Chapter 8: Failure

Chapter 8: Failure
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are the different types of failure?
• Under what conditions/situation does each type occur?
• What is the mechanism associated with each failure type?
• What parameter is used to quantify a material's resistance to fracture?
• What measures may be taken to reduce the likelihood of each
failure type?

Neal Boenzi/New York Times Pictures/Redux Pictures

Chapter-opening photographs, Chapter 8, AP/Wide World Photos

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 8 - 1

Fracture
• Simple fracture – the ___________ of a body into two or
more pieces in response to a static stress
• Propagation of cracks accompanies _________
• Two general types of fracture
– Ductile
• Slow crack _____________
• Accompanied by ________________ deformation
• Fails with warning
– Brittle
• Rapid crack ____________
• Little or no ________________
• Fails without warning
• Ductile fracture generally more desirable than brittle
fracture
Chapter 8 - 2

Fracture Profiles
______ __________
Ductile Ductile _____

Adapted from Fig. 8.1, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 8 - 3

1
Chapter 8: Failure

Fracture Surface Photographs

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

- moderately ductile - totally brittle
- flat surfaces

Fig. 8.3, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 8 - 4

Examples of Ductile and Brittle

Fracture of Pipes
• ________ fracture:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

• ________ fracture:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,

Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig.
4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1987. Used with permission.

Chapter 8 - 5

Stages of Moderately Ductile Failure

void void growth _____
necking _______
________ and _________ propagation
σ

• Electron
micrographs
of ________
surfaces
(steel)
cup and cone
_________ From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded in fracture
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley
tension. Courtesy of F. Roehrig, CC
Technologies, Dublin, OH. Used with surface
nucleation and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: permission.
P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6,
sites. 1971, pp. 347-56.)
Chapter 8 - 6

2
Chapter 8: Failure

Brittle Failure Surface Photographs

• Brittle fracture surface displays V-shaped, chevron markings
• V features point to the crack initiation site

Fig. 8.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 10e. [From R. W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials, 3rd edition. Copyright © 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. Photograph courtesy of Roger Slutter, Lehigh University.]
Chapter 8 - 7

Photographs of Brittle Fracture Surfaces

• Intergranular crack propagation • Transgranular crack propagation
(____________ grains) (____________ grains)

4 mm 160 mm
304 S. Steel (metal) 316 S. Steel (metal)
Reprinted w/permission from "Metals Handbook", 9th Reprinted w/ permission from "Metals
ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. Copyright 1985, ASM Handbook", 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Park, OH. (Micrograph by J.R. Copyright 1985, ASM International, Materials
Keiser and A.R. Olsen, Oak Ridge National Lab.) Park, OH. (Micrograph by D.R. Diercks,
Argonne National Lab.)

Chapter 8 - 8

Principles of Fracture Mechanics

• Fracture occurs as result of crack propagation
• Measured fracture strengths of most materials
much lower than predicted by theory
– microscopic flaws (cracks) always exist in materials
– magnitude of applied tensile stress amplified at the
tips of these cracks

Chapter 8 - 9

3
Chapter 8: Failure

Fracture Mechanics (cont.)

Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Crack

where
ρt
ρt = radius of curvature
σo = applied stress
σm = stress at crack tip

Fig. 8.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 8 - 10

Fracture Mechanics (cont.)

Stress Concentration at
_____________
Kt = stress concentration
factor
σm
Kt =
σo

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 10e. Chapter 8 - 11

Fracture Mechanics (cont.)

• Avoid sharp corners!
σ0 Kt

w 2.5
σ
max

r, h
2.0 increasing _______
fillet
radius σ0
1.5
Adapted from Fig.
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng. (NY),
Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1943.) 1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
________ fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 12

4
Chapter 8: Failure

Crack Propagation

• Stress concentration higher for ______ cracks—

_______ at lower stresses than cracks with blunt tips
• For _____ materials—plastic deformation at ______
when stress reaches ____________ —tip blunted—
lowers stress conc.

deformed
region
brittle ductile

Chapter 8 - 13

Criterion for Crack Propagation

__________ for crack propagation (σc) of brittle materials
⎛ 2Eγ ⎞1/2
s
σ c = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ πa ⎠
where
– σc = crack-tip stress For ductile materials
– E = modulus of elasticity replace γs with γs + γp
– γs = specific surface energy where γp is plastic
– a = one half length of internal crack deformation energy

- materials have ________ cracks with different lengths

and orientations
- crack propagation (and fracture) occurs when ______ for
crack with lowest σc
- Largest, most highly stressed cracks grow first!
Chapter 8 - 14

Fracture Toughness
• Measure of material’s _________ to brittle
fracture when a _______ is present
• Defined as
KC = YσC√π a
Kc = fracture toughness [_______ ]
Y = _____________ parameter
σc = critical stress for crack propagation [MPa]
a = crack length [m]
• For ________ specimens with cracks much
shorter than specimen width, Y ≈ ____

Chapter 8 - 15

5
Chapter 8: Failure

Plane Strain Fracture Toughness

• For specimen _________ much greater than crack
dimension, KC ___________ of thickness
– Condition of ____________ exists
– Leads to plane strain fracture toughness, Kic, where
I indicates mode I crack displacement

Mode I, opening or
tensile mode of crack
surface displacement

• values of Kic relatively high for _______ materials and

low for _______ ones
Chapter 8 - 16

Fracture Toughness Ranges

Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C (|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B.5,
K Ic (MPa · m 0.5 )

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

20 Composite reinforcement geometry is:
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 f = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
2 PC
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete
0.5 Chapter 8 - 17

Design Against Fracture

• Crack ______ condition:
K Ic < Y σ c π a

--Scenario 1: ___________ --Scenario 2: Kic and stress

size a specified - dictates level specified - dictates
max. design (critical) stress. max. allowable ________.
2
K Ic 1 ⎛ K Ic ⎞
σc = ac = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Y πa π ⎝Yσ ⎠
σc ac

fracture fracture
no no
fracture fracture
a σ
Chapter 8 - 18

6
Chapter 8: Failure

Design Example: Aircraft Wing

An aircraft component is made from a material has
KIc = ____________ It has been determined that fracture results
at a stress of _______ when the maximum (critical) internal
crack length is 9.0 mm. For this same component and alloy,
compute the stress level at which fracture will occur for a critical
internal crack length of 4.0 mm.

Chapter 8 - 19

Design Example: Aircraft Wing (cont.)

Solution: Given that fracture occurs for same component
using same alloy the parameter Y will be the same for
both situations. Solving for Y for the conditions under
which fracture occurred using Equation 8.5.
K Ic 26 MPa-m0.5
Y= = = 1.38
σc πa 1m ⎛ ⎞
(112 MPa) π (9.0 mm) ⎜⎝ 1000 ⎟
mm ⎠
Now we will solve for σc using Equation 8.6 as
K Ic 26 MPa-m0.5
σc = =
Y πa ⎛ 1m ⎞
(1.38) ( π 4.0 mm ⎜ ) ⎟
⎝ 1000 mm ⎠

Answer: σ c = 168 MPa

Chapter 8 - 20

Brittle Fracture of Ductile Materials

• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • WWII: Liberty ships

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Discovery of the Titanic.)
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad.
Sci., Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)

• Ships failed in a brittle manner though constructed of

steel that, from tension tests, is normally ductile

Chapter 8 - 21

7
Chapter 8: Failure

Testing Ductile Materials for Brittle

Failure
_______ Test (Charpy)
• Test conditions promoting brittle fracture:
-- High strain rate
-- Deformation at _______________
-- Presence of a ________

Impact energy
Fig. 8.13(b), Callister
computed from & Rethwisch 10e.
difference between (Adapted from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt,

initial height h and and J. Wulff, The

Structure and Properties

final height h’ of Materials, Vol. III,

Mechanical Behavior,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
(1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

Chapter 8 - 22

Influence of T on Impact Energy

• When impact tests conducted as function of _____________—
three kinds of behavior observed for metals
• Some BCC metals exhibit Ductile-to-Brittle _____________
Temperature (DBTT)
FCC and HCP metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)
ductile fracture
Adapted from Fig. 8.16,
Impact Energy

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

BCC metals (e.g., low strength steels)
polymers

brittle
fracture
High strength materials
Temperature
Metals having DBTT should only be used at temperatures where ductile.

Chapter 8 - 23

Fatigue Failure
• ______ = failure under lengthy period of ________ stress
or strain cycling
• Stress varies with time.
-- key __________ are S, σm, and cycling ______________
• Key points: _________...
--can cause part failure, even though applied stress σmax < σy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.

Schematic diagram
of an apparatus for
performing rotating-
bending fatigue
tests
Adapted from Fig. 8.19(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 8 - 24

8
Chapter 8: Failure

Types of Fatigue Behavior

• Fatigue data plotted as

S = stress amplitude
stress _________ S vs. log case for
unsafe steel (typ.)
of number N of cycles to
Sfat
failure.
• Two types of fatigue safe Adapted from Fig.
8.20(a), Callister &
behavior observed Rethwisch 10e.
3 5 7 9
- Fatigue limit, Sfat: 10 10 10 10
N = Cycles to failure
no ________ if S < Sfat
- For some materials,
S = stress amplitude

there is no _________ case for

limit! unsafe Al (typ.)

• _________ Nf = total
number of stress cycles to safe Adapted from Fig.
cause fatigue failure at 8.20(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.
specified stress ________ 10 3
10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 25

Improving Fatigue Life

• Three general techniques to improve fatigue life
1. Reducing magnitude of mean stress
2. Surface treatments
3. Design changes
S = stress amplitude

σm
ing Adapted from
e as Fig. 8.26, Callister &
cr Rethwisch 10e.
In
near zero or ___________ σm
moderate _______ σm
Larger tensile σm

N = Cycles to failure

Decreasing ___________ increases fatigue life

Chapter 8 - 26

Improving Fatigue Life

• Three general techniques to improve fatigue life
1. Reducing magnitude of mean stress
2. Surface treatments
3. Design changes
Imposing __________ surface stresses increases surface hardness
– suppresses ________ cracks from growing
--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing
shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

surface __________ stress due surface __________ stress due

to plastic deformation of outer to carbon atoms diffusing into
surface layer outer surface layer
Chapter 8 - 27

9
Chapter 8: Failure

Improving Fatigue Life

• Three general techniques to improve fatigue life
1. Reducing magnitude of mean stress
2. Surface treatments
3. Design changes

Remove _______ bad better

concentrators Fig. 8.27, Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.

sharp corner – point of rounding corner reduces

stress concentration stress concentration

Chapter 8 - 28

Creep
Measure deformation (strain) vs. time at _______ stress
σ σ Occurs at _________ temperature for
most metals, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

0 t
ε

σ Δε

Stages of Creep
- Primary Creep: ____ (creep rate)
___________ with time.
- Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., _________ slope (Δε /Δt).
Adapted from Fig. 8.30, Callister
- Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) & Rethwisch 10e.

_________ with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Chapter 8 - 29

Creep: Temperature Dependence

Increasing
T or σ

tertiary

______
secondary

______

Figs. 8.31, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

• Steady-state ____ rate (ε!s) increases with increasing T and σ

• Rupture _________ (tr) decreases with increasing T and σ

Chapter 8 - 30

10
Chapter 8: Failure

Steady-State Creep Rate

• ε! constant for constant T, σ
s
-- strain _______ is balanced by ____
-- dependence of __________________ on T, σ
stress exponent (________ parameter)
⎛ Q ⎞ n
ε!s = K 2σ exp ⎜⎜ − c ⎟⎟ _______ energy for creep
⎝ RT ⎠ (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
• Steady-state 2 00 Fig. 8.31, Callister &
427°C
Stress (MPa)

Rethwisch 7e.
_____________ 10 0 [Reprinted with permission
from Metals Handbook:
increases 538 °C Properties and Selection:
40 Stainless Steels, Tool
with increasing Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3, 9th
T, σ 20 ed., D. Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
649°C ASM International, 1980, p.
10 131.]

10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate ε s (%/1000hr) Chapter 8 - 31

Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime

Time to _________ , tr
• Creep data for _____________ (e.g., years) impractical
to collect in lab
• Extrapolate from data collected for shorter time at
higher T using _____________________, m, defined as

constant (normally ≈ 20)

T (C + logtr ) = m
temperature function of
applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

Chapter 8 - 32

Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime (cont.)

• Plot of log stress vs. Larson-
Miller parameter
• Example: Estimate the rupture
100 time tr for S-590 Iron at T = 800°C
and σ = 20,000 psi
Stress (103 psi)

20 T = 800 + 273 = 1073 K

10
T (C + logtr ) = m
data for
S-590 Iron
(1073 K)(20 + logtr ) = 24x103
1
12 16 20 24 28
103 m (K-h)
Ans: tr = _____ hr
Adapted from Fig. 8.34, Callister & Rethwisch
10e. (From F.R. Larson and J. Miller, Trans. ASME, 74,
765 (1952). Reprinted by permission of ASME)

Chapter 8 - 33

11
Chapter 8: Failure

SUMMARY
• Simple fracture – one type of failure
- Occurs by crack propagation
- Ductile fracture: some plastic deformation – slow crack propagation
- Brittle fracture: no plastic deformation – crack propagation
- Fracture surfaces – different for ductile and brittle
• Small cracks or flaws exist in all materials
- Applied tensile stress amplified at tips of flaws
- Fracture – when stress at tip of crack reaches theoretical strength
• Fracture toughness – measurement of material’s
resistance to brittle fracture
- A function of applied stress and crack length
• Impact tests – Impact energy measured vs. temperature
- Some ductile materials experience brittle fracture – low temps.

Chapter 8 - 34

SUMMARY (cont.)
• Fatigue failure – stress fluctuations with time
- Occurs at applied stress < TS
- Important parameters: fatigue limit, fatigue strength/lifetime
• Creep failure – at elevated temperatures and constant strain
- Important parameters: steady-state creep rate, rupture lifetime
- Data extrapolation – Larson-Miller parameter

Chapter 8 - 35

12