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Course Outline
Chapter 8: Failure

Chapter 9: Phase Diagram

Chapter 10: Phase Transformation in Metals

Chapter 11: Applications and Processing of Alloys

Chapter 8 -- 1

Chapter 8: Failure
Why do we need to learn “failure”?
• To err is human; to correct a mistake is the greatest good (知過能改，
善莫大焉）. Through investigating the failure appearance, interior
microstructure, and conducting mechanical analysis, we can determine
the failure mechanism. Probability of the failure can be greatly reduced
by correcting the design and materials.

Static Failure
8.2 – 10.4 Failure Appearance
8.5 Failure Mechanics
8.6 Fracture Toughness Testing

Dynamic Failure
8.7 – 8.11 Fatigue
8.12 Creep

Chapter 8 -- 2

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Chapter 8: Failure
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do cracks that lead to failure form?
• How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?

Neal Boenzi/New York Times Pictures/Redux

Pictures

Ship-cyclic loading Stress is amplified Fatigue: weakening

from waves.
Chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 8,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
at the tip.
Chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 8,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
caused by cyclic loading
http://www.caebay.com/safety-
factor-fatigue-life-effective-
design-measures/
Chapter 8 -- 3

Fracture mechanisms of
Simple Fracture
Type of Stress: Tensile, Compressive, Shear, Torsional …

Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or more

pieces in response to an “static” stress and at relatively low T
(compared to TM)
• Ductile fracture
– Accompanied by significant plastic deformation (high
EL%)
– High energy absorption before fracture
• Brittle fracture
– Little or no plastic deformation (low EL%)
– Catastrophic (quick crack propagation)
Chapter 8 -- 4

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Example: Pipe Failures

• Ductile failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation
-- need plasticity!

• Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,

Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig.
4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1987. Used with permission.

Chapter 8 -- 5

Ductile vs Brittle Failure

Classification
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Examples of Very Ductile Materials:

• pure gold and lead at RT
• metals and polymers at high T

Adapted from Fig. 10.1,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile fracture is Ductile and Brittle:
usually more desirable Moderately Ductile: No
than brittle fracture! warning before fracture warning

Chapter 8 -- 6

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Moderately Ductile Failure

• Failure Stages:
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and coalescence at surface
σ

Only a moderately Microvoids enlarge, Cup-and-cone

amount of necking come together, and fracture, irregular and
(post UTS, and coalescence to form fibrous interior
dσ/dε < 0) an elliptical crack

Small cavities rapid propagation of

(microvoids) form in a crack by shear
the interior of the deformation at an
cross section angle of ~ 45°
Chapter 8 - 7

Fractographic studies
on ductile fracture surface
void fracture 20mm
nucleation

particles such as SiO2

serve as void
Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded in
nucleation sites. tension. Courtesy of F. Roehrig, CC
Technologies, Dublin, OH. Used with
permission.
• Resulting spherical
fracture and
parabolic
surfaces dimples
(steel)
10mm 20mm
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,
Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6,
1971, pp. 347-56.)
Chapter 8 - 8

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Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

Fig. 10.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture in a mild steel

in aluminum • crack motion perpendicular
to tensile stress
Q1: Do we always refrain from using brittle
• more smooth than ductile
materials?
fracture
Q2: Are ductile materials always ductile?
Q3: Which steel bumper is better?
(i) UTS 500MPa, 15 EL%
(ii) UTS 1300MPa, 5 EL% Chapter 8 - 9

Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, σ
Adapted from Fig. 8.13, very small toughness
Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

Chapter 8 - 10

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Brittle Failure: V-shaped “chevron”

Arrows indicate point at which failure originated

Fig. 10.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [From R. W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials, 3rd edition. Copyright © 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. Photograph courtesy of Roger Slutter, Lehigh University.]
Chapter 8 - 11

Brittle Failure:
radial fan-shaped ridges

Fig. 10.5(b), Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [(b) From D. J. Wulpi, Understanding How Components Fail, 1985.
Reproduced by permission of ASM International, Materials Park, OH.]

• These marking patterns are sufficiently coarse to be discerned

with the naked eye.
• For very hard and fine-grained metals: no discernible pattern.
• For ceramic glasses: shiny and smooth.

Chapter 8 - 12

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Brittle Fracture Surfaces

• Intergranular
(between grains)
4 mm
• crack propagates along the
304 S. Steel grain boundaries
(metal)
Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook",
• grain boundaries are
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. weakened
Copyright 1985, ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
J.R. Keiser and A.R.
• Intergranular cracking is likely
Olsen, Oak Ridge to occur if there is a hostile
National Lab.)
environmental influence and is
Polypropylene favored by larger grain sizes
(polymer) and higher stresses.
Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p.
303, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996.

(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.

3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.) Chapter 8 - 13

Brittle Fracture Surfaces

• For most brittle crystalline • Transgranular
materials, crack propagation (through grains)
corresponds to the successive 316 S. Steel
and repeated breaking of atomic (metal)
Reprinted w/ permission
bonds along specific from "Metals Handbook",
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
crystallographic planes  Copyright 1985, ASM
Cleavage International, Materials
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
• Cracks pass through grains, 160 mm
resulting in faceted texture due to Al Oxide 1mm
changes in orientation of the (ceramic)
cleavage planes from grain to Reprinted w/ permission
from "Failure Analysis of
grain. Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Copyright 1990, The
American Ceramic
• For example: austenitic stainless Society, Westerville, OH.
(Micrograph by R.M.
steel showing transgranular Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
fracture develops flat facets
parallel to {111} plane.
Chapter 8 - 14

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Fracture Mechanics
1. Stress-strain behavior (Room T):

σ perfect mat’l-no flaws TS engineering << TS perfect

E/10 materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber “Recall” (1920):
Griffith theoretical strength

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 e

Chapter 8 - 15

Flaws are Stress Concentrators!

t

Fig. 10.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 8 - 16

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Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 10.8(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 8 - 17

Engineering Fracture Design

• When designing screw, avoid sharp corners!
σ0 σmax
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = σ
0
w
σmax 2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng. (NY),

r/h
Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1943.)
1.0
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius

Chapter 8 - 18

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Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips
• A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
“blunts” the crack.
deformed
region
brittle ductile

Energy balance on the crack

• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy

Chapter 8 - 19

Elastic strain energy

https://arxiv.org/ftp/arx
iv/papers/0810/0810.2
218.pdf

Chapter 8 - 20

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Griffith’s fracture stress

Chapter 8 - 21

Criterion for Crack Propagation

i.e., σm > σc

Chapter 8 - 22

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Criterion for Crack Propagation

Chapter 8 - 23

Fracture Toughness “Mode I”

Chapter 8 - 24

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Chapter 8 - 25

Fracture Toughness Ranges

Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Alloys
Ceramics/ Polymers
fibers • 𝐾 is useful especially for
Semicond
100 intermediate ductile
C-C(|| fibers) 1 materials when a crack is
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys present.
50
• Do we have other two
40
Al alloys toughness parameters?
30 Mg alloys
K Ic (MPa ꞏ m0.5 )

Based on data in Table B.5,

20 Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f = fibers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 sf = short fibers; w = whiskers; p = particles.
C/C( fibers) 1 Addition data as noted (vol. fraction of
10 reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3
Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
7 Diamond Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6
2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
5 Al oxide PET Waltham, MA.
Si nitride 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP
(1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 PC Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
1 <100>
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete
0.5 Chapter 8 - 26

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Common Nondestructive
Testing Techniques

• Laboratory or in-field?
• Surface or subsurface?
• Defect size sensitivity?
Chapter 8 - 27

Design Against Crack Growth

• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc =
• Largest, most highly stressed cracks grow first!
--Scenario 1: Max. flaw --Scenario 2: Design stress
size dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.

amax
σ
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture σ
Chapter 8 - 28

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Design Example “0”

• 0.1: You have chosen a material (i.e., 𝐾 fixed) and the
maximum stress undergone is “evaluated”. From:
1 𝐾
𝑎
𝜋 𝑌𝜎

We need to get crack size < 𝑎 . Q: Why is the lower 𝜎 material

useful? How do we “adjust” 𝐾 and 𝜎 ?

• 0.2: Through the non-destructive testing on chosen material, we

have 𝐾 and 𝑎. Then 𝜎 𝐾 /𝑌 𝜋𝑎

• 0.3: How to determine the quality of a steel plate? Make sure you
can check the quality!

Chapter 8 - 29

Design Example 1: Aircraft Wing

• Material has KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?
• Use...

• Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
constant
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

Answer:
Chapter 8 - 30

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Design Example 2: Oil Tank

• Thin-walled spherical tank of
radius 𝑟 and thickness 𝑡 subject to
an internal pressure 𝑝. The
circumferential (hoop) wall stress
𝜎 and plane strain condition
is assumed.

• Design 2: leak before crack. The

growth of crack through the
thickness of the vessel wall prior
to the rapid crack propagation is
allowed. Now 𝑎 𝑡.
• Q1: why “leak before crack”? why we need 𝑎 𝑡?

• Q2: what will happen if 𝑎 𝑡?

Chapter 8 - 31

Design Example 2: Oil Tank

• Now we have an applied example. 𝑝 2.0MPa, 𝑟 0.5 m, 𝑡 8.0mm

• 𝑝 is fluid pressure, fluid can be gas or liquid.

• From hoop stress formula 𝜎 we know 𝜎 125MPa.

• We want 𝑎 𝑡 8.0 mm, so we use 𝑎 . BUT an extremely

⁄
cautious engineer asks for “safety factor” 𝑁 3, now 𝑎 ′

• We then need a very high 𝐾 material in order to satisfy 𝑎 𝑡 criteria

(𝑌 1 is assumed).

Chapter 8 - 32

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Design Example 2: Oil Tank

Chapter 8 - 33

“High Loading Rate” Toughness


• Increased loading rate... TS
--increases sy and TS y larger 
--decreases %EL TS
• Why? An increased rate y
gives less time for disl. to smaller 
move past obstacles. 
• Impact loading: sample (Charpy)
--severe testing case
--more brittle
--smaller toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.11(a) and
(b), Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.11(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
final height initial height
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)
Chapter 8 - 34

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Impact Testing
Fig. 10.12(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
• Why using impact testing?
(Adapted from H.W. Hayden, W.G.
Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and
 If the results of laboratory tensile tests
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley and
(at low loading rates) could not be
Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.) extrapolated to predict fracture behavior.
 If the fracture mechanics for this material
is not well-defined.
 If we are interested in (1) low
temperature, (2) high strain rate, and (3)
triaxial stress state deformation.

• Energy absorbed after impact test:

final Initial
height height ∆𝐸 𝑚𝑔 ℎ ℎ′
(Charpy) where 𝑚 is the mass of the hammer, 𝑔 is
gravitational acceleration, and ℎ/ℎ′ are hammer
heights before/after impact.

Chapter 8 - 35

Impact Testing
• Ductile materials have high ∆𝐸:
 Surface is fibrous and dull
 E.g., 79˚C sample in the figure below.
• Brittle materials have low ∆𝐸:
 Surface is shiny and flat.
 E.g., -59˚C sample in the figure below.

Chapter 8 - 36

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Impact Testing
Comparison between 𝑲𝑰𝒄 and ∆𝑬
Questions 𝑲𝑰𝒄 ∆𝑬
Is the test result quantitative? Yes No (just in relative
sense, absolute
values are of little
significance
Is the information given useful for materials Yes (e.g., oil tank) No
designer?
The difficulty and complexity of the test High (especially Low
for maintaining
plane strain
condition)

• Because the impact testing gives the “relative sense”, it is useful to

study the effect of T on toughness under the same material, the same
V-notch geometry, and the same high strain rate.

Chapter 8 - 37

Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy

• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile
High strength materials ( σy > E/150)

Temperature Adapted from Fig. 10.15,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature

Chapter 8 - 38

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Introduction to DBTT
• One of the primary functions of the Charpy and the Izod tests.
• It is defined as the temperature dependence of the measured impact
energy absorption.

• There is no explicit criterion established to specify a single DBTT

temperature; the DBTT temperature may be commonly defined as:
 The ∆𝐸 20J or 40J
 50% or 100% fibrous fracture

• The effect of DBTT? Imagine steel ships at low ambient temperature

(4˚C) …

• Low strength steels (BCC) have DBTT, while high strength steels and
low-strength FCC metals don’t. A few HCP metals have DBTT.

• Q: Do ceramic materials have DBTT?

Chapter 8 - 39

Introduction to DBTT
• 0.01, 0.11, 0.22, … means the
carbon content in [%]

• Although adding carbon

increases UTS, it also raise
DBTT temperature.

• Increasing the strain rate and

decreasing operation T will
show higher UTS, but the
toughness is reduced.

• Q: Is there any approach to

increase the UTS and
toughness both?

Chapter 8 - 40

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Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • WWII: Liberty ships

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Discovery of the Titanic.)
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad.
Sci., Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)

• Problem: Steels were used having DBTT’s just below

room temperature.
Chapter 8 - 41

Chapter 8: Failure (now we go to

“dynamic failure”)
Why do we need to learn “failure”?
Static Failure
8.2 – 8.4 Failure Appearance
8.5 Failure Mechanics
8.6 Fracture Toughness Testing

Dynamic Failure
8.7 – 8.11 Fatigue  90% of failure is attributed to this!!
Appearance of failure-type facture surface:
– Brittle-like (shiny and relatively flat) even in normally ductile
metals
– Very little gross plastic deformation
– Fracture surface is perpendicular to the direction of an
applied tensile stress

8.12 Creep
Chapter 8 - 42

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Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.

Adapted from Fig. 10.18(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

σ
σ max
• Stress varies with time. σm S
-- key parameters are S, σm, and
σ min time
cycling frequency
• Key points: Fatigue...
--can cause part failure, even though σmax < σy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.

Chapter 8 - 43

Fatigue

A few stress modes …

1. tension/compression in rotating–
bending beam

2. cyclic shear
3. torsional stress

Chapter 8 - 44

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Types of Fatigue Behavior:

S-N Curve

S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)
--BCC metal and some Sfat
HCP metal
--Generally 35-60% 𝜎 safe Adapted from Fig.
10.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
• For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
--non-ferrous alloy such safe Adapted from Fig.
as Al(FCC) 10.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
--Fatigue limit: 10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
Slimit = S(N=107) N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 45

Probability of Fatigue
Steel, Ti, Mg alloys, and
cast iron have fatigue
limit.

Brass and Al alloys don’t

have such that limit.

Chapter 8 - 46

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Fatigue Characteristics
• Low-cycle fatigue, LCF:
< 104~105 cycles, high loads that produce not only elastic strain but also some
plastic strain during each cycle.

• High-cycle fatigue, HCF:

> 104~105 cycles, totally elastic, longer fatigue cycle required.

Q1: How about the airplane landing gear?

Q2: How can we characterize the failure as fatigue?
(1) Crack initiation: a small crack forms at some point of high stress
concentration
(2) Crack propagation: during which this crack advances incrementally with
each stress cycle  Beachmark or clamshell mark
(3) Final failure, which occurs vary rapidly once the advancing crack has
reached a critical size

Chapter 8 - 47

Rate of Fatigue Crack Growth

• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6

increase in crack length per loading cycle

• Failed rotating shaft
-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
• Δσ increases
• crack gets longer
• loading freq. increases.
• Note that there may be
crack origin
Fig. 10.22, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(From D. J. Wulpi,
Understanding How
Components Fail, 1985.
Reproduced by permission
of ASM International,
Materials Park, OH.)

thousands of striations within a

single beachmark Chapter 8 - 48

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Beachmark and Striation and WHY

(textbook page pp. 253-255)

• The region of a fracture surface that formed during the crack

propagation step may be characterized by two types of markings
termed beachmarks and striations.

• Both features indicate the position of the crack tip at some point in time
and appear as concentric ridges that expand away from the crack
initiation site(s), frequently in a circular or semicircular pattern.

• Beachmarks (sometimes also called clamshell marks) are of

macroscopic dimensions (Figure 8.23), and may be observed with the
unaided eye. These markings are found for components that
experienced interruptions during the crack propagation stage—for
example, a machine that operated only during normal workshift hours.
• Each beachmark band represents a period of time over which crack
growth occurred.

Chapter 8 - 49

Beachmark and Striation and WHY

(textbook page pp. 253-255)

• However, fatigue striations are microscopic in size and subject to

observation with the electron microscope (either TEM or SEM). Figure
8.24 is an electron fractograph that shows this feature.

• Each striation is thought to represent the advance distance of a crack

front during a single load cycle. Striation width depends on, and
increases with, increasing stress range.

• During the propagation of fatigue cracks and on a microscopic scale,

there is very localized plastic deformation at crack tips, even though the
maximum applied stress to which the object is exposed in each stress
cycle lies below the yield strength of the metal.

Chapter 8 - 50

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Beachmark and Striation and WHY

(textbook page pp. 253-255)

• This applied stress is amplified at crack tips to the degree that local
stress levels exceed the yield strength. The geometry of fatigue
striations is a manifestation of this plastic deformation.

• It should be emphasized that although both beachmarks and striations

are fatigue fracture surface features having similar appearances, they
are nevertheless different in both origin and size. There may be
thousands of striations within a single beachmark.

Chapter 8 - 51

Beachmark and Striation and WHY

(textbook page pp. 253-255)

• More detailed and additional discussion on the propagation of fatigue

cracks can be found in Sections M.5 and M.6 of the Mechanical
Engineering (ME) Online Module, which may be found in all digital
versions of this text or at www.wiley.com/college/callister (Student
Companion Site).

• http://bcs.wiley.com/he-
bcs/Books?action=index&bcsId=10955&itemId=1119405491

• “Online Support Module MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.pdf”

Chapter 8 - 52

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Catastrophic Rupture

Beachmarks and striations do

not appear on the region over
which the rapid failure occurs.

Q: Is catastrophic rupture after

crack propagation found only in
brittle material?

Chapter 8 - 53

Improving Fatigue Life

S = stress amplitude

1. Impose compressive Adapted from

surface stresses Fig. 10.25, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(to suppress surface near zero or compressive σm
cracks from growing) moderate tensile σm
Larger tensile σm

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators Fig. 10.26, Callister &
(avoid “sharp” bad better
Rethwisch 9e.

things)
Chapter 8 - 54

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Thermal and Corrosion Fatigue

• Thermal Fatigue:
 Induced at elevated temperature by fluctuating thermal stresses.
 Thermal stresses is the restraint to the dimensional expansion and/or
contraction that would normally occur in a structural member with ∆𝑇
 The magnitude of a thermal stress 𝜎 developed by ∆𝑇 depends on the
coefficient of thermal expansion 𝛼 and the modulus of elasticity 𝐸:

𝜎 𝛼 𝐸∆𝑇

• Corrosion Fatigue:
 Simultaneous action of a cyclic stress and chemical attack
 Nucleation: small pits may form as a result of chemical reactions between
the environment and the material, which may serve as points of stress
concentration.
 Propagation: enhanced as a result of the corrosive environment.
 Prevention: surface coating, corrosion-resistant material, reduce the
corrosiveness.
Chapter 8 - 55

Chapter 8: Failure (now we go to

“dynamic failure”)
Why do we need to learn “failure”?
Static Failure
8.2 – 8.4 Failure Appearance
8.5 Failure Mechanics
8.6 Fracture Toughness Testing

Dynamic Failure
8.7 – 8.11 Fatigue
Appearance of failure-type facture surface:
– Brittle-like (shiny and relatively flat) even in normally ductile
metals
– Very little gross plastic deformation
– Fracture surface is perpendicular to the direction of an
applied tensile stress

8.12 Creep  slow deformation at 𝑻 𝟎. 𝟒𝑻𝒎

Chapter 8 - 56

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Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress (σ) vs. time
σ
σe

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope Δe /Δt)
Adapted from
Fig. 10.29, Callister &
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) Rethwisch 9e.

increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Chapter 8 - 57

Primary Creep
slope (creep rate) decreases with time.
1. Before primary creep, there
is an instantaneous elastic
deformation upon
application of the load.
2. Primary creep: typified by a
continuously decreasing
creep rate (the slope of the
curve decreases with time)
3. The material is
experiencing an increase in
creep resistance or strain
hardening.
Adapted from
Fig. 10.29, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 8 - 58

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Creep: Temperature Dependence

• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Figs. 10.30, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 8 - 59

Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, 
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)

activation energy for creep

strain rate (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
• Strain rate 200 Fig. 9.38, Callister &
427°C
Stress (MPa)

Rethwisch 4e.
increases 100 [Reprinted with permission

538°Cfrom Metals Handbook:

with increasing 40
Properties and Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
T, σ 20
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3, 9th
ed., D. Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
649°C ASM International, 1980, p.
10 131.]

10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8 - 60

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Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, 
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
𝜀 𝐾 𝜎 exp so log 𝜀 𝑛log 𝜎 𝐶
 For obtaining 𝑛, fix 𝑇 and varying 𝜎
 For obtaining 𝑄 , fix 𝜎 and varying 𝑇

Adapted from
200 Fig. 9.38, Callister &
427°C
Stress (MPa)

Rethwisch 4e.
100 [Reprinted with permission

538°Cfrom Metals Handbook:

Properties and Selection:
40 Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3, 9th
20 ed., D. Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
649°C ASM International, 1980, p.
10 131.]

10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8 - 61

Tertiary Creep and Creep Failure

• Tertiary creep: • Failure: along grain boundaries.

 Acceleration of the rate and
ultimate failure due to g.b. cavities
metallurgical changes.
 Cavities can form in 2nd applied
stage creep around GB and stress
inclusions, and become
cracks in tertiary creep.

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
Pergamon Press, Inc.)

https://www.slideshare.net/
MatejJanega/creep-failure Chapter 8 - 62

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Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime

• Estimate rupture time L is called Larson-
S-590 Iron, T = 800°C,  = 140 MPa Miller parameter

1000 Time to rupture, tr

Stress (MPa)
temperature function of
100 applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

data for
S-590 Iron

12 16 20 24 28
(1073 K )(20  log t r )  24 x103
103 T(20 + log tr (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 10.33, Callister & Rethwisch
9e. (From F.R. Larson and J. Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765
(1952). Reprinted by permission of ASME)
Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 8 - 63

Alloys for High-Temp. Use

• The main characteristics of creep-resistant alloys:
1. High melting point (low atomic diffusion rate)
2. High Young’s modulus (low strain)
3. Coarse grain/single crystal (low or no GB sliding/diffusion)
4. Solute and dispersion strengthening
• Typical alloys for high-Temperature use:
Stainless steel; high 𝑇 alloy such as Mo, W and Ta;
Superalloy (Fe or Ni or Co based); Directionally solidified alloy;
Single-crystal engineering parts

Chapter 8 - 64

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SUMMARY
• Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
• Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and σ :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic σ and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic σ:
- cycles to fail decreases as Δσ increases.
- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to rupture decreases as σ or T increases.
Chapter 8 - 65

Q&A

Creep Creeper Creepiest

σe

0 t

Chapter 8 - 66

33