Topic 10: Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
• How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?

Hip implant-cyclic
loading from walking. Hip stem fracture.
Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b), Adapted from
Callister 7e. www.emedicine.com
 Fracture mechanisms
• Ductile fracture
– Occurs with plastic deformation
– Characteristics of most metals & polymers

• Brittle fracture
– Little or no plastic deformation
– Catastrophic
– Most ceramics fail in this manner
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister 7e.

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile Ductile: Brittle:
fracture is usually warning before No
desirable! fracture warning
 Example: Failure of a Pipe
• Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

• Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.
 Moderately Ductile Failure
• Evolution to failure:
void void growth shearing
necking and linkage fracture
nucleation at surface
s

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.)
 Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister 7e.

 Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate pt at which failure originated

Adapted from Fig. 8.5(a), Callister 7e.

 Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Intergranular
(between grains)
4 mm
• Intragranular
304 S. Steel (within grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
160 mm
National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
 Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
s perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 e
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
-- the longer the wire, the "Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- Larger samples contain more flaws!

 Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Results from crack propagation
• Griffith Crack
1/ 2
a 
s m = 2so   = K t so
 t 

t where
t = radius of curvature
so = applied stress
sm = stress at crack tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister 7e.

Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b), Callister 7e.

 Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid sharp corners!
so s
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = s
o
swmax 2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
 Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
• A plastic material deforms at the tip, “blunting” the
crack.
deformed
region
brittle plastic

Energy balance on the crack

• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy
 When Does a Crack Propagate?
Crack propagates if above critical stress
1/ 2
i.e., sm > sc  2E s 
sc =  
or Kt > Kc  a 
where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– s = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack
– Kc = sc/s0

For ductile => replace s by s + p

where p is plastic deformation energy
 Fracture Toughness
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B5,
K Ic (MPa · m0.5 )

Callister 7e.
20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 PC Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete
0.5
 Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc = Ys a
• Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max. flaw size --Result 2: Design stress
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
Kc 1  K c 
sdesign  amax  
Y amax   Ysdesign 

amax
s
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture s
 Loading Rate

• Increased loading rate... • Why? An increased rate

-- increases sy and TS gives less time for
-- decreases %EL dislocations to move past
obstacles.
s
TS e
sy larger

e
TS
smaller
sy
e
 Impact Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

 Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top Adapted from Fig. 8.18,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.18 is
motor from Materials Science in
bearing bearing counter
Engineering, 4/E by Carl.
A. Keyser, Pearson
flex coupling Education, Inc., Upper
tension on bottom Saddle River, NJ.)

• Stress varies with time. s

smax
-- key parameters are S, sm, and
S
frequency sm
smin time

• Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though smax < sc.
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
 Fatigue Design Parameters
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: S = stress amplitude
case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)

Sfat
safe
Adapted from Fig.
8.19(a), Callister 7e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
• Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero! S = stress amplitude
case for
unsafe Al (typ.)

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.19(b), Callister 7e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
 Fatigue Mechanism
• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da
= (K )
m

dN
~ (s) a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster as
• s increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister 7e.
• crack gets longer (Fig. 8.21 is from D.J.
• loading freq. increases. Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
 Improving Fatigue Life
1. Impose a compressive S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
surface stress Fig. 8.24, Callister 7e.

(to suppress surface Increasing

near zero or compressive sm
cracks from growing) sm moderate tensile sm
Larger tensile sm

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister 7e.
bad better
 Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress (s) vs. time
s
s,e

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope.
Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister 7e.
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate)
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate.
 Creep
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Figs. 8.29,

Callister 7e.
 Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, s
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
 Qc 
e s = K 2s exp  −
n
 activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress

• Strain rate 200 Stress (MPa) Adapted from

Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
427°C (Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
increases 100 Handbook: Properties
538 °C and Selection:
for higher T, s 40 Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
20
649 °C 9th ed., D. Benjamin
(Senior Ed.), American
10 Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
 Creep Failure
• Failure: • Estimate rupture time
along grain boundaries. S-590 Iron, T = 800°C, s = 20 ksi
g.b. cavities 100
Adapted from
Fig. 8.32, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.32 is from F.R.
Larson and J. Miller,
applied

Stress, ksi
Trans. ASME, 74, 765
20
stress (1952).)
10

data for
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of S-590 Iron
Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
1
12 16 20 24 28
Press, Inc.)
L(10 3 K-log hr) 24x103 K-log hr
• Time to rupture, tr
T ( 20 + log t r ) = L T ( 20 + log t r ) = L
temperature function of 1073K
applied stress
time to failure (rupture) Ans: tr = 233 hr
 Wear

• Erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of

another solid.

• Types of wear:
– Adhesive wear
– Abrasive wear
– Surface fatigue

Wear of Polyethylene
Knee Implant.
Adapted from Fig.
17.19(b), Callister 6e.
 Wear

• Erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of

another solid.

• Types of wear:
– Adhesive wear
– Abrasive wear
– Surface fatigue

When junction is stronger than the

underlying material
 Wear

• Erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of

another solid.

• Types of wear:
– Adhesive wear
– Abrasive wear
– Surface fatigue

Cutting action of a hard surface

rubbing on a softer material
 Wear

• Erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of

another solid.

• Types of wear:
– Adhesive wear
– Abrasive wear
– Surface fatigue
 Tribology

The science and technology of interacting surfaces in

relative motion (Friction/Wear & Lubrication)

• Nature of the surfaces and near-surface regions of a

solid.
• Surface parameters which are effective on tribological
behaviour.
• Mechanical interaction of surfaces in contact.
– Friction
– Wear
• Tribological solutions.
 Surface
• Material to a significant
depth below the actual
boundary with
environment.
• Assumptions.
– Ignore the effect of
greater depths.
– Treat surface as a
surface of a semi-
infinite body.
– Consider just normal
crystalline structure of
the bulk material.
 Roughness
• Asperities:
– Points of contact when two rough solids are in contact
with each other.
• Profilometer:
– Drawing the surface (diamond stylus).
– Amplifying the vertical movement of stylus.
 Traditional Analysis of surface profile
• Roughness average
(Ra).

• RMS value (Rq).

 Friction: Resistance to Motion

• Friction Force

• Friction Laws
 Tribometer
• Machine or device used to perform tests and simulations of wear,
friction and lubrication.
 Main cause of friction
Energy Dissipation at asperity junctions.

Asperity interactions
 Design against Wear damage
• Primary measure:
• Material selection.
• Ensure fluid friction (rather than dry of mixed friction)
• Use elastic joints (only suitable for small movements)

• Secondary measure:
• Reduce friction by reducing surface pressure, relative velocity
and/or friction coefficient between parts.
• Remove wear particles out of fluid flow.
• Apply “division of tasks”: areas of wear can be exchanged easily
and are made of a wear resistant material.
• Make wear marks visible to guarantee reliability and timely
maintenance.
 Example 1

What is the magnitude of the maximum stress that exists at

the tip of an internal crack having a radius of curvature of 1.9
× 10-4mm and a crack length of 3.8 × 10-2mm when a tensile
stress of 140MPa is applied?
 Example 2

If the specific surface energy for Alumina is 0.90J/m2,

calculate the critical stress required for the propagation of an
internal crack of length 0.4mm.
(Given: sflexural = 275 – 700MPa, E = 393GPa)
 Example 3

A hip implant is fabricated from SS316L that has a plane

strain fracture toughness of 40MPa√m. It has been
determined that fracture results at a stress of 300MPa when
the maximum (or critical) internal crack length is 4.0mm.
For this same component and alloy, will fracture occur at a
stress level of 260MPa when the maximum internal crack
length is 6.0mm? Why or why not?
 Example 4

A fatigue test was conducted in which the mean stress

was 90MPa and the stress amplitude was 220MPa:
a) Calculate the maximum and minimum stress levels.
b) Calculate the stress ratio
c) Calculate the magnitude of the stress range.
 Example 5

A 6.4mm diameter cylindrical rod made of 2014-T6

aluminium alloy is subjected to reversed tension-
compression load cycling along its axis. If the maximum
tensile and compressive loads are +5340N and -5340N
respectively, determine its fatigue life. Use the following
S-N plot.
 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic s and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- for cyclic s:
- cycles to fail decreases as s increases.
- for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to fail decreases as s or T increases.