. (Note: It is highly likely that in
the future ISO 14001 and EMAS will come to be the key tools in the field of
environmental management.)
2. Environmental Auditing. Environmental auditing is a tool for checking whether a

firm or an organization is doing what it should be doing. For instance a legislative
compliance audit checks that those activities of the firm covered by
environmental legislation (i.e. what it is doing) actually comply with that legislation
(i.e. what it should be doing). An environmental audit will tell a firm or an
organization whether its waste management practices (i.e. what it is doing
conform with the industry sector best practice guidelines it has committed itself to
following (i.e. what it should be doing).
3. Environmental Indicators. Environmental indicators allow a firm to measure
both its environmental performance and its efforts to improve its performance.
Indicators can be used within an environmental management system to check
that a firm has met the targets it is required to set for itself, but can equally well
be used in firms that have not developed an EMS.

4. Eco-balance. A company eco-balance records the various raw materials, energy,
resources, products and wastes entering, held within and leaving a company over
a specified period of time. In other words, it provides a record of a company’s
physical inputs, stock and outputs. Once a company knows exactly what is
coming in and going out, it can begin to assess the particular environmental
impacts of those inputs and outputs. An eco-balance therefore enables a firm to
undertake the comprehensive environmental review of its activities required by
ISO 14001 and EMAS and to go on and set targets for improving its
environmental performance.
5. Life Cycle Assessment. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool for identifying and
assessing the various environmental impacts associated with a particular
product. LCA takes a “cradle to grave” approach looking at the impacts of the
product throughout its life cycle i.e. from the raw materials acquisition (the
“cradle”) through its production and use to its final disposal (the “grave”). LCA
allows manufacturers to find ways of cost-effectively reducing the environmental
impact of a product over its life-cycle and to support their claims about the
environmental impact of their products.
6. Environmental Labeling. Environmental labeling schemes award an

environmental label to those products that are judged to be less harmful to the
environment than others within the same product group. Firms that wish for their
products to be considered for a label must apply to the scheme organizer. To be
awarded a label, a product has to meet a set of environmental criteria drawn up
for its product group by the labeling scheme organizer.
7. Environmental Reporting. Having undertaken various environmental

management initiatives to improve its environmental performance, a company or
an organization may wish to communicate the results of these initiatives to the
outside world. One way of doing this is by publishing an environmental report.
Issuing an environmental report can improve a firm’s public image and lead to
improved relationships with stakeholders.
8. Environmental Charters. There are a number of environmental charters and

guidelines to which a firm/company or an organization can subscribe in order to
demonstrate its commitment to responsible environmental management.
What YOU will do…

Activity 1.6
Graphic Organizer
Using a graphic organizer, show your understanding of the different tools or techniques in
environmental management. Enumerate and describe briefly each tool.

Environmenta
l Management
Tools and
Techniques
Module 2 (5 Weeks)
Ecological Concepts and Principles
Hello, good day to you! I know that you have been through a number of
exciting adventures in the science modules prepared just for you. But would you like
to join in another trip? This module will take you to another exciting and yet relaxing
tour to the environment that surrounds us. Have fun in learning!
Lesson Objectives:
1. Discover the most interesting facts about the planet Earth as an ecosystem
2. Describe the three main physical components of the biosphere

3. Discuss the governing principles and concepts of an ecosystem
2.1 Planet Earth as an Ecosystem
Did you know??? Earth is the only planet in our solar system not
named after a Greek or Roman deity. The Earth was formed
approximately 4.54 billion years ago and is the only known planet to
support life.
There are some more interesting facts about the planet earth. Let’s try to find out
how much do you know!
What YOU will do…

Activity 2.1
Determine if the following statements about the earth, a FACT or a

BLUFF…
1. The Earth was once believed to be the centre of the universe.
2. Earth is the densest planet in the solar system.
3. The gravity between the Earth and the Moon causes the tides on Earth.
4. The rotation of the Earth is gradually slowing down.
5. Earth’s atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases
including argon and carbon dixoide.
6. The large amount of oxygen on Earth comes from our plant life’s consumption of carbon
dioxide during photosynthesis.
7. Earth has a very powerful magnetic field.
8. The Earth has an Ozone Layer which protects it from harmful solar radiation.
9. 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water.
10. The first life on Earth developed in the oceans through a process called abiogenesis or biopoiesis.
11. Earth’s water was initially trapped within the planet. Over time the Earth’s water was brought to
the surface by the planet’s volcanic activity.
12. Earth has relatively few visible impact craters compared with other solid bodies in our solar
system.
13. The highest point found on Earth is Mount Everest which reaches a height of 8.8 km.
14. The lowest point on Earth is called Challenger Deep and at 10.9 km below sea level, it is further
than the peak of Mount Everest.
15. Earth has one of the most circular orbits of all the eight planets. Its axis of rotation is tilted 23.4°
away from the perpendicular of its orbital plane, which produces the seasons we experience.
16. A year on Earth lasts just over 365 days. It is actually 1/4 of a day over 365 days which is why we
have a leap year every four years.
An ecosystem consists of communities of interacting species and the physical

environment on which they depend. Although it is well accepted that Earth consists
of many different ecosystems, human societies much less readily recognize that
Earth itself is an ecosystem, dependent on interacting species and consisting of
finite resources.
As the human population has grown and increasingly dominated available resources,
“ecosystem Earth” has begun to show increasing signs of stress. Loss of
biodiversity, environmental degradation, and conflict over resources among the
dominant species are typical signs that a biological system is nearing a state

change, which could range from collapse of the dominant species, to development of
alternative biological communities, to collapse of the entire system.
In this lesson, we identify our impacts on ecosystem Earth, seek to understand the
barriers to change, and explore potential solutions. Decades of research on
ecosystem dynamics can help to guide our thinking about a sustainable future.
Bottom-up reductions in human population growth and resource consumption,
changes to how we think about our place in the system, and a willingness to
prioritize persistence of the other species within our biological community will lead to
a healthier planetary ecosystem.
2.2 The Biosphere
Biosphere is a relatively thin life-supporting stratum of Earth’s surface, extending

from a few kilometres into the atmosphere to the deep-sea vents of the ocean. The
biosphere is a global ecosystem composed of living organisms (biota) and the abiotic
(nonliving) factors from which they derive energy and nutrients.
Can you still recall the three major components of the ecosystem? Use the
illustration below to reflect on the concepts you might have forgotten for quite a time.
Another activity that follows is designed for you to describe how is it like to be living
in the extremes of the biosphere.
What YOU will do…

Activity 2.2
Using the illustration below, identify and describe the major components of
the ecosystem.

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What YOU will do…
Activity 2.3
Living in the Extremes of the Biosphere

Purpose: In this activity you’ll describe what you think it might be like for humans to live
in the extremes of the biosphere. Think about the challenges associated with living either
underwater or in the upper atmosphere. Also, think about what humans might have to
endure if the biosphere of Earth becomes inhospitable.
Process: Humans live in a “comfort zone” close to the surface of the Earth, but there are
many species that live outside of this comfort zone. What makes these regions different
from the comfort zone we live in? What challenges would humans face if they chose – or
were forced – to live in the extremes of the biosphere?
Study the image of the biosphere below, and then make a list of three challenges that
humans would face if they lived in the extremes of the biosphere.

2.3 Ecological Concepts
Ecological concepts are general understandings (or facts) about ecosystems and
ecosystem management.
Ecosystem concepts provide a foundation for developing ecological

principles, while ecosystem management concepts are basic tools that can be
applied to support some of the applications related to planning.
2.3.1 Key Ecosystem Concepts
The concepts of ecosystem is quite broad, thus, this module tries to provide you with
an easy to understand summary of the key ecosystem concepts.
1. Levels of biological organization include genes, populations, species,

communities, ecosystems, landscapes, regions.
2. Native species are those that naturally exist at a given location or in a particular
ecosystem – i.e., they have not been moved there by humans.
3. A keystone species, ecosystem or process has a disproportionate influence
on an ecosystem or landscape such as the role beavers play in altering the
hydrological characteristics of streams and wetlands.
 Keystone species have effects on biological communities that are
disproportionate to their abundance and biomass. The loss of keystone
species results in broader community or ecosystem-level effects.
 A keystone ecosystem is particularly important because it provides
habitat for a large portion or critical elements of an area’s biodiversity.
Riparian ecosystems near streams, lakes and wetlands are considered
keystone since they cover a relatively small area yet support a
disproportionately large number of species

 A keystone process is fundamental to the maintenance of an ecosystem.
For example, fire plays a vital role in maintaining open ponderosa pine
forests and grasslands in B.C.’s dry interior.
4. Population viability/thresholds. “Viability” in this context refers to the probability
of survival of a population/species in the face of ecological processes such as
disturbance.
5. Ecological resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to cope with disturbance
or stress and return to a stable state. The concept of ecological resilience is
consistent with the notion that ecosystems are complex, dynamic and adaptive
systems that are rarely at equilibrium; most systems can potentially exist in
various states.
6. Disturbances are individually distinct events, either natural or human-
induced, that cause a change in the existing condition of an ecological system.
7. Connectivity/fragmentation is the degree to which ecosystem structure
facilitates or impedes the movement of organisms between resource patches
2.3.2 Ecological Principles
Ecological principles are basic assumptions (or beliefs) about ecosystems and how
they function. Ecological principles build on ecological concepts (which are
understood to be true) to draw key conclusions that can then guide human
applications aimed at conserving biodiversity.
1. Protection of species and species’ subdivisions will conserve genetic

diversity. At the population level, the important processes are ultimately genetic
and evolutionary because these maintain the potential for continued existence of
species and their adaptation to changing conditions.
2. Maintaining habitat is fundamental to conserving species. A species habitat
is the ecosystem conditions that support its life requirements.
3. Large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar
habitat. The theory of island biogeography illustrates a basic principle that large
areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar habitat
because they can support larger and more viable populations.
4. All things are connected but the nature and strength of those connections
vary. Species play many different roles in communities and ecosystems and are
connected by those roles to other species in different ways and with varying
degrees of strength.
5. Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities, and
ecosystems. The type, intensity, frequency and duration of disturbances shape
the characteristics of populations, communities and ecosystems including their
size, shape and spatial relationships.

6. Climate influences terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems. Climate is
usually defined as all of the states of the atmosphere seen at a place over many
years.
What YOU will do…

Activity 2.4
7.
8.
Applications of Ecological Concepts and Principles

So you have learned from this lesson the important key concepts of ecosystem and
ecological principles. Now, YOU are tasked to give examples of applications of these
ecological concepts and principles in order to conserve biodiversity.
Follow this link for your reference:

http://www.biodiversitybc.org/assets/pressReleases/BBCPrinciplesWEB.pdf
2.4 Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between

different organisms in an ecosystem. Each of the bars that make up the pyramid
represents a different trophic level, and their order, which is based on who eats
whom, represents the flow of energy. Energy moves up the pyramid, starting with
the primary producers, or autotrophs, such as plants and algae at the very bottom,
followed by the primary consumers, which feed on these plants, then secondary
consumers, which feed on the primary consumers, and so on. The height of the bars
should all be the same, but the width of each bar is based on the quantity of the
aspect being measured.
There are three ecological pyramids that represent the trophic structure and function
of the ecosystem. In many ecological pyramids, the producer form the base and the
successive trophic levels make up the apex.
The following illustrations show these three ecological pyramids. Now, your task is to
describe them and be able to understand several concepts embedded in the trophic
structure such as food chain, food web, energy flow, number of organisms, and
biomass.
What YOU will do…
Activity 2.5
9.
10.
Ecological Pyramids
1. Identify the types of pyramid shown below and describe briefly each.
2. What does each type of pyramid represent in an ecosystem?
Dr. Daniel Juan B.biomass,
3. Define Ramirezbiomagnification,
Sci163 - Environmental Science autotrophs, and heterotrophs.
trophic level, saprotrophs, Page 22
4. What is the importance of ecological pyramid?
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Module 3 (2 Weeks)
Laws of Bioenergetics
Laws of Thermodynamics in Bioenergetics
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. It is commonly divided into two

categories: kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is energy in action or motion. Light,
heat, motion and electrical currents are all forms of kinetic energy. Potential energy
is energy in storage. A substance or system with potential energy has the capacity or
potential to release one or more forms of kinetic energy. A stretched rubber band, for

example, has potential energy but it can send a paper clip flying. The potential
energy contained in gasoline can release heat, light, and movement in substances.
This is chemical energy.
Thermodynamics refers to the study of energy and energy transfer involving physical
matter. The matter relevant to a particular case of energy transfer is called a system,
and everything outside of that matter is called the surroundings. For instance, when
heating a pot of water on the stove, the system includes the stove, the pot, and the
water. Energy is transferred within the system (between the stove, pot, and water).
There are two types of systems: open and closed. In an open system, energy can be
exchanged with its surroundings. The stovetop system is open because heat can be
lost to the air. A closed system cannot exchange energy with its surroundings.
Biological organisms are open systems. Energy is exchanged between them and
their surroundings as they use energy from the sun to perform photosynthesis or
consume energy-storing molecules and release energy to the environment by doing
work and releasing heat. Like all things in the physical world, energy is subject to
physical laws. The laws of thermodynamics govern the transfer of energy in and
among all systems in the universe.
In general, energy is defined as the ability to do work, or to create some kind of

change. Energy exists in different forms. For example, electrical energy, light energy,
and heat energy are all different types of energy. To appreciate the way energy flows
into and out of biological systems, it is important to understand two of the physical
laws that govern energy.
The First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law is concerned with the
conversion of energy within a “system,”
where a system is defined as a body (e.g.,
a cell or an organism) and its surround-
ings.
This law, which applies to both biological

and non-biological systems, states the
following: Energy cannot be created or
destroyed but can be converted from one
form into another: during such a
conversion, the total amount of the energy
of the system remains constant.
This law applies to all levels of

organization in the living world; it applies
to organisms, cells, organelles, and to the
individual chemical reactions that char-
acterize metabolism. In practice, it is
difficult to measure the energy possessed by cells (i.e., to limit the “system” to an
individual cell), because energy may escape into the environment surrounding the
cell during the measurement.

Similarly, energy may be acquired by the cell from its environment; for example, a
photosynthesizing cell absorbs energy from its environment in the form of light. A
cell’s acquisition of energy from its environment (or its loss to the environment)
should not be confused with the destruction or creation of energy, which according to
the first law of thermodynamics does not occur.
From a biological viewpoint, the first law of thermodynamics indicates that at any
given moment a cell possesses a specific quantity of energy.
This energy takes several forms; it includes:

(1) Potential energy (e.g., the energy of the bonds that link atoms together in a
molecule or the pressure-volume relationships within the cell as a whole or within
membrane- enclosed intracellular components);
(2) Electrical energy (e.g., the distribution of different amounts of electrical charge
across cellular membranes); and
(3) Thermal energy (e.g., the temperature-dependent constant and random motions
of molecules and atoms).
According to the first law, these forms of energy may be inter-converted; for
example, some of the cell’s potential energy can be converted into electrical or
thermal energy, but the cell cannot create or destroy energy. When a cell breaks
down a polysaccharide to ultimately form CO 2 and H2O, some of the potential energy
present in the carbohydrate is conserved as potential energy by phosphorylating
ADP, thereby forming ATP.
The ATP so produced represents a new energy source (and also one that is of
greater immediate utility for the cell). However, not all of the energy of the original
carbohydrate is conserved as potential energy; some of it becomes thermal energy
and is transferred to the surroundings as heat. It is important to recognize that none
of the energy is destroyed and it should be possible to account for all of the energy
originally present in the polysaccharide in other forms within the system (i.e., in the
ATP that is produced and in the heat that is released).
The Second Law of Thermodynamics:

The first law of thermodynamics
tells us that the total energy of an
isolated system consisting of a cell
(or organism) and its surroundings
is the same before and after a
series of events or chemical
reactions has taken place. What
the first law does not tell us is the
direction in which the reactions
proceed. Fig. 12
This problem can be illustrated

using a simple example. Suppose

we place a small cube of ice in a liter of hot water, seal the combination in an
insulated container (e.g., a vacuum bottle), and allow the system (i.e., the ice and the
water) to reach an equilibrium.
In such a system, we would not be surprised to find that the ice melts and that this is
accompanied by a decrease in the temperature of the water. When we later examine
the system, we find that we are left only with water (no ice) and that the water is at a
reduced temperature.
The flow of heat, which is thermal energy, from the hot water to thrice thereby
causing the ice to melt is spontaneous and the energy that is “lost” by the water is
“gained” by the melting ice so that the total energy of the system remains the same.
We certainly would not expect ice to form spontaneously in a sealed system that
contains warm water, even though such an eventuality is not prohibited by the first
law. Consequently, the important lessons to be learned from this illustra tion are that
energy changes have direction and may be spontaneous.
To anticipate the spontaneity of a reaction and predict its direction, one must take
into account a function called entropy. Entropy is a measure of the degree of
randomness or disorder of a system, the entropy increasing with increasing disorder.
Accordingly, the second law of thermodynamics states: In all processes involving
energy changes within a system, the entropy of the system increases until an
equilibrium is attained.
Living things are highly ordered, requiring constant energy input to be maintained in
a state of low entropy.
What YOU will do…

Activity 3.1
11.
12. Answer the question briefly but intelligently.
1. State the 2 laws of Thermodynamics
2. Cite atleast 2 examples that can be observed in the environment that demonstrate these two
laws.

Module 4 (2 Weeks)
Biogeochemical Cycles
According to the concept that you have learned from the previous module,
energy that flows into an ecosystem cannot be recycled. Once the energy is used, it
is lost. Can you identify this concept?
Lesson Objectives:
1. Explain water, carbon and oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur cycle
2. Discuss the importance of each of these cycles
3. Discuss how people affect these cycles
4. Biogeochemical Cycles

What is your body made of? Not to put too fine a point on it: atoms. Lots and lots of
them. About 7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 to be precise. Where did all of
those atoms come from?
If we really walk it backwards, most of the elements that make up our bodies—and
those of every other living thing!—were born in dying stars billions of years ago.
That's pretty cool, but it doesn't capture the whole picture. What have the atoms of
your body been doing more recently, during their time on Earth?
Energy flows, but matter is recycled. Energy flows directionally through Earth’s
ecosystems, typically entering in the form of sunlight and exiting in the form of heat.
However, the chemical components that make up living organisms are different: they
get recycled.
What does that mean? For one thing, the atoms in your body are not brand new.
Instead, they've been cycling through the biosphere for a long, long time, and they've
been part of many organisms and nonliving compounds along the way. You may or
may not believe in reincarnation as a spiritual concept, but there's no question that
atoms in your body have been part of a huge number of living and nonliving things
over the course of time!
The six most common elements in organic molecules—carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen,

oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—take a variety of chemical forms. They may be
stored for long or short periods in the atmosphere, on land, in water, or beneath the
Earth’s surface, as well as in the bodies of living organisms. Geologic processes—
such as weathering of rocks, erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of
continental plates—all play a role in this recycling of materials, as do interactions
among organisms.
Classification of Biogeochemical Cycles

1. Perfect biogeochemical cycles. These are characterized by a large available
abiotic pool of the substance. These cycles are often referred to as gaseous
cycles. Included in this category are the carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and water
cycles.
2. Imperfect biogeochemical cycles. These are characterized by the absence of
large available pool of substance. These cycles are also referred to sedimentary
cycles. The available pool is the earth’s crust. An example of this type is the
phosphorus cycle.
4.1 The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is illustrated in Figure 12. Through photosynthesis, the carbon
atoms from carbon dioxide of the atmosphere become the carbon atoms of all the
organic molecules making up the body of the plant. Through food chains, carbon
atoms then move into and become part of the tissue of all other organisms in the
ecosystem. Through the process of respiration, the organic molecules may be
broken down into carbon dioxide molecules and are released back to the
environment.

Figure 12 The Carbon Cycle
What YOU will do…

Activity 4.1
13.
1. What are the sources of carbon dioxide? Oxygen?
2. How is carbon released from carbonate rocks into the atmosphere?
3. What two important processes are involved in the cycle of carbon and oxygen? Discuss these
processes.
4. Cite the effects of man’s activities to nitrogen cycle.
5.
4.2 The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of Earth’s
atmosphere. It’s also an important part
of living things. Nitrogen is found
in proteins, nucleic acids, and
chlorophyll. The nitrogen cycle moves
nitrogen through the abiotic and biotic
parts of ecosystems. Figure
below shows how nitrogen cycles
through a terrestrial ecosystem. Nitrogen
passes through a similar cycle
in aquatic ecosystems.
Even though nitrogen gas makes up
most of Earth's atmosphere, plants
cannot use this nitrogen gas to
make organic compounds for
themselves and other organisms. The two nitrogen atoms in a molecule of nitrogen
gas are held together by a very stable triple bond. This bond must be broken for the
nitrogen to be used. The nitrogen gas must be changed to a form called nitrates,
which plants can absorb through their roots. The process of changing nitrogen gas to

nitrates is called nitrogen fixation. It is carried out by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The
bacteria live in soil and roots of legumes, such as peas.
When plants and other organisms die, decomposers break down their remains. In
the process, they release nitrogen in the form of ammonium ions. This process is
called ammonification. Nitrifying bacteria change the ammonium ions into nitrites
and nitrates. Some of the nitrates are used by plants. The process of converting
ammonium ions to nitrites or nitrates is called nitrification. Still other bacteria, called
denitrifying bacteria, convert some of the nitrates in soil back into nitrogen gas in a
process called denitrification. The process is the opposite of nitrogen fixation.
Denitrification returns nitrogen gas back to the atmosphere, where it can continue
the nitrogen cycle.
What YOU will do…
Activity 4.2
15.
1. What is the importance of nitrogen?
2. How is nitrogen converted to nitrates?
3. Differentiate between nitrification and denitrification.
4. Explain leaching. What is its role in the nitrogen cycle?
5. Cite the effects of man’s activities to nitrogen cycle.
4.3 The Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus exists in various

rocks and soil minerals as the
inorganic phosphate ion (PO4-3).
As rock gradually breaks down,
phosphate and other nutrient
ions are released. Phosphate
dissolves in water but does not
enter air. Plants absorb
phosphate from the soil or water
solution, and as it is bonded into
organic compounds by the plant,
it is frequently referred to as
organic phosphates. Through
food chains, organic phosphate
is transferred from producers to the rest of the ecosystem. The organic phosphate is
broken down in all respiration, releasing inorganic phosphates in urine or other
waste. The phosphate is then reabsorbed by plants to start another cycle. The
phosphorus cycle is illustrated in Fig. 14.
What YOU will do…

Activity 4.3
17.
18.
Answer the question briefly but intelligently.

1. What is the importance of phosphorus?
2. What
Dr. Daniel processes
Juan B. Ramirezare involved in the
Sci163 cycle of phosphorus?
- Environmental Explain these processes.
Science Page 31
3. In what ways people have altered the cycle of nutrients in the environment?
4. Define algal bloom. How does it lead to eutrophication?
5. What are the effects of eutrophication?
4.4 The Sulfur Cycle
The reservoir pool of sulfur is the soil

and sediments. There is a small
reservoir also in the atmosphere.
Sulfur is recovered from the deep
sediments by microbial action. The
interaction of geochemical and
meteorological processes (erosion,
sedimentation, leaching, rain
adsorption-desorption etc.) and
biological processes (production and
decomposition) and the
interdependence of air, water and soil
regulate the cycle at the global level.
The sulfur cycle is illustrated in Fig. 15.
4.5 The Hydrologic Cycle
The water cycle consists of evaporation, condensation and precipitation. There are
three principal “loops” in the cycle: (1) the surface run-off loop, in which water runs
across the ground surface and becomes part of the surface water system; (2) the
evapotranspiration loop, in which water enters the soil, is held as capillary water and
then returns to the atmosphere by way of evapotranspiration; (3) the ground water
loop, in which water enters and moves through the earth finally exiting through
springs, seeps or wells and re-joins the surface water.

Figure 14 Phosphorus Cycle
What YOU will do…

Activity 4.4
19.
20.
Answer the question briefly but intelligently.
1. What is percolation? Transpiration? Evaporation? Respiration? Precipitation? Condensation?
2. Trace the pathway of the water cycle.

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DR. ESMERALDA A.

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 1

Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary field. Because environmental disharmonies

How to learn from this module

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 2

Now, are you ready to learn? GOODLUCK!

1.1 Definition and Scope of Environmental Science

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 3

To understand the history of environmental science, we must first understand what

Now, how does environmental science related to ecology? Generally

Our surrounding includes forest, rivers, mountains, desert, or a combination of these

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 4

Answer the following questions to test your understanding of the lesson:

1. How do you define environment?

1.2 Historical Perspective of Environmental Science

In 1941, Aldo Leopold took a scientific approach to understanding environmental

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 5

In 1852, Robert Angus Smith (called the “father of acid rain”) was a chemist who

Ernst Haeckel (1869) was a German biologist, naturalist, philosopher, physician,

In 1875, Eduard Seuss defines the biosphere and plate tectonic

In 1877, Albert Bernhard discovers that some species co-evolve to have specific

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 6

In 1927, Charles Elton described and characterized the processes energy transfer

In 1935, Arthur Tinsley defines the ecosystem as both living and non-living

The Nature Conservancy is founded in 1951.

In 1953, Eugene Odum wrote the first ecology textbook. Ecology begins to be taught

In 1978, Conservation Biology established as a discipline focusing on environmental

A hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica was discovered by scientists in 1980. On

As today, while all of the eco-friendly modern advances are too numerous to list,

1.3 Related Disciples and Approaches

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 7

Environmental studies incorporate more of the social sciences for understanding

What YOU will do…

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 8

What YOU will do…

Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper.

2. Cite ways by which environmental science teaches us to use natural resources

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 11

In the diagram, the O triangle represents an organism. WithinFig. 1. Theorganism

Figure 2 below shows a brief description of each level of biological spectrum.

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 12

What YOU will do…

Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper.

1. Explain why the spectrum of life must appear in a particular sequence.

Considering the significance of sound environmental management we are now in

In the early 1990s the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

1. Environmental Management Systems. An environmental management system

2. Environmental Auditing. Environmental auditing is a tool for checking whether a

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 14

6. Environmental Labeling. Environmental labeling schemes award an

7. Environmental Reporting. Having undertaken various environmental

8. Environmental Charters. There are a number of environmental charters and

What YOU will do…

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 15

Ecological Concepts and Principles

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 16

2.1 Planet Earth as an Ecosystem

What YOU will do…

Determine if the following statements about the earth, a FACT or a

An ecosystem consists of communities of interacting species and the physical

Dr. Daniel Juan B. Ramirez Sci163 - Environmental Science Page 17

2.2 The Biosphere

Biosphere is a relatively thin life-supporting stratum of Earth’s surface, extending