StudyGuide1 Practical Work

PHYSICS
Physics Practical Work

Study Guide
Data Processing and
Laboratory Procedure
Compiled by
H Cilliers
Revised by
I Basson
I Machi
EB Lombardi
Department of Physics
University of South Africa
Pretoria
Open Rubric
© 2010 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
Page layout by the Department

CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Page
Contents
Topic 1 Measurements and errors

25
Study Unit 2: Units and significant figures
2.1 Units 28
2.2 Significant figures 28
2.3 Rounding off 33
2.4 Significant figures in calculations 36
2.4.1 Multiplication and division 37
2.4.2 Addition and subtraction 37
2.5 End note 39
40
Study Unit 3: Single variables
3.1 Measuring a single variable 41
3.2 Arithmetic mean 41
45
Study Unit 4: A case study
4.1 Two students experimenting 48
4.2 Frequency distribution 48
49
Study Unit 5: Precision and accuracy
5.1 Precision and accuracy 55
5.2 Types of errors 55
5.2.1 Systematic errors 56
5.2.2 Random errors 56
5.3 Accuracy of the apparatus 58
60
Study Unit 6: Repeated measurements
6.1 Distribution of repeated measurements 64
6.2 Relative frequency distribution: normalisation 64
6.3 Limiting frequency distribution 65
6.4 Histogram 69
6.5 Sturge’s rule 70
6.6 Continuous distribution 71
76
iii
CONTENTS
Page
Study Unit 7: Evaluating the precision of a measurement 79
7.1 Precision of a measurement 79
7.2 Range 79
7.3 Standard deviation 81
Study Unit 8: Normal distribution 88

8.1 Shape of the normal distribution 88
8.2 Characteristics of the normal distribution 89
Self-evaluation Test 1 99
Assignment questions and problems of Topic 1 104
Topic 2 Interpretation of results 111
Study Unit 9: Standard error 111

9.1 Best estimate of the true value: the mean 112
9.2 Best estimate of precision: adjusted standard
deviation 112
9.3 Accuracy of the mean value: standard error of
the mean 113
9.4 Concluding the matter of errors 116
9.5 Significant figures in experimental results 117
Study Unit 10: Combinations of measurements and errors 124

10.1 Combining errors 124
10.2 Sum and difference 126
10.3 Scale factor 127
10.4 Linear combination 127
10.5 Product and quotient 127
10.6 General product 128
10.7 Exponents 128
10.8 Natural logarithms 129
10.9 Logarithms 129
10.10 Summary 130
Study Unit 11: A case study revised 142

11.1 Two students again 142

Topic 3 Graphs 155
Study Unit 12: Graphs in experimental work 155

12.1 Introduction 155
12.2 Purpose of graphs in experimental work 157
12.3 What have we learnt from Prof Onestone? 162
12.4 Plotting a graph 162
iv
CONTENTS
Page
Study Unit 13: Straight line graphs 168
13.1 Why straight line graphs? 168
13.2 Equation of a straight line 169
Study Unit 14: Relationships between variables 177

14.1 Types of variables 177
14.2 Linearising equations 178
14.3 Equations of the form ܻ ൌ ݇ܺ ௡ 182
14.4 Equations of the form ܻ ൌ ݇݁ ି஼௑ 184
Study Unit 15: The best straight line 186

15.2 Principle of least squares 186
15.3 Linear regression 188
Study Unit 16: Hints on how to plot graphs 196

16.1 Hints 196
16.2 Example 197
16.3 Error-bars 200

Topic 4 Planning an experiment and writing a report 214
Study Unit 17: Planning an experiment 215

17.2 Preparation 215
17.3 Preliminary experiment 215
17.4 Recording measurements 216
17.5 Analysis of the data 217
17.6 Drawing conclusions 217
17.7 Reporting the experiment 217
Study Unit 18: Writing a scientific report 218

18.1 Nature of a scientific report 218
18.2 Scheme of a scientific report 219
18.3 A model report 222
Appendix A: Exponents and logarithms 230

Appendix B: Greek alphabet 232
Appendix C: Physical constants and conversion factors 233
Appendix D: Microcomputers for data analysis 234
Appendix E: Information about the laboratory session 236
v
Topic 1
MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS
Study Unit 2 Units and significant figures
Study Unit 3 Single variables
Study Unit 4 A case study
Study Unit 5 Precision and accuracy
Study Unit 6 Repeated measurements
Study Unit 7 Evaluating the precision of a measurement
Study Unit 8 Normal distribution
25
TOPIC 1
When it is not in our power to determine what is true, we ought to follow what is
most probable.
René Descartes (1596-1650)
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important activities carried out in experimental work in physics is
taking measurements. When a physical quantity is measured, the value obtained
from the measurement is not necessarily exactly equal to the true value of the
quantity. Human error is often the cause of most of the uncertainty in
measurements, but it can be reduced by means of fully mechanised measuring
equipment. As an example, think of the way in which time is measured in
athletics. Suppose someone were to time an athlete in the 100 m sprinting event
using a stopwatch, and the athlete’s time is simultaneously registered by an
electronic device using a light sensor. The person taking the time by stop watch
may press the button slightly before the athlete crosses the finishing line, which
would be in the athlete’s favour. On the other hand, the person handling the stop
watch could have slow reflexes and may push the button slightly too late, which
the athlete would not like at all. Because the electronic time excludes a large part
of possible human error, it rules out most possible causes for dispute. We say that
the electronic time is more reliable than the time taken by hand, or differently put,
the electronic time is closer to the true value of the athlete’s time over the 100 m.
In the same way, any experimental measurement contains a certain amount of

error. Even when the human factor is absent, the inevitable irregularities in the
phenomenon under examination give rise to fluctuations in the measurements. For
this reason taking a measurement is not enough. If the result of an experiment is
to be used, we need to give an indication of the accuracy or the reliability of
the measurements. This is done by including an estimate of the error with the
result. The uncertainty which is always present in physical measurements is
ERROR OF usually called error of observation. Using the word “error” in this sense can lead
OBSERVATION to confusion because we use it every day to mean the same as “mistake”. These
considerations have nothing to do with mistakes, however. As you will soon see,
we also have to distinguish between different types of errors.
Think back to the soft drink experiment. We gave the volume of the soft drink as
ܸୱ୭୤୲ୢ୰୧୬୩ ൌ ሺ͵ͶͲ േ ͳͲሻଷ Ǥ
26
This means that we expect the volume to be somewhere between 330 ଷ and
350ଷ . We are not certain that the value lies between these limits, but our
measurements show that there is a certain probability of its doing so.
The results you obtain in the experiments you will be conducting will also contain
errors, which you will have to take into account. In this topic we are going to look
at the way in which measurements are made, and how the errors they contain
should be dealt with.
We will answer four of the questions that stemmed from the soft drink
experiment, namely:
Ø Why was the volume of the can determined five times?

Ø What is meant by accuracy?
Ø How does this differ from precision?
Ø How were the number of significant figures in the results determined?
FIRST THINGS FIRST

Before we go any further, there are two very important issues to get out of the
way. The one is units and the other is significant figures. As you saw from the
soft drink experiment, we will be doing a lot of measuring and calculating. To be
able to do this correctly, one has to be aware of the importance of units and the
correct way to deal with significant figures.
27
UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
STUDY UNIT 2
Learning Objectives
After having completed this study unit, you should be able to:
1. explain what is meant by SI units

2. use SI units correctly in measurements and calculations
3. convert units to SI units and vice versa
4. explain the difference between base units and derived units
5. indicate the meanings of the prefixes that denote multiples of ten of a unit
6. recognise the number of significant figures in any number
7. round off a number to contain the required number of significant digits
8. determine the correct number of significant figures in the answer to a
calculation involving:
(a) multiplication and division
(b) addition and subtraction.
2.1 UNITS
When we make a quantitative physical measurement, it has to be expressed in
UNIT terms of some standardised unit. Measurement is actually nothing but comparing
two magnitudes with each other. (The word “magnitude” refers to the size of a
quantity; it tells us how big something is.) When we say we measure the length of
a pencil with a ruler and find it to be 135 mm, it means that the length of the
pencil is the same as the length of 135 divisions of 1 mm each on the ruler we
DIMENSION used. The quantity that we measured had the dimensions of length and the unit we
used for the measurement was the millimetre. Any physical quantity is specified
by both its dimension and the unit of that dimension.
Denoting a physical quantity by a number without units is meaningless. We
cannot say the length of the pencil is 135. It would mean nothing! We have to say
its length is 135 mm or 13.5 cm. Now it is immediately clear that we are referring
to something with the dimension of length, whereas 135 was just a number which
could equally well have referred to the number of seeds in a packet or the number
of leaves on a plant.
The three fundamental dimensions in physics are length, mass and time along
with the quantities temperature, electric current and amount of a substance.
All quantities that are derived in physics can be expressed in terms of these
fundamental dimensions. Speed for instance, has the dimensions of distance
28
divided by time. The units for length, mass, time, temperature, electric current and
the amount of a substance are regarded as base units. All other units are defined BASE UNITS
in terms of these base units; they are called derived units because they are
DERIVED
combinations of base units. The unit of force, for example, is the newton, which is
defined in terms of the units for mass, length and time because UNITS
ͳ ൌ ͳିଶ Ǥ (2.1)
In scientific work, metric units are used worldwide, and the most widely used METRIC
system of units is officially known as the International System or SI (the UNITS
abbreviation for the French equivalent “Système International d’Unités”). This
system uses the metre (m) as the unit of length, the kilogram (kg) as the unit of
mass and the second (s) as the unit of time. (The International System is
sometimes also referred to as the mks system.) In this module we will be working
in SI units, although you may also encounter the cgs system of units. The cgs SI UNITS
system utilises the centimetre (cm) as the unit for length, the gram (g) as the unit
for mass and the second (s) as the unit for time. Table 2.1 gives a summary of the
units used in the two systems.
SI cgs system
Length metre (m) centimetre (cm)
Mass kilogram (kg) gram (g)
Time second (s) second (s)
TABLE 2.1: The units of length, mass and time in the SI and the cgs systems
At the end of the soft drink experiment, one of the questions we asked, was:
“Why was ଷ and not ml used as the unit for volume?”. The answer is that we
used ଷ because we were conducting a scientific experiment. Although 1 ml is
equivalent to 1 ଷ , it is used mainly as a commercial unit, while ଷ is used in
scientific context. As you can see, ଷ is a derived unit because volume has the
dimensions of ሺሻଷ. Please note that we were working in the cgs system —
the SI unit for volume is ଷ . Strictly speaking we should have used SI units, but
ଷ was the more practical unit to use because we were measuring a relatively
ଷ
small volume (compare this to using ͵ǤͶͲ ൈ ͳͲିସ to report the volume of soft
drink in the can). In the model report in Study Unit 18 you can see an example of
using SI units for volume.
DEFINITION OF STANDARD UNITS
Time
The definition of the unit of time is based on an atomic clock which uses the
vibrational motion of caesium atoms. One second is defined as the time
needed for 9 192 631 770 vibrations of an atom of caesium-133 to occur.
29
Length
The metre is defined as the distance that light travels in vacuum in 1/299 792
458 seconds. This definition arises from the fact that the speed of light is
defined as 299 792 458 ିଵ .
Mass
One kilogram is defined as the mass of a particular cylinder in platinum-
iridium alloy that is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Sèvres near Paris.
!
In Table 2.2 the base SI units and the derived units for a number of physical
quantities are listed, but some of the spaces have not been filled in. Try to fill in
the blanks. For derived units, try recalling the definitions of the derived quantities.
A dash indicates that the unit does not have a unique name or abbreviation — it is
always expressed in terms of base units.
Expression in terms of
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
other SI units
Length m Base unit
Mass kilogram
Time Base unit
Electric current ampere A Base unit
Temperature kelvin K Base unit
Amount of substance mole mol Base unit
Velocity — —
Acceleration — —
Force N
Work, energy joule Nm
Power W
Electric charge coulomb As
Electric field strength — —
Electric potential ିଵ
Resistance Ω
Capacitance farad ିଵ
Inductance H
Magnetic field strength ିଵ ିଵ
Magnetic flux Wb
Table 2.2: Examples of base and derived SI units
30
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
Expression in terms of
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
other SI units
Length metre m Base unit
Mass kilogram kg Base unit
Time second s Base unit
Electric current ampere A Base unit
Temperature kelvin K Base unit
Amount of substance mole mol Base unit
Velocity — — ିଵ
Acceleration — — ିଶ
Force newton N ିଶ
Work, energy joule J Nm
Power watt W ିଵ
Electric charge coulomb C As
Electric field strength — — ିଵ
Electric potential volt V ିଵ
Resistance ohm Ω ିଵ
Capacitance farad F ିଵ
Inductance henry H ିଵ
Magnetic field strength tesla T ିଵ ିଵ
Magnetic flux weber Wb ଶ
Table 2.3: Feedback: Examples of base and derived SI units

....................................................................................................................................
Sometimes when we measure very small or very big quantities, it is useful to use
smaller or larger units that are related to the fundamental units by multiples of ten.
There are certain standard prefixes which denote these multiples of ten which are
summarised in Table 2.4. Note that the prefixes denoting factors of ten greater
than zero are indicated with upper case letters and the prefixes denoting factors of
ten smaller than zero, with lower case letters.
31
Prefix Abbreviation Factor

Tera T ͳͲଵଶ
Giga G ͳͲଽ
Mega M ͳͲ଺
Kilo K ͳͲଷ
Hecto H ͳͲଶ
Deka D ͳͲଵ
deci d ͳͲିଵ
centi c ͳͲିଶ
milli m ͳͲିଷ
micro μ ͳͲି଺
nano n ͳͲିଽ
pico p ͳͲିଵଶ
femto f ͳͲିଵହ
Table 2.4: Standard prefixes that denote multiples of 10
In summary, you should keep the following very important guidelines in mind
when working with units:
Ø Units are important — do not omit them when recording the results of
your experiments or when processing the results. Remember, a physical
quantity is described by its magnitude plus the unit in which it was
measured.
Ø Use either SI units or cgs units — never mix the units from the two
systems. You cannot use kg as unit for mass in a calculation in which the
length is given in cm.
Ø You can record your readings in the units indicated on the apparatus you
use in an experiment (e.g. mm when measuring length using a ruler
calibrated in 1 mm divisions) but you have to convert them to SI units
before you start processing the results. The table in which you give the
results of your measurements should contain the measurements in SI units.
Ø Take careful note of the abbreviations for each unit. It is important that
you use the correct abbreviation for each unit. For example, do not use
“sec” for seconds, use “s”.
32
Complete Table 2.5 by converting the units of the given measurements to SI units.
Quantity
Length of a pencil
Measurement
13.5 cm
Measurement in SI units
ͳǤ͵ͷ ൈ ͳͲିଵ
!
Volume of a table spoon 15 ଷ
Area of a table ͷ ൈ ͳͲଷ ଶ
Current through a circuit element 25 mA
Resistance of a resistor 30 kȳ
Distance of a marathon 42 km
TABLE 2.5: Activity: Conversion to SI units
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
Quantity Measurement Measurement in SI units

Length of a pencil 13.5 cm ͳǤ͵ͷ ൈ ͳͲିଵ
Volume of a table spoon 15 ଷ ͳǤͷ ൈ ͳͲିହ ଷ
Area of a table ͷ ൈ ͳͲଷ ଶ ͷ ൈ ͳͲିଵ ଶ
Current through a circuit element 25 mA ʹǤͷ ൈ ͳͲିଶ
Resistance of a resistor 30 kΩ ͵ ൈ ͳͲସ ȳ
Distance of a marathon 42 km ͶǤʹ ൈ ͳͲସ
TABLE 2.6: Feedback: Conversion to SI units

....................................................................................................................................
2.2 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Experiments in physics involve the measurement of a variety of quantities and a
great deal of effort goes into making these measurements as reliable as possible.
The first step toward ensuring the reliability of a result, is to define the units in RELIABILITY
which the measurements are made. Having done this, we have to bear in mind that
the accuracy of any measurement is limited by errors of various types. It is ERRORS
important to keep track of these errors in experimentally obtained numbers when
processing results. The best way to do this is to take into account the rules that We will discuss
apply to significant figures. The accuracy of an experimental measurement is the various types
indicated by the way in which the result is recorded. To indicate the accuracy, a
of errors in
number is written with as many digits as are meaningful. This is determined to a
great extent by the accuracy of the measuring instrument that was used. When we Study Unit 5.
said that we measured the length of a pencil as 135 mm using a ruler with mm
divisions, all three digits were known with certainty, because we could read the
scale accurately to 1 mm.
33
The number of significant figures in any number is the number of digits whose
values are known with certainty. The number of significant figures (or digits) in a
number is determined as follows:
1. The leftmost nonzero digit is always the most significant digit.

2. If a number is written without a decimal point, the rightmost nonzero digit is
the least significant digit.
3. If a number is written with a decimal point, the rightmost digit is the least
significant digit, even if it is 0.
4. All digits between the least and most significant digits are counted as
significant digits.
In the number 1 678 the significance of the digits differs as shown below.
ͳ ͸͹
ต ͺ
most significant significant least significant

digit digits digit
Should the number, say 233.40, contain a decimal point, the significance of the
digits is shown below.
ʹ ͵͵ǤͶ
ถ Ͳ
most significant significant least significant

digit digits digit
The following numbers all have four significant digits:
1 234, 123 400, 123.4, 1 001, 101.0, 0.001010.
SCIENTIFIC Scientific notation is particularly useful in ruling out ambiguity when it comes to
NOTATION significant digits. In scientific notation one uses powers of ten to express the
magnitude of a quantity. The quantity is written as a number between 1 and 10
and multiplied by the appropriate power of ten. Instead of writing 149 000 000
000 m for the distance from the earth to the sun, we write ͳǤͶͻ ൈ ͳͲଵଵ or
34
ͳǤͶͻ ൈ ͳͲ଼ . The position immediately to the right of the first nonzero digit is
known as the standard position of the decimal point.
Suppose we have measured a certain distance to be one thousand two hundred

metres and the result is accurate to four significant figures. If we write the
distance as 1200 m it implies that only two significant figures are known. If, on
the other hand, we write this as 1.200 ൈ ͳͲଷ it indicates clearly that the
distance is known to four significant figures. It is a good principle, therefore, to
use scientific notation whenever it is important to indicate the exact number of
significant figures — and it is always important to do so in experimental work!
Write down the number of significant figures in each of the following numbers:
Number Number of significant figures

!
10 000
10 001
1.00
1 ൈ ͳͲ଺
3 020 000
1.6946004
Table 2.7: Significant figures
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
Number Number of significant figures

10 000 1
10 001 5
1.00 3
1 ൈ ͳͲ଺ 1
3 020 000 3
1.6946004 8
Table 2.8: Feedback: Significant figures
…………………………………………………........................................................
When entering data that is expressed in scientific notation in a table, it makes the
table easier to read if we indicate the multiplying power of ten in the heading of
the appropriate row or column of the table. Say, for example, the inductance of a
35
coil of wire was measured in henry (H) as part of an experiment and the following
data were obtained:
ͻǤͷͳ ൈ ͳͲିଷ Ǣ ͻǤ͵ʹ ൈ ͳͲିଷ Ǣ ͻǤͻʹ ൈ ͳͲିଷ Ǣ ͻǤͻ͵ ൈ ͳͲିଷ Ǣ ͻǤͳͶ ൈ ͳͲିଷ Ǥ
The best way to display the data in a table would be to include the multiplying
factor, expressed as a power of ten, in the heading of the table, as shown in Table
2.9.
Inductance ሺͳͲିଷ ሻ 9.51 9.32 9.92 9.93 9.14
TABLE 2.9: Measured values of the inductance of a coil of wire
!
Use the space provided below to present the following pressure data measured in
pascal (Pa) in a table:
ͳǤͲ͵ ൈ ͳͲହ Ǣ ͳǤͲͳ ൈ ͳͲହ Ǣ ͻǤͻ ൈ ͳͲସ Ǣ ͳǤͲͷ ൈ ͳͲହ Ǣ ͳǤͲͺ ൈ ͳͲହ Ǥ
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
Pressure ሺͳͲହ ሻ 1.03 1.01 0.99 1.05 1.08
....................................................................................................................................
2.3 ROUNDING OFF

Having recorded the results of an experiment to reflect the accuracy of the
measurements, one should keep track of the accuracy of the experimental data
while they are being processed. It is often necessary to drop insignificant digits
from a number after calculations have been performed.
The procedure to follow for rounding off a number is to truncate the number to the
desired number of significant digits and to treat the excess digits as a decimal
fraction. (“Truncate” means to make the number shorter.) The following rules
apply:
36
1. If the fraction is greater than ½, increment the least significant digit.

(“Increment” means to increase by one.)
2. If the fraction is less than ½, do not increment the least significant digit.
3. If the fraction equals ½, increment the least significant digit only if it is odd.
In this manner, the value of the final result is always within half the value of the You will find out
least significant digit of the original number. Let us look at some examples exactly what a
illustrating how we apply these rules. If we have to round off the number 122.49 systematic error is
to three significant figures, we use rule 2, because the fraction is less than ½. The
in Study Unit 5.
least significant digit (the second “2” in this case) is therefore NOT incremented,
and the number is rounded off to 122. Should we have to round off the number
34.758 to three significant figures, it will become 34.8, because the fraction is
greater than ½, and rule 1 applies. The reason for rule 3 is that in many cases the
fraction equals either 0 or ½ and consistently incrementing the least significant
digit for a fraction of ½ would lead to a systematic error. For example, 1.235 and
1.245 both become 1.24 when rounded off to three significant figures, but 1.2451
becomes 1.25.
Before we start doing calculations, a few hints about the effective use of a
pocket calculator:
1. Most calculators use scientific notation and add and subtract exponents
automatically but you should be able to do such calculations without a
calculator if necessary.
2. Check that the order of magnitude of your result makes sense by using
rounded off numbers to make an order-of-magnitude estimate. The great
nuclear physicist Enrico Fermi called this type of estimation a “back-of-the-
envelope calculation”.
3. Check your calculations by carrying out the operations in reverse order.
4. Ask yourself whether the result of a calculation or measurement seems
reasonable.
5. Use the memory of your calculator to store intermediate results, keeping
more significant figures than needed and round off only the final answer.
2.4 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATIONS

When two or more numbers are used in a calculation, the number of significant
figures in the answer is limited by the number of significant figures in the original
data. Let us consider the types of calculations you will encounter separately.
2.4.1 Multiplication and division

In all computations involving multiplication and division, the factor with the least
number of significant digits determines the number of significant figures in the
answer. This study guide, for instance, has a short side with a length of 21 cm and
a long side with a length of 29.7 cm, so its area is (21 cm × 29.7 cm). A pocket
37
calculator gives an answer of 623.7 ଶ for this product. The length of the shorter
side of the study guide was known to only two significant figures, however, so the
final answer cannot contain more than two significant figures. It should therefore
be rounded off to 620 ଶ .
INTERMEDIATE In intermediate steps of calculations (i.e. steps between the beginning and the end
STEPS of calculations), it is a good policy to retain one or two extra digits to avoid
introducing additional errors. Have a look at the way in which the results were
processed in the model report on the soft drink experiment. In the intermediate
steps the value of 362 ଷ was used for the volume of the can, for instance. The
answers were always rounded off to contain only two significant figures, however,
because the measurements could only be given accurately to two significant
figures.
The importance of not rounding off too soon is best illustrated by an example. The
sum
ʹǤͷ ൅ ʹǤͶͻ ൅ ʹǤͶͷ ൌ ͹ǤͶͶ (2.2)
becomes
ʹ൅ʹ൅ʹൌ ͸ (2.3)
if the three numbers are rounded off before they are added together. Quite a
difference as you can see!
Do the following calculation with your pocket calculator and round off the answer
! to contain the correct number of significant digits:
‫ݔ‬ൌ
ሺͺǤʹʹ͵ͻሻሺʹǤ͹ሻሺͻͺǤ͵ͷሻɎଶ
Ǥ
ʹ͹͸Ͷ
(2.4)
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

A calculator gives the answer as
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͹Ǥ͹ͻ͹ͺͻͻͻǤ (2.5)
The fact that the pocket calculator gives the answer to seven decimal places does
not mean that they are all significant figures! In the numerator, the first three
factors have five, two and four significant figures respectively and the constant
ߨሺൌ ͵ǤͳͶͳͷͻʹ͸ ǥ ሻ is known to an arbitrarily great accuracy. (In other words, in
cases like these the constant ߨ is assumed to contain at least as many significant
figures as the most accurate number in the calculation.) The denominator is
known to four significant digits, so the factor with the least number of significant
figures is 2.7, which has two significant figures. The answer should therefore be
rounded off to two digits, that is x = 7.8.
....................................................................................................................................
38
2.4.2 Addition and subtraction

The number of significant figures in the answer to a calculation involving addition
or subtraction is also limited by the number of significant figures in the original
data. In this case, the number of significant figures in the answer is determined by
the number with the least number of significant figures to the right of the decimal
point. Consider the sum
ʹͷǤʹͶ
൅ ͲǤͶ͹ͷ
ʹͷǤ͹ͳͷ
(2.6)
Because the first number contains two significant figures and the second number
contains three significant figures to the right of the decimal point, it would be
meaningless to include three significant figures after the decimal point in the
answer. The answer should therefore be rounded off to 25.72. Let us look at
another example to show that the same ideas apply to subtraction.
ͶͷǤ͸ͷ͹
െ ʹǤ͵Ͷͳͷͻ
Ͷ͵Ǥ͵ͳͷ
(2.7)
The answer given by a pocket calculator was actually 43.31541 but it is rounded
off to contain only three significant figures to the right of the decimal point,
because 45.657 had three significant figures after the decimal point. In this case,
45.657 was the number with the least number of significant figures after the
decimal point.
Add the numbers given below and give the answer to the correct number of
significant figures.
ͳʹǤͷ͵
͵ʹ
!
൅ʹ͵ǤͶ (2.8)
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
ͳʹǤͷ͵
͵ʹ
൅ ʹ͵ǤͶ
͸͹Ǥͻ͵
(2.9)
This answer should be rounded off to 68 because the number 32 contained no

significant figures to the right of the decimal point.
39
Explanation:
In this case, 32 was the number with the least significant figures after the decimal
point. When adding or subtracting numbers, the last significant figure in the
answer occurs in the last column (counting from left to right) containing a number
that results from a combination of digits that are all significant. In the answer
67.93, the “7” is the sum of 2 + 2 + 3, which are all significant digits. The “9”
however, is the sum of 5 + 0 + 4, where the zero comes from the number 32 which
has no significant figures to the right of the decimal point.
…………………………………………………........................................................
2.5 END NOTE

See Study Unit 9 The question you will probably be asking yourself when you start taking readings
for a discussion of or making measurements during an experiment is: “How many significant figures
significant figures should I record?”. This question can best be answered after we have found a way
to evaluate the accuracy and precision of an experimental result, so we will return
in experimental
to significant figures in experimental results a little later.
results.
40
SINGLE VARIABLES
STUDY UNIT 3
SINGLE VARIABLES
Learning Objectives
1. explain why it is necessary to make repeated measurements to determine the

value of a single variable
2. calculate the arithmetic mean of a number of successive measurements
3. explain the difference between the total number of measurements and the
number of values obtained
4. summarise repeated measurements by making use of the frequency with
which each measurement occurred.
3.1 MEASURING A SINGLE VARIABLE

When measuring a single quantity once only, it is difficult to know how
accurately we have made the measurement. The best way of reducing the
uncertainty in a measurement is to repeat the measurement several times and to
calculate the average value of the measured quantity.
Suppose some unknown variable x (this could be anything — the mass of a

pendulum bob, the length of a conductor or the capacity of a soft drink can for that
matter!) was measured N times, giving a set of values ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ǡ ǥ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ே Ǥ The
arithmetic mean ‫ݔ‬of any set of values ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ǡ ǥ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ே is defined as ARITHMETIC
MEAN
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൅ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ‫ݔ‬ே
‫ݔ‬ൌ
ܰ
σே
௜ୀଵ ‫ݔ‬௜
ൌ
ܰ
σ‫ݔ‬
ൌ Ǥ
ܰ
(3.1)
In equation (3.1) ∑ (sigma) means the “sum of”, so σே ௜ୀଵ ‫ݔ‬௜ should be read as the
“sum of ‫ݔ‬௜ for values of i from 1 to N”. The expression can be abbreviated as σ ‫ݔ‬.
41
SINGLE VARIABLES
Example 3.1
The length l of the metal bar shown in Figure 3.1 was measured five times (in
mm). The values obtained are shown in Table 3.1.
FIGURE 3.1: Metal bar measured in Example 3.1
i 1 2 3 4 5
l (mm) 52 54 51 56 53
TABLE 3.1: Results for five measurements of the metal bar's length
From equation (3.1) the average value of the bar’s length is
σே
௜ୀଵ ݈௜
݈ൌ
ܰ
݈ଵ ൅ ݈ଶ ൅ ݈ଷ ൅ ݈ସ ൅ ݈ହ
ൌ
ͷ
ሺͷʹ ൅ ͷͶ ൅ ͷͳ ൅ ͷ͸ ൅ ͷ͵ሻ
ൌ
ͷ
ൌ ͷ͵Ǥ (3.2)
!
Let us have another look at our soft drink can. As an exercise in taking repeated
measurements, you can determine the height of the can. Use a ruler calibrated in
millimetres to measure the height of the can. Use the method illustrated in
Figure 3.2. Put something straight and flat (I used my pocket diary, but a second
ruler, preferably the short 15 cm type, would also be fine) on top of the can. This
is to help you measure exactly to the top edge of the can, since it has a slight
indent at the top. Place the can right at the edge of the table that you are working
on, and take a reading at the edge of the table, and another at the flat object on top
of the can. Remember, the ruler has a short interval before the calibration (i.e. the
markings) starts! Also, it is not a good policy to take either of the readings at the
zero mark on the ruler, because most rulers get slightly worn with use, and it may
be difficult to see exactly where the calibration line is. The height of the can is
given by the difference between the two readings. Repeat the measurement five
times, recording your measurements in Table 3.2 and calculate the arithmetic
42
SINGLE VARIABLES
mean of the height of the can. It is good practice to measure the height at five
different positions along the circumference of the can.
FIGURE 3.2: The height of a soft drink — showing the correct

way to measure the height with a ruler
Measurement Bottom reading Top reading Height h

number (mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
TABLE 3.2: Height of the soft drink can, measured five times
The arithmetic mean of the height of the can is
݄ ൌ
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
When measuring the height of the can five times, the following results were
obtained:
43
SINGLE VARIABLES
Measurement Bottom reading Top reading Height h

number (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 30 152 122
2 35 152 117
3 36 155 119
4 29 149 120
5 30 150 120
TABLE 3.3: Feedback on the soft drink can measurements
The arithmetic mean of the height of the can is
σହ௜ୀଵ ݄௜
݄ൌ
ͷ
ሺͳʹʹ ൅ ͳͳ͹ ൅ ͳͳͻ ൅ ͳʹͲ ൅ ͳʹͲሻ

ൌ
ͷ
ͷͻͺ
ൌ
ͷ
ൌ ͳʹͲǤ (3.3)
…………………………………………………........................................................
When we make repeated measurements of a single variable, the same value can
occur more than once. Look at the measurements of the height of the soft drink
can that we have just made; in the results the value 120 mm occurred twice. When
a large number of measurements are made, it is convenient not to have to write
FREQUENCY down each value more than once. For this purpose we make use of the frequency
with which each value occurs. The frequency of a value is the number of times
that the value occurs. This means that the frequency of the value of 120 mm for
the height of the can is 2. If the total number of measurements is N, the sum of the
frequencies equals N, i.e.
௡
෍ ݂௜ ൌ ܰǤ
௜ୀଵ
(3.4)
NOTE:
MEASUREMENTS There is a difference between the total number of measurements made and the
total number of values obtained. When one makes N measurements, they need not
VALUES all be different — some of the values may occur more than once, so that the total
number of values obtained is n where ݊ ൑ ܰǤ
44
SINGLE VARIABLES
3.2 Arithmetic mean

If a set of values ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ǡ ǥ ǡ ‫ݔ‬௡ occur with frequencies ݂ଵ ǡ ݂ଶ ǡ ݂ଷ ǡ ǥ ǡ ݂௡
respectively, the arithmetic mean is given by
݂ଵ ‫ݔ‬ଵ ൅ ݂ଶ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ݂ଷ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ݂௡ ‫ݔ‬௡

‫ݔ‬ൌ
݂ଵ ൅ ݂ଶ ൅ ݂ଷ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ݂௡
σ௡௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ‫ݔ‬௜
ൌ
σ ݂௜
σ ݂‫ݔ‬
ൌ Ǥ
σ݂
(3.5)
Example 3.2
When the length of the bar in Figure 3.1 was measured 10 times, the values shown
in Table 3.4 were obtained.
NOTE:
The frequency f indicates the number of times each value for l was read. For
example, a reading of 53 mm occurred three times. Although 10 measurements
were made, only five different values for l were obtained. You can check this by
adding the values of f — as you can see ∑ f = 10.
i 1 2 3 4 5
l (mm) 51 52 53 54 56
f 1 3 3 2 1
TABLE 3.4: Results for ten measurements of the bar's length
From equation 3.5 the arithmetic mean of the bar’s length is
σହ௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ݈௜
݈ൌ ହ
σ௜ୀଵ ݂௜
݂ଵ ݈ଵ ൅ ݂ଶ ݈ଶ ൅ ݂ଷ ݈ଷ ൅ ݂ସ ݈ସ ൅ ݂ହ ݈ହ
ൌ
݂ଵ ൅ ݂ଶ ൅ ݂ଷ ൅ ݂ସ ൅ ݂ହ
ሾሺͳ ൈ ͷͳሻ ൅ ሺ͵ ൈ ͷʹሻ ൅ ሺ͵ ൈ ͷ͵ሻ ൅ ሺʹ ൈ ͷͶሻ ൅ ሺͳ ൈ ͷ͸ሻሿ
ൌ
ͳ൅͵൅͵൅ʹ൅ͳ
ൌ ͷ͵
(3.6)
45
SINGLE VARIABLES
!
Measure the height of the soft drink can ten times, and record the values in the
table below.
Height
i
h (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Now arrange the values according to frequency in the table below, and calculate
the mean value of the height of the can.
Value no Height Frequency

i h (mm) f
The mean value of the height of the can is
݄ ൌ
46
SINGLE VARIABLES
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
The results for ten measurements of the height of a soft drink can are tabulated
below:
Height
i
h (mm)
1 122
2 117
3 119
4 120
5 120
6 121
7 119
8 120
9 119
10 120
Arranged by frequency, the values can be tabulated as follows:
Height Frequency
i
h (mm) f
1 117 1
2 119 3
3 120 4
4 121 1
5 122 1
The average value of the height of the can is
σହ௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ݄௜
݄ൌ
σ ݂௜
ሾሺͳ ൈ ͳͳ͹ሻ ൅ ሺ͵ ൈ ͳͳͻሻ ൅ ሺͶ ൈ ͳʹͲሻ ൅ ሺͳ ൈ ͳʹͳሻ ൅ ሺͳ ൈ ͳʹʹሻሿ

ൌ
ͳͲ
ͳͳͻ͹
ൌ
ͳͲ
ൌ ͳʹͲ. (3.7)
…………………………………………………........................................................
47
A CASE STUDY
STUDY UNIT 4
A CASE STUDY
Learning Objectives
1. plot a frequency distribution of the results of a number of repeated

measurements of a single variable.
2. recognize the difference between different sets of measurements from the
difference in their frequency distributions.
4.1 TWO STUDENTS EXPERIMENTING

A lot has now been said about the uncertainty present in measurements and the
necessity of giving an indication of the reliability of a result, but how does one
actually do this? Before we go into the details of estimating an error, let us
consider a case study of two typical students in the first year physics laboratory.
Let us call them John and Thabo. We will compare their results for the same
experiment to get an idea of the factors that need to be taken into account when
evaluating the reliability of an experimental result.
On their first day at the physics practical, our two intrepid experimenters were
asked to determine the period of a pendulum. They each measured the period of
the same pendulum once. John reported the period to be 1.4 s, while Thabo
obtained a result of 1.53 s. Which result is the most reliable — John’s because he
seemed a dependable sort of person, or Thabo’s because he gave the result to two
decimal places? One has to be very careful not to confuse the information given
by the experimental results with preconceptions about the person carrying out the
experiment.
TRUE VALUE To be able to decide which value is closest to the true value of the period of the
pendulum, we need to know something about the reliability of the measurements.
A single numerical result on its own cannot give information about both the value
obtained for the period and its reliability. At least two numbers are required if we
want give a result and a measure of its reliability. As we shall see later, it is even
more useful to include yet a third number as an indication of the reliability of a
result. When the volume of the soft drink in the soft drink experiment was given
as (340 ± 10) ଷ , 340 ଷ was the result of the measurement, and 10 ଷ was
an estimate of the error in the result.
48
A CASE STUDY
Let us get back to John and Thabo. To be able to evaluate their results, they were
asked to repeat their measurements. They went back to the laboratory and they
each measured the period five times. The results of their repeated measurements
are tabulated in Table 4.1.
John’s result for the period Thabo’s result for the period
(s) (s)
1.4 1.53
1.7 1.50
1.4 1.51
1.6 1.52
1.7 1.51
TABLE 4.1: John's and Thabo's results.
This gives a very different view of the matter. For one thing, both experimenters
revised their original estimates. Both of them could now give a mean value of
their measurements by calculating the arithmetic mean or average of their results. ARITHMETIC
John calculated the mean value of the period to be MEAN
ሺͳǤͶ ൅ ͳǤ͹ ൅ ͳǤͶ ൅ ͳǤ͸ ൅ ͳǤ͹ሻ

ൌ ͳǤͷ͸
ͷ
(4.1)
while Thabo calculated it to be
ሺͳǤͷ͵ ൅ ͳǤͷͲ ൅ ͳǤͷͳ ൅ ͳǤͷʹ ൅ ͳǤͷͳሻ

ൌ ͳǤͷͳͶ
ͷ
(4.2)
4.2 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

These values still differ from each other but we now have an objective way to
compare the two experiments. We can do this by plotting each set of
measurements as a frequency distribution. This is a useful way of visually FREQUENCY
presenting the distribution of a set of measurements by plotting it as a graph with DISTRIBUTION
the measurement values on the x axis and the frequency on the y axis. Instead of
joining the data points, a vertical line is drawn from each data point to the x
ordinates. The length of each line indicates the frequency of each value and the FREQUENCY
way in which the values are spread across the x axis shows how far apart the
different values lie. The frequency of a value tells us how many times the
particular value occurs. To compare John’s and Thabo’s new sets of
measurements, they were plotted as frequency distributions in Figure 4.1 and
Figure 4.2 respectively.
49
A CASE STUDY
FIGURE 4.1: Frequency distribution of John’s results after five measurements
FIGURE 4.2: Frequency distribution of Thabo's results after five measurements
Thabo’s measurements are closely bunched together, lying from 1.50 s to 1.53 s,
while John’s measurements are spread from 1.4 s to 1.7 s. Thabo’s measurements
seem more consistent than John’s because they lie closer together. For this reason
Thabo’s measurements look more reliable than John’s but we cannot be very
specific about what we mean by “more reliable”. On this basis the lecturer
preferred Thabo’s value of 1.514 s to John’s value of 1.56 s.
50
A CASE STUDY
!
Turn back to the results you obtained when you measured the height of the soft
drink can five times. Plot the frequency distribution of these measurements on the
graph paper below.
Frequency distribution of your five measurements

of the height of the soft drink can
51
A CASE STUDY
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
The distribution of five measurements of the volume of the soft drink can is
shown in Figure 4.3.
FIGURE 4.3: FEEDBACK: The frequency distribution of five

measurements of the height of a soft drink can
John was not prepared to take this lying down. He put in several hours’ work and
came back with 500 measurements and a mean value of 1.5326 s. The frequency
distribution of his 500 measurements is shown in Figure 4.4.
FIGURE 4.4: Frequency distribution of John's results after 500 measurements
52
A CASE STUDY
This is still a much broader distribution than Thabo’s and in this sense it is
inferior. But should not some credit be given for the fact that it represents 500
measurements as opposed to only five? Whom should we believe at this stage —
John or Thabo? Does the fact that John gives his final result to four decimal places
make it more accurate than Thabo’s, which is given to three decimal places? What
is the true value for the period? In what follows we shall try to show how a
systematic way of analysing experimental results will help us to answer these
questions. We shall see that there is no “right” or “wrong” answer to any problem
of this type. However, there are usually good grounds on which we can agree
about the “best” answer, and even if we cannot agree, a clear method of looking at
the problem will at least enable us to see just what we are disagreeing about.
Use the graph paper below to plot the frequency distribution of the measurements
you obtained when you measured the height of the soft drink can 10 times and
compare it with the distribution you had for five measurements. Did the
distribution change noticeably when more measurements were taken? What
!
changes do you notice?
Frequency distribution of your 10 measurements of the height of a soft drink can
53
A CASE STUDY
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

The distribution of 10 measurements of the height of the soft drink can is shown
in Figure 4.5. As you can see, the most apparent change in the frequency
distribution is that the frequencies of the values near the centre of the distribution
became larger. The distribution did not, however, become any narrower. Also, the
change in the shape of the distribution is not as marked as that between John’s
two sets of readings. The first five readings were distributed closer to the mean
value than were John’s and we would also have to take a lot more readings to
achieve a similar change.
FIGURE 4.5: FEEDBACK: The frequency distribution of ten

measurements of the height of a soft drink can
....................................................................................................................................
54
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
STUDY UNIT 5
Learning Objectives
1. distinguish between the terms precision and accuracy

2. distinguish between systematic and random errors
3. indicate how the precision of an experiment can be improved
4. explain how to improve the accuracy of an experiment
5. identify systematic errors that occur in an experiment
5.1 PRECISION AND ACCURACY

In a discussion of measurements and errors the words “accuracy” and “precision”
often crop up. What do these terms mean exactly? Do they not refer to the same
thing? It is convenient to make a distinction between accuracy and precision when
we are speaking of errors.
Because it is not possible to obtain a measurement which is exactly equal to the

true value of a quantity, we have to indicate how much a measurement differs
from the true value. When we state the accuracy of an observation we indicate ACCURACY
how close the experimental value is to the true value. When making successive
measurements of the same quantities, we obtain values that differ from one
another, even though they were made under apparently identical conditions. By
precision we mean how closely the values we obtain in an experiment agree. This PRECISION
implies that we could have a situation where the result is highly precise but
inaccurate nevertheless. In other words the values may be very similar but they
may differ quite a bit from the true value.
Have another look at the frequency distributions of John’s and Thabo’s results
when they measured the period five times each. Thabo’s measurement of the
period is much more precise than John’s because the values he obtained lie much
closer together than John’s. We can therefore expect the arithmetic mean of
Thabo’s measurements to be closer to the true value than John’s.
An important point needs to be made here about independent measurements. In INDEPENDENT

the remainder of our discussion concerning the statistical processing of data to MEASUREMENTS
obtain a measure of the precision and the accuracy of a measurement, all
measurements which are repeated will be considered to be independent. By this
55
we mean that no previous measurement should in any way influence a subsequent

measurement. This is why we emptied and refilled the soft drink can repeatedly.
To make each measurement unique, we did not pour the water from the measuring
jug back into the can. We refilled the can from the tap each time. When making
repeated measurements, one runs the risk of becoming bored or frustrated and of
finishing the task without paying proper attention to experimental procedure. If,
for example, during the measurement of the height of the soft drink can, we had
grown impatient and had not removed the ruler completely from its measuring
position between measurements and had not turned the can around, but had
simply looked at the top and bottom readings five times in succession, the
readings would no longer have been independent. Whenever an experimenter does
not observe the principle of independent measurements, his/her results lose
credibility. Therefore, if you are conducting an experiment and you feel your
concentration flagging at any stage, stop for a few minutes or walk out of the
room to regain you objectivity.
5.2 TYPES OF ERRORS

SYSTEMATIC Experimental errors can be divided into two main types, namely systematic errors
AND RANDOM and random errors. A systematic error usually remains constant throughout a set
ERRORS of readings, while a random error varies and can be either positive or negative.
5.2.1 Systematic errors

Systematic errors occur due to definite discoverable phenomena and can be
controlled. In other words, we can find out what is causing the error and do
something about it. The accuracy of a measurement can be increased by reducing
the magnitude of these errors or by eliminating them as far as possible. There are
various kinds of systematic errors depending on the type of apparatus or
measurement. Unfortunately systematic errors have to be detected before they can
be eliminated and this is not always easy. Repeating the measurement will not
affect these errors since their effect is usually noticeable in “one direction” only.
By “one direction” we mean that all the measurements are either larger or smaller
than the true value. If the effect were present in both directions, it would mean
that some values are smaller than the true value, while others are larger than the
true value. The best policy is to remain alert and to be healthily suspicious of the
apparatus you are using. The following examples of systematic errors will show
you what to be on the lookout for:
1. Mistakes
Because we are human, we can hardly avoid making mistakes. Among the
mistakes that occur most frequently are
Ø following the wrong experimental procedure
Ø misreading a scale
Ø recording results incorrectly
Ø making a mistake in a calculation
56
A mistake is a serious type of error and should be avoided by using the

necessary care and patience. Finally, there is no substitute for experience! The
more experiments you do, the less likely you are to make mistakes.
2. Personal errors
These errors can be attributed to personal imperfections of the observer. One
form of personal error is related to the observer’s reaction time. Someone with
slow reactions may react too slowly to a signal. When having to start a stop
watch, such a person would press the button slightly too late and in this way
cause a systematic error. A very nervous person, on the other hand, may press
the button slightly too soon, causing a systematic error in the opposite
direction to the slower person’s error. The ability to distinguish between
colours is another common cause of personal errors.
3. Instrumental errors
You should realise that all instruments have only a limited degree of accuracy.
It is the responsibility of the observer to determine the limits of accuracy of
any instrument before he/she uses it. When more than one measuring
instrument is used in an experiment, the degree of accuracy in the final result
will not be greater than that of the least reliable instrument that was used.
Examples of instrumental errors are that the zero reading of an instrument may
not be correct or that screw instruments may have backlash. (Backlash refers
to the irregular recoil of a wheel or a set of wheels in an instrument when
sudden pressure is applied to it.) Equipment should be set up with great care
and precision, because most instrumental errors can be decreased by proper
use of the instrument.
4. Inherent errors
When we refer to inherent errors, we mean that these errors are naturally part
of an experiment. Examples of inherent errors are:
Ø the expansion of a measuring instrument with an increase in

temperature
Ø friction in mechanical experiments
Ø change in room temperature during measurement
Ø heat losses in calorimetry experiments
Ø a variation in the emf of a battery
Ø current losses in a voltmeter
You should attempt to recognise these errors and try to eliminate them by
improving the experimental procedure.
Think back to the experimental method we followed when measuring the volume
of the soft drink can. Which of the following can be identified as systematic errors
that occurred during the experiment? !
57
1. Reading the meniscus incorrectly by taking the reading at the upper edge of
the curve formed by the water.
2. Mistaking the scale divisions for 10 ml divisions instead of 20 ml divisions.
3. Spilling some water from the can when it was emptied into the measuring cup.
4. A dent in the soft drink can that was used.
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Errors number 1, 2 and 4 are all systematic errors. Any of these three would have
the effect of influencing the measurement in one direction – reading the meniscus
at the top edge every time would result in too large a reading of the volume of the
water, while reading the scale divisions as 10 ml would result in too small a value
for the capacity, as would a dent in the can. You would probably not have spilt the
same amount of water from the can every time it was emptied into the measuring
cup and the effect would probably be averaged out over five measurements.
....................................................................................................................................
5.2.2 Random errors

Random errors are always present in experiments and are caused by intrinsic and
unpredictable fluctuations in the apparatus. They cause successive readings of the
same quantity to be dispersed (or spread) about the true value of the quantity.
After a long series of measurements these errors average to zero and consequently
we can increase the precision of the measurement by increasing the number of
measurements. The difference between systematic and random errors is illustrated
in Figure 5.1. Every tick represents a reading of the same quantity. When there are
no systematic errors, the successive readings of a quantity are spread about the
true value (Figure 5.1(a)). If a systematic error is present, the readings are spread
about some displaced value and not about the true value (Figure 5.1(b)).
FIGURE 5.1: Illustration of the difference between systematic and random errors
58
In Study Unit 7 some elementary statistical methods of evaluating random errors STATISTICAL
will be introduced. It is important to remember that these statistics deal only with METHODS
random errors. Systematic errors cannot be evaluated by any statistical method.
IMPORTANT END NOTE:

Now that you know the difference between random and systematic errors, we
would like to make one final remark about the difference between precision and
accuracy. A precise measurement is one in which random errors are small while
an accurate measurement is one in which both random and systematic errors are
small.
Example 5.1
Suppose we know that a stone weighs 1.6921 N. When the stone is weighed on a
balance which has not been zeroed (i.e. set to zero), the following successive
readings are obtained:
Reading no. 1 2 3 4
Weight (N) 1.6734 1.6737 1.6735 1.6738
TABLE 5.1: Weight of a stone
From these readings, the average value of the weight of the stone is 1.6736 N. The
calculation of the average value (also known as the arithmetic mean) of a number AVERAGE
of readings is discussed in Study Unit 3. The readings are spread about this
average value as shown in Figure 5.2(a). As you can see, the readings are very
precise because they lie very close together. The random error is only 0.0002 N,
because that is the greatest difference between any of the readings and the average
weight. Although the readings are very precise, at the same time they are very
inaccurate. Figure 5.2(b) shows that the true value lies some distance away from
the average value. The difference between the true value and the average value is
0.0185 N, so in this case we can say that the systematic error is 0.0185 N.
Obviously this large error cannot be eliminated by taking more readings, because
the readings would remain in the same region as before. The systematic error can
be eliminated once it has been identified. In this case it means that the
experimenter would have to realise that the balance has not been zeroed and then
zero the scale to eliminate this systematic error.
59
FIGURE 5.2: (a) Spread of readings about the average value of

the weight of the stone
(b) Position of the true value of the weight of the stone
5.3 ACCURACY OF THE APPARATUS
A lot has now been said about the accuracy, precision and errors involved in
taking measurements. We have not, however, paid any attention to the apparatus
that was used for any specific measurement. The accuracy of a measurement also
depends on the apparatus being used. To illustrate this, we will have a brief look
at the instruments that can be used to measure length.
METRE RULE When there is no need for a very high degree of accuracy, the wooden metre rule
shown in Figure 5.3 is often used to measure length. A metre rule is calibrated in
You can turn back millimetres (i.e. the distance between any of the two shortest lines on the metre
rule is 1 mm), so the smallest unit of length that can be read from the metre rule
to Study Unit 3 to is 1 mm. If a reading should fall between two scale divisions, we can estimate
refresh your whether it is halfway between the two lines or not. We did this when we measured
memory about how the height of the soft drink can. We found the height of the soft drink can to be
we measured the 120 mm.
height of the soft
drink can.
FIGURE 5.3: A metre rule
When we want to measure a somewhat smaller length like the diameter of a R5

VERNIER coin, for instance, the metre rule is not accurate enough for our purpose. Using the
vernier calliper shown in Figure 5.4 we are able to measure length accurately to
CALLIPER
one hundredth of a millimetre. In this modern version of the vernier calliper, the
60
reading is conveniently given by the digital display mounted on the movable jaw.
The photograph shows the vernier calliper open to just more than 44 mm on the
main scale, and the digital display shows us that the distance between the lower
jaws is actually 44.30 mm.
FIGURE 5.4: Vernier calliper
The span of the lower jaw is used to measure length and is especially useful for
measuring the diameter of a circular or a cylindrical object. The span of the upper
jaw is used to measure distances between two surfaces, like the inside diameter of
a drinking glass, for example.
If we want to measure an even smaller length, like the diameter of a pencil, we

can use the micrometrer screw gauge (Figure 5.5) which consists of a movable MICROMETER
spindle that is advanced toward another parallel-faced jaw by rotating the spindle. SCREW
The reading shown in millimetres on the digital display is accurate to two decimal GAUGE
places, and a third decimal place can be estimated by judging whether the reading
line on the thimble scale falls exactly between two scale divisions or closer to the
one or the other. In the photograph, the micrometer shows a reading of
26.445 mm, where the 5 is the estimated or doubtful figure. The digital display
reads 26.44 mm, and we estimate the reading line to be halfway between the 0.44
mm and the 0.45 mm marks on the rotating scale.
61
FIGURE 5.5: A micrometer screw gauge
To illustrate the difference in accuracy of the three length-measuring instruments

we have just discussed, we measured the diameter d of a squash ball with a metre
rule, then with a vernier calliper and lastly with a micrometer screw gauge. The
measurement was repeated five times with each instrument and the mean value of
each set of data was calculated. The results of the measurements are shown in
Table 5.2. As you can see, with the metre rule, it was only possible to read the
diameter to 1 mm (estimating a further 0.5 mm), while the vernier calliper and the
micrometer screw gauge both enable one to read accurately to 0.01 mm (and
estimating a further 0.005 mm on the micrometer).
Metre rule Vernier calliper Micrometer screw gauge

i
݀୫ (mm) ݀୴ (mm) ݀ୱ (mm)
1 40.0 40.16 40.165
2 42.0 40.18 40.190
3 38.5 40.20 40.175
4 40.0 40.17 40.165
5 41.0 40.18 40.180
Average 40.3 40.18 40.175
TABLE 5.2: Diameter of a squash ball measured by a metre rule, a

vernier calliper and a micrometer screw gauge
Suppose you are asked to measure the diameter of a long thin wire using a
! micrometer screw gauge. Which of the following methods would give a result that
is both accurate and precise? Measuring the diameter of the wire by taking:
1. one reading near the middle of the wire
2. one reading near one of the ends of the wire
3. several readings at equidistant points along the wire. (Equidistant points are
points that are at the same distance from one another.)
62
4. the zero reading of the micrometer first and then taking one reading near the
middle of the wire
5. the zero reading of the micrometer and then taking several readings at
equidistant points along the wire
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Following method 5 would give the most precise result because the effects of
errors would be minimised by averaging over several readings. The result would
also be more likely to be accurate because the zero reading of the micrometer was
taken into account. This would eliminate the possibility of a systematic error due
to a zero reading that is not exactly zero.
....................................................................................................................................
63
REPEATED MEASUREMENTS
STUDY UNIT 6
Learning Objectives
1. define
(a) the relative frequency of a value in a distribution
(b) the mode of a distribution
(c) the median of a distribution
2. represent a set of measurements in the form of a
(a) relative frequency curve
(b) histogram
(c) normalized histogram
3. explain what the limiting frequency curve is
4. explain the difference between a discrete distribution and a continuous
distribution
5. differentiate between a symmetrical distribution and an asymmetrical
distribution
6.1 DISTRIBUTION OF REPEATED MEASUREMENTS
When we measure a single variable and obtain n different values ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ
‫ݔ‬ଷ ǡ ǥ ǡ ‫ݔ‬௡ ǡ we calculate the arithmetic mean ‫ ݔ‬of the readings and consider this to
be the best value of the true value X of the quantity. What we do not know yet, is
how close we can expect ‫ݔ‬to be to X. Because we do not know the value of X, the
best we can do is to make an estimate of the error in ‫ݔ‬. We make this estimate by
calculating the probability that X lies within a certain range of values with ‫ݔ‬at the
centre. Remember John and Thabo? From Figures 4.1 and 4.2 we could see that
Thabo’s successive measurements were grouped much closer around the mean
value than John’s were.
From John and Thabo’s experience in the laboratory, we have seen that the
precision of a measurement can be improved by repeating the measurement. What
we need to do now, is to find a numerical way of comparing John’s 500
measurements with Thabo’s five. This numerical value is determined by the way
in which the frequency distribution of the successive measurements of an arbitrary
variable x changes as more and more measurements are made. We will assume
that there are no systematic errors present in the measurement. Figures 4.1 and 4.4
show how the distribution of John’s measurements changed as he increased the
64
number of measurements. These are the changes in the distribution that we must
try to relate to the number of measurements that have been made.
6.2 RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION: NORMALISATION

Comparing Figures 4.1 and 4.4, we see that the most obvious change in the
distribution is that the y-values become larger as the number of measurements
increases. This means that the frequency with which each value occurs becomes
larger, especially for the values that fall close to the arithmetic mean of the
distribution. We have used the frequency distribution as a way of visually
presenting the results of the measurement of a single variable up to now.
Comparing the results of five measurements with the results of 500 measurements
on the same scale is, however, not meaningful. A better way of doing this would
be to compare the relative frequencies of the measurements. The relative RELATIVE
frequency ‫ ݎ‬with which a measurement occurs, is the ratio of the frequency to the FREQUENCY
total number of measurements.
The relative frequency ‫ݎ‬௜ with which value ‫ݔ‬௜ occurs, is therefore given by
݂௜
‫ݎ‬௜ ൌ Ǥ
σ ݂௜
(6.1)
We can now present the results by means of a relative frequency distribution, RELATIVE
where the ordinates are not the actual or absolute number of times a measurement FREQUENCY
is recorded, but the ratio of this number to the total number of measurements. DISTRIBUTION
When the frequency distributions in Figures 4.1 and 4.4 are converted into relative
frequency distribution form, the ordinate values (i.e. the values presented on the
y axis) change as shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2.
65
FIGURE 6.1: Relative frequency distribution of John’s results

after five measurements
FIGURE 6.2: Relative frequency distribution of John’s results

after 500 measurements
66
!
Turn back to the results that you obtained when you measured the height of the
soft drink can 10 times.
(a) Record the values of your measurements and the frequencies of each value in
the table below.
(b) Calculate the relative frequencies of the measurements and record the results
in the table below.
Value no Height Frequency Relative frequency

i h (mm) f r
TABLE 6.1: 10 measurements of the height of the soft drink can
(c) Plot the relative frequency distribution on the graph paper provided below.
The relative frequency distribution of your 10 measurements

of the height of a soft drink can
67
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Table 6.2 shows
(a) the values and frequencies

(b) the relative frequencies of 10 measurements of the height of a soft drink can
Value no Height Frequency Relative frequency

i h (mm) f r
1 117 1 0.1
2 119 3 0.3
3 120 4 0.4
4 121 1 0.1
5 122 1 0.1
TABLE 6.2: FEEDBACK: The relative frequencies of 10 measurements

of the height of a soft drink can
(c)
FIGURE 6.3: Relative frequency distribution of 10 measurements

of the height of the soft drink can
....................................................................................................................................
68
An important feature of relative frequencies is that their sum R is equal to one:

௡
ܴ ൌ ෍ ‫ݎ‬௜
௜ୀଵ
௡
݂௜
ൌ ෍൤ ൨
σ ݂௜
௜ୀଵ
ൌ ͳǤ (6.2)
When a distribution has the property that the frequencies add up to one, we say NORMAL
that the distribution is normalised. By changing a frequency distribution into a DISTRIBUTION
relative frequency distribution, the distribution has been normalised. The term The normal
“normalized” should not be confused with a “normal distribution”. Any
distribution is
distribution can be normalised, but that does not make it a normal distribution.
treated in Study
Unit 8.
6.3 LIMITING FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
From Figures 6.1 and 6.2 you can see that a normalised frequency distribution
changes as the number of measurements increase. For most experiments these
changes are quite substantial and they can be erratic for small numbers of
measurements. Remember, for example, the changes in the distribution for the
height of the soft drink can when we increased the number of measurements from
five to 10. As the number of measurements increases the changes become less
pronounced. The difference between the distribution of John’s initial five
measurements (Figure 6.1) and that of his final 500 measurements (Figure 6.2) is
quite substantial. There are differences between the distributions for 50 and 100
measurements, but they are much less marked and when we come to compare 500
and 1 000 measurements the difference between their normalised frequency
distributions is negligible.
There is usually no way of predicting exactly what the fluctuations will be. We are
only able to say that the distribution settles down to a more and more definite
shape as the number of measurements increases. We summarise this by saying
that there is a limiting frequency distribution for the infinite experiment. That LIMITING
means that there is a point beyond which the frequency distribution will not FREQUENCY
change any more no matter how much we increase the number of measurements. DISTRIBUTION
This limiting distribution is the basis of the whole of the discussion that follows.
It is very important to realise that the existence of the limiting frequency

distribution is nearly always an assumption. In other words, we believe that the
limiting frequency distribution exists but we can never really test it satisfactorily.
If an experimentalist keeps on and on making a measurement he may become
tired and careless, or the apparatus may begin to wear out, both of which will tend
69
to broaden the frequency distribution. The quantity that is being measured may
also itself vary with time (it may be influenced by room temperature for instance)
so that the frequency distribution will drift up or down as the measurements are
repeated.
Our whole analysis of experimental errors is therefore built upon an assumption,

which may seem to be a very uncertain and unsatisfactory basis for an important
part of science. However, we should not be discouraged by this. All scientific
theories start from a number of assumptions, although they are often not clearly
stated or understood. There is an honourable and well-tested way of proceeding
under these circumstances. We simply develop the theory to the extent that it
makes predictions that can be tested against experimental results or other theories.
If discrepancies appear we look back along our line of reasoning, examining each
assumption as we come to it to see how necessary it was to enable us to develop
the theory and to see what possible changes could remove the discrepancy.
It is safe to say that any experiment occurring in a school or undergraduate course

is extremely unlikely to cast doubt on our initial assumption of a limiting
frequency distribution, and that it should be possible to resolve the discrepancies
that do occur in a less deep and philosophical way than revising the basic
assumption.
6.4 HISTOGRAM
Another way of making a graphical presentation of experimental data is by means
HISTOGRAM of a histogram. To construct a histogram, we divide the range of measured values
into a set of equal intervals and then count the number of times a measurement
occurs in each interval. We choose the width of the intervals which is the most
convenient for a specific set of data. It is important that there should be no doubt
as to where the boundaries of the intervals are and that there should be no
overlapping or gaps between successive intervals. Suppose we want to exhibit the
results of a set of n values that were obtained by measuring some hypothetical
variable x in the form of a histogram. If we decide on intervals with end points
‫ݔ‬଴ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ǥ ǡ ‫ݔ‬௡ , the intervals are
‫ݔ‬଴ ൑ ‫ ݔ‬൑ ‫ݔ‬ଵ
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൑ ‫ݔ‬ଶ

.
.
.
‫ݔ‬௡ିଵ ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൑ ‫ݔ‬௡ (6.3)
Take careful note of the “൑” and “൏” signs! They serve to show that a specific
value cannot fall into more than one interval. Look at ‫ݔ‬ଵ for example; it belongs to
the first interval (as indicated by the ൑ sign) but it is excluded from the second
70
interval (as indicated by the ൏ sign). The frequencies of the measurements are
݂ଵ ǡ ݂ଶ ǡ ǥ ǡ ݂௡ and n is the total number of measurements. A typical histogram is
illustrated in Figure 6.4.
FIGURE 6.4: General representation of a histogram
As we have explained previously, relative frequencies give information about a

distribution in a better form than absolute frequencies. In the same way that we
plotted a relative frequency or a normalised frequency distribution, we can also
plot a normalised histogram of a set of measurements by using the relative NORMALISED
frequencies as ordinate values. HISTOGRAM
If the width of the intervals (i.e. the width of the bars) of a normalised histogram
is one unit, the area under the histogram will be one. This means that the area of
each bar is numerically equal to its height, which is of course the relative
frequency of the value at the centre of the interval. Even if the bars of a
normalised histogram are not one unit wide, the area of each bar is still
proportional to the relative frequency of the values that fall into this interval as
long as the bars are of equal width. Once you start plotting your own histograms,
you will realise how important the width of the intervals of a histogram is!
6.5 STURGES’ RULE
Sturges’ rule is used as a guideline to select the number of intervals for a

histogram. The number of intervals m is given by
݉ ൌ ͳ ൅ ͵Ǥ͵ ݊ (6.4)
where n is the number of measurements or observations. If the value of m is not

an integer, it is increased to the integer just larger than the calculated value to
include all the measurements.
71
If for example the number of measurements is 50, then the value of m is

calculated as
݉ ൌ ͳ ൅ ͵Ǥ͵ ݊
ൌ ͳ ൅ ͵Ǥ͵ ሺͷͲሻ
ൌ ͸Ǥ͸ͳ
؆͹ (6.5)
The ideal number of intervals to select in this case would be 7.
Example 6.1
Table 6.3 shows the results of 33 measurements of the length of a screw. The
measurements have been grouped into intervals and the frequency gives the
number of times a measurement occurred in each interval. Figure 6.5 shows the
histogram representing the results.
Length intervals Frequency

(mm) f
9.9 – 10.1 1
10.1 – 10.3 3
10.3 – 10.5 7
10.5 – 10.7 9
10.7 – 10.9 6
10.9 – 11.1 5
11.1 – 11.3 2
∑ f = 33
TABLE 6.3: Results of 33 measurements of length of a screw
72
FIGURE 6.5: Histogram of the length of a screw measured 33 times
Complete Table 6.4 by filling in the relative frequencies of the measurements of

the length of the screw and plot the normalised histogram on the graph paper
provided below. !
Length intervals Frequency Relative frequency
(mm) f r
9.9 – 10.1 1
10.1 – 10.3 3
10.3 – 10.5 7
10.5 – 10.7 9
10.7 – 10.9 6
10.9 – 11.1 5
11.1 – 11.3 2
∑ f = 33 R=∑r=
TABLE 6.4: Relative frequencies of the 33 measurements of the screw
73
Your normalised histogram of the 33 measurements of the screw
74
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
The relative frequencies of the 33 measurements of the screw are shown in Table
6.5. These results are represented by the normalised histogram in Figure 6.6.
Length intervals Frequency Relative frequency

(mm) f r
9.9 – 10.1 1 0.03
10.1 – 10.3 3 0.09
10.3 – 10.5 7 0.21
10.5 – 10.7 9 0.27
10.7 – 10.9 6 0.18
10.9 – 11.1 5 0.15
11.1 – 11.3 2 0.06
∑ f = 33 R=∑r=1
TABLE 6.5: FEEDBACK: The relative frequencies of the 33 measurements

of the length of the screw
FIGURE 6.6: Normalised histogram of the 33 measurements

of the length of the screw
....................................................................................................................................
75
6.6 CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION
DISCRETE The frequency distribution (shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2) and the histogram
DISTRIBUTION (shown in Figures 6.4 to 6.6) are both examples of a discrete distribution. If we
were able to conduct an infinite number of measurements, we would come up
with a continuous distribution. This would be presented by a smooth curve drawn
CONTINUOUS through the outline of the diagrams (see Figures 6.7 and 6.8).
DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 6.7: Continuous distribution associated with a discrete distribution
FIGURE 6.8: Continuous distribution associated with a histogram
76
This smooth curve in Fig 6.8 represents the limiting frequency distribution that we
discussed earlier. Given such a smooth curve, what is the true value of the SYMMETRICAL
quantity we are trying to measure? This can be answered most easily when the CURVE
limiting frequency distribution curve is symmetrical with a single peak as shown
in Figure 6.9. The true value is then equal to the arithmetic mean ‫ ݔ‬at the central
axis of symmetry of the curve.
FIGURE 6.9: Symmetrical continuous frequency distribution
In addition to the arithmetic mean of a distribution there are two more

characteristics of a continuous distribution that are often used to describe the MODE
distribution. (We discussed the calculation of the arithmetic mean in Study Unit
3.) They are the mode and the median of the distribution. The mode of a MEDIAN
distribution refers to the value that occurs with the greatest frequency. The
median of a distribution is the value that lies exactly in the middle of the
distribution. The median is therefore the value above or below which exactly half
of the measurements fall.
In the case of a symmetrical distribution, the mean, mode and median all have the
same value. If the curve is not symmetrical, the values are usually different, as
illustrated in Figure 6.10 below.
77
FIGURE 6.10: Asymmetrical continuous frequency distribution
78
EVALUATING THE PRECISION OF A MEASUREMENT
STUDY UNIT 7
EVALUATING THE PRECISION OF A
MEASUREMENT
Learning Objectives
1. define
(a) the range of a distribution

(b) the standard deviation from the mean
2. calculate
(a) the range of a distribution

(b) the standard deviation from the mean
7.1 PRECISION OF A MEASUREMENT

In Study Unit 6 we saw that when a single variable is repeatedly measured, the
values of the successive measurements are dispersed about the mean value. What If you cannot
we have not done up to now, is to describe the way in which the values are spread remember exactly
about the mean by using numbers. In this study unit we are going to introduce a
what precision
way of calculating a numerical value that will provide a measure of the way in
which the data are distributed about the mean. The mean value in itself does not means, you can
tell us how the values are dispersed about the mean, so we need a second number look it up in
to provide this information. This number will tell us more about the precision of a Study Unit 5.
set of measurements.
7.2 RANGE
One of the most obvious ways to express the dispersion about the mean is simply
the difference between the smallest observation and the largest observation. This
is known as the range of a distribution and is given by the formula RANGE
Rangeൌ ‫ݔ‬୫ୟ୶ െ ‫ݔ‬୫୧୬ (7.1)
where ‫ݔ‬୫ୟ୶ is the largest and ‫ݔ‬୫୧୬ is the smallest value of a set of data.
79
In general, different sets of data can have different means and different
dispersions about the mean. It can also happen that two different sets of data have
the same mean but that the data are dispersed about the mean value quite
differently. The three numbers 24, 25 and 26, for example, have a mean value of
25 and so have the numbers 5, 25 and 45. The first group is within the limits
indicated by 25 ± 1 while the second group is within the limits 25 ± 20. The range
of the first group mentioned above is therefore 26െ24 = 2, while that of the
second group is 45 െ5 = 40.
The range of a distribution is a very simple measure of dispersion and as such it

has certain limitations. When calculating the range of a distribution, we take only
two values into account, so the other values in the distribution make no
contribution to the calculation. Furthermore, the frequencies with which the
maximum and minimum values occur are not used in the calculation, which can
give misleading information about a distribution. The following example proves
this point.
Example 7.1
The marks obtained by two different classes in the same school for a mathematics
test are tabulated below.
x 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62
݂ୡ୪ୟୱୱଵ 1 1 2 3 3 4 3 2 1 1
݂ୡ୪ୟୱୱଶ 1 2 3 5 8 9 7 2 1 1
TABLE 7.1: Marks obtained by two different classes for a mathematics test
The two distributions in Table 7.1 are presented by the frequency distributions in
Figure 7.1. Although they have the same range, they are dispersed about the mean
quite differently. As you can see, the distribution for class 2 shows a much higher
and narrower peak than that of class 1. The shape of neither of the two curves is,
however, reflected by the range of the two distributions which is in both cases
given by
ൌ ‫ݔ‬୫ୟ୶ െ ‫ݔ‬୫୧୬
ൌ ͸ʹ െ ͷ͵
ൌ ͻ
80
FIGURE 7.1: Two frequency distributions with the same range
This illustrates the need for a measure of the precision of a measurement that will
provide us with some information about the way in which the experimental values
are dispersed about the mean.
7.3 STANDARD DEVIATION

Suppose the same physical quantity is measured in two different experiments
involving different apparatus, just like John and Thabo independently measured
the period of the same pendulum. If the limiting frequency distribution curves of
both experiments are single peaked and symmetrical, they should give the same
value for the position of the peak. We would, therefore, expect something like the
two curves in Figure 7.2 for the results of the two experiments. As you can see,
the narrower curve (a) has the taller peak of the two. The reason for this is that the
areas under the two curves must be equal.
FIGURE 7.2: Limiting frequency distributions
81
From Figure 7.2 we see that the mean value ‫ݔ‬determines the position of the peak
for both curves. The shape of the two curves differs because of the way the
measurements are dispersed about this mean value. From our comparison of
John’s and Thabo’s measurements we could see that the distribution of the
measurements is determined partly by the role of the experimenter and the types
The different of errors that can be made. If we assume the measurements to be free of
types of errors systematic errors, the dispersion of the measurements, and therefore the shape of
the curve representing the distribution, is determined by random errors. Random
are discussed in
errors are caused by inherent variations within the apparatus, so they tell us
Study Unit 5. something about the precision of the apparatus.
Because curve (a) in Figure 7.2 has a narrower peak, the measurements lie closer
together than the measurements presented by curve (b). A far greater proportion of
the measurements obtained in experiment (a) (with the narrow distribution) lie
close to the mean value, ‫ݔ‬, than those in experiment (b) (with the broad
distribution). This is roughly what we mean when we say that experiment (a) has a
greater precision than experiment (b). What we have to do now is to find a way to
measure this precision in some simple, systematic, numerical way. We need to
calculate a single number that tells us something about the “width” of the curve.
Any particular measurement ‫ݔ‬௜ will differ from the mean value ‫ ݔ‬by a deviation ߜ௜
from the mean value, where
ߜ௜ ൌ ‫ݔ‬௜ െ ‫ݔ‬Ǥ (7.2)
Large deviations clearly correspond to broadly peaked curves, so some measure of

the average size of the errors will give us the sort of number we are looking for.
STANDARD There are many ways of obtaining a measure of the average magnitude of the
DEVIATION errors. One of the simplest is the standard deviation, which is defined as the root-
mean-square deviation from the mean. The square root of the mean value of a
RMS VALUE squared quantity is known as the root-mean-square or rms value of the quantity.
Suppose a variable x was measured N times and the values obtained
were‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ǥ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ே . The deviation of each value from the mean ‫ ݔ‬is given by
equation (7.2):
ߜଵ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଵ െ ‫ݔ‬
ߜଶ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ݔ‬
.
.
.
ߜே ൌ ‫ݔ‬ே െ ‫ݔ‬ (7.3)
The standard deviation σ is defined as the square root of the mean value of the
squares of the deviations. For N measurements that is
82
భ
Ɂଵଶ ൅ Ɂଶଶ ൅ Ɂଶଷ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ Ɂଶே మ
ߪ ൌ ቈ ቉
ܰ
భ
σே ଶ మ
௜ୀଵ Ɂ௜
ൌቈ ቉ Ǥ
ܰ
(7.4)
If the N measurements consist of n different values ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ǥ ǡ ‫ݔ‬௡ with

corresponding frequencies݂ଵ ǡ ݂ଶ ǡ ǥ ǡ ݂௡ , then
భ
݂ଵ Ɂଵଶ ൅ ݂ଶ Ɂଶଶ ൅ ݂ଷ Ɂଶଷ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ݂௡ Ɂଶ௡ మ
ߪ ൌ ቈ ቉
݂ଵ ൅ ݂ଶ ൅ ݂ଷ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ݂௡
భ
σ௡௜ୀଵ ݂௜ Ɂଶ௜ మ
ൌ ቈ ௡ ቉
σ௜ୀଵ ݂௜
భ
σ௡௜ୀଵ ݂௜ Ɂଶ௜ మ
ൌቈ ቉
ܰ
(7.5)
where
௡
ܰ ൌ ෍ ݂௜ ൌ ෍ ݂ Ǥ
௜ୀଵ
(7.6)
What does the value of the standard deviation tell us? Because it is a measure of
the “width” of a distribution, a small value for ߪ indicates a narrow curve, while a
large value of ߪ tells us that the curve is wider. In terms of the precision of the
measurements, we can say that the smaller the value ofߪ, the more precise the
measurements. We can now describe the difference in the shapes of the two
curves in Figure 7.2 by saying that the distribution represented by curve (a) has a
smaller standard deviation than that of curve (b).
We need to point out that precision is too complex a concept to be completely

described in this way. For the purposes of this module, however, there is usually
no better measure of precision than the standard deviation of the limiting
frequency distribution.
83
Example 7.2
Let us consider an example from everyday life. The mass of each of 100 new
members at a weight watchers club was registered at the beginning of their
program. Table 7.2 shows the different masses that were recorded and the number
of persons for each mass — that is the frequency with which each mass occurred.
Calculate the mean mass of the club members, and the standard deviation from the
mean.
Mass (kg) 61 66 70 75 80 84
f 10 20 30 20 10 10
TABLE 7.2: Mass of 100 weight watchers club members
From equation (3.2) the mean mass of the club members is
σ଺௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ݉௜
݉ൌ
σ଺௜ୀଵ ݂௜
ሾሺͳͲ ൈ ͸ͳሻ ൈ ሺʹͲ ൈ ͸͸ሻ ൅ ሺ͵Ͳ ൈ ͹Ͳሻ ൅ ሺʹͲ ൈ ͹ͷሻ ൅ ሺͳͲ ൈ ͺͲሻ ൅ ሺͳͲ ൈ ͺͶሻሿ
ൌ
ͳͲ ൅ ʹͲ ൅ ͵Ͳ ൅ ʹͲ ൅ ͳͲ ൅ ͳͲ
͹ͳ͹Ͳ
ൌ
ͳͲͲ
ൌ ͹ͳǤ͹
െ
෥ ͹ʹǤ
NOTE:
Read Study Unit The mean mass is given as 72 kg and not 71.7 kg, because the mass was measured
2 again if you accurately to two significant figures. For the calculation of the standard deviation
want to refresh we shall use 71.7 kg and round off the final answer.
your memory
i m f ߜ ݂ߜ ଶ
about significant
(kg) (kg) ( ଶ )
numbers.
1 61 10 െ10.7 1144.9
2 66 20 െ5.7 649.8
3 70 30 െ1.7 86.7
4 75 20 3.3 217.8
5 80 10 8.3 688.9
6 84 10 12.3 1512.9
∑ 100 4301.0
TABLE 7.3: Summary of the calculation of standard deviation

from the mean mass
84
The standard deviation [from equation (7.5)] is:

భ
σ଺௜ୀଵ ݂௜ Ɂଶ௜ మ
ߪൌቈ ቉
ܰ
భ
Ͷ͵Ͳͳ ଶ మ
ൌ ቈ ቉
ͳͲͲ
ൌ ͸Ǥͷͷͺʹ
െ
෥ ͹Ǥ
!
Now you have a go at calculating the range and standard deviation of a
distribution.
Mrs Bird took to feeding the sparrows in her garden. She counted the number of
sparrows feeding at 10:00 in the morning every day from the beginning of March
to the end of June. The results of her observations are tabulated below.
Number of sparrows 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
f 2 3 8 16 22 46 17 5 2 1
TABLE 7.4: Observations of the number of sparrows
(a) Calculate the range of the distribution

Range =
(b) Calculate the average number of sparrows in the garden. (Let the average
number of sparrows in the garden be ܾ.)
ܾ=
85
(c) Record the values of δ and ݂ߜ ଶ needed for the calculation of the standard
deviation in the table below:
b f δ fߜ ଶ
TABLE 7.5: Calculation of the standard deviation
Calculate the standard deviation from the mean:
σ=
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
(a) The range of the distribution is
ൌ ͳ͵ െ Ͷ ൌ ͻ sparrows.
(b) Let the average number of sparrows in the garden be ܾ. According to equation
(3.2)
σଵ଴
௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ܾ௜
ܾൌ
σଵ଴
௜ୀଵ ݂௜
ͳͲ͵ͷ
ൌ
ͳʹʹ
ൌ ͺǤͶͺ sparrows.
NOTE:
Although the mean value of 8.48 sparrows is a practical impossibility, use this
unrounded value to calculate the standard deviation, because the calculation of
the mean is an intermediate calculation in the process of calculating the
standard deviation.
86
(c) The values of δ and ݂ߜ ଶ that are needed for the calculation of the standard
deviation are tabulated below.
b f δ ݂ߜ ଶ
4 2 െ4.48 40.14
5 3 െ3.48 36.33
6 8 െ2.48 49.20
7 16 െ1.48 35.05
8 22 െ0.48 5.07
9 46 10.52 12.44
10 17 1.52 39.28
11 5 2.52 31.75
12 2 3.52 24.78
13 1 4.52 20.43
∑ 122 294.47
TABLE 7.6: Feedback: Calculation of the standard deviation
The standard deviation is given by equation (7.5) as

భ
σଵ଴ ଶ మ
୧ୀଵ ݂௜ ߜ௜
ߪ ൌ ቈ ଵ଴ ቉
σ୧ୀଵ ݂௜
భ
ʹͻͶǤͶ͹ మ
ൌ൤ ൨
ͳʹʹ
ൌ ͳǤͷͷ sparrows
െ
෥ ʹ sparrows.
Final answer: The number of sparrows visiting the garden is ͺ േ ʹ sparrows.
....................................................................................................................................
87
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
STUDY UNIT 8
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Learning Objectives
1. explain what is meant by:
(a) a distribution function

(b) a Gaussian or normal distribution
2. describe the characteristics of the normal distribution curve

3. find the distribution function that describes the normal distribution associated
with a set of data
4. plot the curve representing the normal distribution associated with a set of data
8.1 SHAPE OF THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Now that you know what “standard deviation” means, we can have a look at the
mathematical function that determines the shape of a distribution. This function is
DISTRIBUTION known as the distribution function and it describes the typical distribution of
FUNCTION measurements by making use of the mean ‫ݔ‬and the standard deviation σ. This
might sound very theoretical, but please do not be intimidated by the mathematics.
You will see that it is very interesting and most satisfying to be able to describe
the shape of a distribution mathematically.
The distribution function is given by the equation
ͳ మ Ȁሺଶఙ మ ሻ
‫ݎ‬ൌ ݁ ିሺ௫ି௫ሻ
ߪξʹߨ
(8.1)
where r is the relative frequency, σ the standard deviation and ‫ ݔ‬the mean. The
NORMAL distribution described by this function is known as a Gaussian or normal
DISTRIBUTION distribution. The shape of the curve of a normal distribution is shown in Figure
8.1. Note that equation (8.1) is valid if the width w of the interval is equal to one.
If ‫ͳ ് ݓ‬, then we have to multiply equation (8.1) by w.
88
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 8.1: Normal distribution
8.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Have another look at the symmetrical distribution in Figure 6.9. Apart from the CHARACTERISTICS
fact that Figure 8.1 is a relative frequency curve and Figure 6.9 is a frequency OF THE NORMAL
curve, the shapes of the two curves are the same. The curve representing the DISTRIBUTION
normal distribution has the following characteristics: CURVE
1. It is bell-shaped and symmetric about the mean ‫ݔ‬.

ଶ
2. For a large number of readings, 68% (or approximatelyଷ) of the readings fall
within the range ‫ ݔ‬േ ߪ and 95% fall within the range ‫ ݔ‬േ ʹߪ, as shown in
Figure 8.1.
3. The constant ͳȀ൫ߪξʹߨ൯in equation (8.1) is chosen to ensure that the area
under the curve is equal to 1.
The shape of the normal frequency curve changes as the value of ߪ changes. If ߪ
is large, the curve is wide, but if ߪ is small, the curve becomes narrower. In Figure
8.2 the normal frequency curve for the same value of ‫ݔ‬and different values of ߪ is
shown. As you can see, the width of the curve is directly related to the standard
error of the distribution, so it provides us with a very useful visual representation
of the precision of a set of measurements.
89
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 8.2: Shape of normal frequency curve for different values of ߪ
By calculating the mean and the standard deviation of any set of measurements,
we can determine the normal frequency curve that fits the set of data best. Let us
look at an example to show what this means.
Example 8.1
A student measures the width of a wooden beam at different positions along the
length of the beam.
The data tabulated in Table 8.1 are the number of times (f) each measurement of
the width x is observed.
x (mm) 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
f 1 5 17 49 85 52 25 11 4 1
TABLE 8.1: Measurements of the width of a wooden beam
Find the equation of the normal frequency curve that fits the data.
Solution
The summations needed for the calculation of the mean and the standard deviation
are tabulated below:
90
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
x fx δ ݂ߜ ଶ
i f
(mm) (mm) (mm) (ଶ )
1 25 1 25 െ4.2 17.6
2 26 5 130 െ3.2 51.2
3 27 17 459 െ2.2 82.3
4 28 49 1372 െ1.2 70.6
5 29 85 2465 െ0.2 3.4
6 30 52 1560 0.8 33.3
7 31 25 775 1.8 81.0
8 32 11 352 2.8 86.2
9 33 4 132 3.8 57.8
10 34 1 34 4.8 23.0
∑ 250 7304 506.4
TABLE 8.2: Feedback: Calculations for the standard deviation
The mean value of the width of the beam is
σଵ଴
௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ‫ݔ‬௜
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ଵ଴
σ௜ୀଵ ݂௜
͹͵ͲͶ
ൌ
ʹͷͲ
ൌ ʹͻǤʹʹ
െ
෥ ʹͻ (8.2)
and the standard deviation in the width is
భ
σଵ଴ ଶ మ
௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ߜ௜
ߪ ൌ ቈ ቉
ܰ
భ
ͷͲ͸ǤͶଶ మ
ൌ ቈ ቉
ʹͷͲ
ൌ ͳǤͶʹ͵
െ
෥ ͳǤͶ. (8.3)
Substituting the values of the mean and the standard deviation into equation (8.1)
gives the equation of the normal frequency curve for the data
91
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
ߪξʹߨ
ͳ మ ȀሺଶሺଵǤସଶଷሻమ ሻ
ൌ ݁ ିሺ௫ିଶଽǤଶଶሻ
ሺͳǤͶʹ͵ξʹߨሻ
మ
ൌ ͲǤʹͺ݁ ି଴Ǥଶସ଻ሺ௫ିଶଽǤଶଶሻ Ǥ (8.4)
Let us call the relative frequency calculated with the equation of the normal
frequency curve ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ , and let the relative frequency that we obtain from the
experimental results by using equation (6.1) be ‫ݎ‬ୣ୶୮ . The values of ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ and ‫ݎ‬ୣ୶୮
are shown in Table 8.3. When calculating ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ use the unrounded values of ‫ ݔ‬and
σ As you can see, they correlate quite well. A better way to see this is to plot a
histogram using the values ‫ݎ‬ୣ୶୮ and a normal frequency curve using ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ on the
same set of axes. Figure 8.3 shows the normalised histogram and the normal
frequency curve for the measurements of the width of the beam.
i x f ‫ݎ‬ୣ୶୮ ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ
1 25 1 0.004 0.0034
2 26 5 0.020 0.0216
3 27 17 0.068 0.0829
4 28 49 0.196 0.1939
5 29 85 0.340 0.2767
6 30 52 0.208 0.2409
7 31 25 0.100 0.1280
8 32 11 0.044 0.0415
9 33 4 0.016 0.0082
10 34 1 0.004 0.0035
∑ 250 1.000 1.0006
TABLE 8.3: Values of ‫ݎ‬ୣ୶୮ and ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ
92
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 8.3: Normalised histogram and normal frequency

curve for the width of the beam
!
Can’t wait to try this yourself? A physics test with a maximum mark of 20 was
written by 120 students. The marks obtained by the students in the test are
tabulated below. In this case, the frequency indicates the number of students who
obtained a certain mark.
Mark 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
f 1 2 1 4 6 7 13 18 20 14 10 11 8 2 2
TABLE 8.4: Marks of 120 students
(a) Complete the table below and use the results of the summations in the last row
to calculate the mean and the standard deviation of the distribution. In this
case, x is the mark out of 20 obtained in the physics test.
i x f fx δ fߜ ଶ
TABLE 8.5: Calculations for the standard deviation
93
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
The mean score obtained by the class is
‫ݔ‬ൌ
=
=
and the standard deviation of the score is
ߪൌ
ൌ
ൌ
(b) Find the equation for the normal frequency distribution by substituting the
values of ‫ ݔ‬and ߪ into equation (8.1).
‫ݎ‬ൌ
ൌ
ൌ
(c) Calculate
(i) the relative frequency ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ by using the equation you have just derived
(ii) the experimental value of the relative frequency ‫ݎ‬ୣ୶୮ using equation
(6.1) and tabulate the results in the table below.
i x f ‫ݎ‬ୣ୶୮ ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ
TABLE 8.6: Calculations of ‫ݎ‬ୣ୶୮ and ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ
94
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
(d) Plot both the normalised histogram of the data and the normal frequency curve
on the graph paper provided below.
FIGURE 8.4: Your histogram and normal frequency curve for

the results of the physics test
................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
(a) The table below shows the summations needed to calculate the mean and the
standard deviation.
95
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
i x f fx δ fࢾ૛
1 5 1 5 െ7.9 62.4
2 6 2 12 െ6.9 95.2
3 7 2 7 െ5.9 34.8
4 8 4 32 െ4.9 96.0
5 9 6 54 െ3.9 91.3
6 10 7 70 െ2.9 58.9
7 11 13 143 െ1.9 46.9
8 12 18 216 െ0.9 14.6
9 13 20 260 0.1 0.2
10 14 14 196 1.1 16.9
11 15 10 150 2.1 44.1
12 16 11 176 3.1 105.7
13 17 8 136 4.1 134.5
14 18 2 36 5.1 52.0
15 19 2 38 6.1 74.4
16 20 1 20 7.1 50.4
∑ 120 1551 978.3
TABLE 8.7: Feedback: Calculations for the standard deviation
The mean score obtained by the class is
σଵ଺
௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ‫ݔ‬௜
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ଵ଺
σ௜ୀଵ ݂௜
ͳͷͷͳ
ൌ
ͳʹͲ
ൌ ͳʹǤͻ
െ
෥ ͳ͵ (8.5)
and the standard deviation from the mean score is

భ
σଵ଺ ଶ మ
௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ߜ௜
ߪ ൌ ቈ ଵ଺ ቉
σ௜ୀଵ ݂௜
భ
ͻ͹ͺǤ͵ మ
ൌ ൤ ൨
ͳʹͲ

ൌ ʹǤͻǤ (8.6)
96
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
(b) Substituting the values of ‫ ݔ‬and σ into equation (8.1) gives us the following
equation for the normal distribution:
ߪξʹߨ
ͳ మ మ
ൌ ݁ ିሺ௫ିଵଶǤଽሻ ȀሺଶሺଶǤଽሻ ሻ
ʹǤͻξʹߨ
మ
ൌ ͲǤͳͶ݁ ି଴Ǥ଴଺ሺ௫ିଵଶǤଽሻ Ǥ (8.7)
(c) The values of ‫ݎ‬ୣ୶୮ and ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ are tabulated below.
i x f ࢘‫ܘܠ܍‬ ࢘‫܋ܔ܉܋‬
1 5 1 0.008 0.003
2 6 2 0.017 0.008
3 7 1 0.008 0.017
4 8 4 0.033 0.033
5 9 6 0.050 0.056
6 10 7 0.058 0.085
7 11 13 0.108 0.113
8 12 18 0.150 0.133
9 13 20 0.167 0.140
10 14 14 0.117 0.130
11 15 10 0.083 0.107
12 16 11 0.092 0.079
13 17 8 0.067 0.051
14 18 2 0.017 0.029
15 19 2 0.017 0.015
16 20 1 0.008 0.007
∑ 120 1.000 1.006
TABLE 8.8: Feedback: Calculations for ‫ݎ‬ୣ୶୮ and ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ
As you can see, we have lost some accuracy ሺσ ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ ൌ ͳǤͲͲ͸ሻ because the
numbers in the equation that we used to calculate ‫ݎ‬ୡୟ୪ୡ were rounded off.
(d) The histogram and normal frequency curve for the results of the physics test
are shown in Figure 8.5.
97
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 8.5: Histogram and normal distribution of the results

of a physics test written by 120 students
....................................................................................................................................
This brings us to the end of Topic 1. You may now want to test yourself to see
what you have mastered. Self-Evaluation Test 1 contains questions about the
most important aspects of the work we have covered in Topic 1. A
memorandum for the test is given on page 81. Do not look at the
memorandum before doing the test — it would defeat the purpose of self-
evaluation! After completing the test, you can mark it according to the
memorandum. You should be able to see which areas of the work you have
mastered and which areas still need some attention. Remember, this test is a
tool to help you with your studies.
98
SELF-EVALUATION TEST 1
1. Indicate the number of significant digits in each of the following numbers:
(a) 0.00030
(b) 3.0000
(c) 12700
(d) 1.400 ൈ ͳͲଷ
(e) 40001
2. Calculate the average speeds

ο‫ݏ‬
‫ݒ‬ൌ
ο‫ݐ‬
in ିଵ to the appropriate number of significant figures that correspond to

the following data:
(a) A car covers a distance of 1 km in 50 s.

(b) A lorry covers a distance of 1.20 km in 65 s.
(c) Light covers a distance of 3 000 km in 0.01 s.
3. Organise the data given below into a table that shows
(a) the frequency f

(b) the relative frequency r
of each value.
0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.2
0.3 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.5
4. A manufacturer of light bulbs investigated the burn time of his bulbs by

measuring the burn time of 100 bulbs. The results of his investigation are
summarised in the table below:
Burn time
(hours) f
1 325 – 1 375 2
1 375 – 1 425 5
1 425 – 1 475 8
1 475 – 1 525 60
1 525 – 1 575 19
1 575 – 1 625 3
1 625 – 1 675 3
99
(a) What was the average burn time of the tested bulbs?
(b) Calculate the standard deviation from the mean.
(c) Draw a normalised histogram of the distribution.
100
MEMORANDUM FOR SELF-EVALUATION TEST 1

1. The number of significant figures in each of the numbers are:
(a) Two
(b) Five
(c) Three
(d) Four
(e) Five
2.
(a) For the car
ο‫ݏ‬
‫ ݒ‬ൌ
ο‫ݐ‬
ͳ ൈ ͳͲଷ
ൌ
ͷͲ
ൌ ʹ ൈ ͳͲଵ ିଵ Ǥ
Comment:
The answer is given to only one significant figure because that was the
number of significant figures in the most uncertain number used in the
calculation. (In this case, both quantities, 1 km and 50 s, were known only
to one significant figure.)
(b) For the lorry

ο‫ݏ‬
‫ݒ‬ൌ
ο‫ݐ‬
ͳǤʹͲ ൈ ͳͲଷ
ൌ
͸ͷ
ൌ ͳǤͺ ൈ ͳͲଵ ିଵ Ǥ
Comment:
Here the answer could be given to two significant figures, because the
least certain quantity, that is t = 65 s, in this case was known to two
significant figures.
(c) For light

ο‫ݏ‬
‫ݒ‬ൌ
ο‫ݐ‬
͵ ൈ ͳͲ଺
ൌ
ͳ ൈ ͳͲିଶ
ൌ ͵ ൈ ͳͲ଼ ିଵ Ǥ
101
Comment:
In all three of these calculations, scientific notation was used, because the
number of significant figures is immediately apparent with this notation.
3. The frequency f and relative frequency r of the data are summarised in the
table below:
x f r
0.1 4 0.13
0.2 6 0.20
0.3 11 0.37
0.4 6 0.20
0.5 3 0.10
∑ 30 1.00
4.
(a) The average burn time is

σ଻௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ‫ݐ‬௜
‫ݐ‬ൌ
σ଻௜ୀଵ ݂௜
ͳͷͲͷͲͲ
ൌ
ͳͲͲ
ൌ ͳͷͲͷ
෥ ͳǤͷ ൈ ͳͲଷ Ǥ

െ
(b) The summations used in the calculation of the standard deviation are
tabulated below:
t f r ߜ ݂ߜ ଶ
ଶ
(hours) (ͳͲ ) (ͳͲ ଶ )
ସ
1 350 2 0.02 െ1.55 4.805

1 400 5 0.05 െ1.05 5.513
1 450 8 0.08 െ0.55 2.420
1 500 60 0.60 െ0.05 0.150
1 550 19 0.19 0.45 3.848
1 600 3 0.03 0.95 2.708
1 650 3 0.03 1.45 6.308
∑ 100 1.00 25.752
102
The standard deviation from the mean is

భ

σ଻௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ߜ௜ଶ మ
ߪൌቈ ଻ ቉
σ௜ୀଵ ݂௜
భ
ʹǤͷ͹ͷʹ ൈ ͳͲହ ଶ మ
ൌ ቈ ቉
ͳͲͲ
ൌ ͷͳǤ
(c) Normalised histogram of the burn time of 100 light bulbs
103
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS OF TOPIC 1

1.1 Round off the following quantities to three significant figures and write them
in scientific notation:
(a) 276532.0
(b) 0.3729
(c) 4.6667
(d) 33.333
(e) 24.5558ൈ ͳͲଷ
(f) 0.000034567
1.2 How many significant figures are there in the final result for each of the
following expressions?
ሺଷǤଶሻሺ଼Ǥ଺଻ሻ
(a) ሺଷǤ଴଴଼ሻ
(b) (0.0002)(45.6)
(c) (2.0ൈ ͳͲହ ) (3.777 ൈ ͳͲିସ)
(d) 17.2 + 2.35 + 4.3333
(e) 88.45 + 9.24Ȃ 6.05043
(f) 186.45 Ȃ 186.12
1.3 Evaluate the following expressions in accordance with the rules for
significant figures:
(a) (3.28 ൈ ͳͲହ ) + (4.25ൈ ͳͲ଻ )

(b) (3.7 ൈ ͳͲ଺ ሻ + (2.91ൈ ͳͲ଻ ሻ
(c) (1.91 ൈ ͳͲିଷ) Ȃ (1.7ൈ ͳͲିହ )
(d) (5.48ൈ ͳͲିଶ)(2.6 ൈ ͳͲିଷ )
൫଺Ǥ଻଻ൈଵ଴ర ൯
(e) ሺ଼Ǥଶଷସ଻ൈଵ଴ల ሻ
ሺଶǤଵൈଵ଴షయ ሻమ
(f) ሺସǤହ଺ൈଵ଴షమ ሻ
1.4 The diameter of a wire is measured repeatedly at different positions along its
length. The results of these measurements are tabulated below:
104
Measurement no. Diameter

i d (mm)
1 1.26
2 1.26
3 1.29
4 1.31
5 1.28
6 1.27
7 1.26
8 1.25
9 1.28
10 1.32
11 1.21
12 1.27
13 1.22
14 1.29
15 1.28
Calculate the standard deviation of these measurements and plot the frequency
distribution.
1.5 Present the data tabled in Question 1.4 in the form of:
(a) a histogram
(b) a relative frequency distribution
1.6 The following measurements are obtained by measuring the time in seconds
for one oscillation of a simple pendulum:
1.581 1.575 1.541 1.523 1.554 1.544 1.534

1.595 1.551 1.500 1.569 1.546 1.539 1.579
1.556 1.566 1.548 1.529 1.518 1.586 1.511
1.531 1.511 1.589 1.521 1.555 1.568 1.559
1.553 1.563 1.538 1.561 1.565 1.542 1.533
1.578 1.543 1.552 1.512 1.536 1.525 1.549
(a) Determine the frequency with which each value occurred and tabulate the
data accordingly.
(b) Plot a histogram of the measurements.
(c) Calculate the mean value of the period and the standard deviation from the
mean.
(d) If the length of the pendulum is 60.0 cm, use the mean value of the period
to calculate the gravitational acceleration g.
105
1.7 The length of a safety match was measured 31 times with a ruler that is
calibrated in mm divisions. The results that were obtained are tabulated
below.
Length Frequency
(mm) f
41 1
42 2
43 7
44 9
45 6
46 5
47 1
(a) Find the mean length of the safety match.

(b) Plot the relative frequency distribution of the measurements.
(c) Find the equation of the normal frequency curve and draw it on the same
set of axes.
1.8 When the variable x was repeatedly measured, the values tabulated below
occurred with frequency f as shown:
x 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
f 35 52 74 95 81 62 48 32 21
(a) Calculate the mean and plot the relative frequency distribution of the data.
(b) Find the equation that describes a smooth curve which fits the data as
closely as possible
(c) Plot this curve on the same set of axes as (a).
1.9 The height h (in mm) of the mercury column in a barometer as recorded on
100 occasions was as follows:
h (mm) 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750
f 1 5 9 23 20 17 12 6 4 2 1
(a) Find the mean height of the mercury column.

(b) Draw a histogram representing the heights.
106
1.10 Consider the following data:
86 144 81 72 97 110 87 106 118 92

103 132 108 107 80 91 84 98 120 70
110 96 82 99 110 117 83 85 92 83
86 125 87 104 57 46 92 86 92 110
110 66 148 80 109 95 107 99 94 108
89 118 83 102 70 88 163 89 131 98
104 130 88 75 91 97 76 94 151 89
108 97 87 107 117 100 74 108 106 103
104 80 134 92 115 91 123 97 84 106
96 65 100 87 86 110 102 96 94 161
(a) Form a frequency table and plot a frequency distribution of this data.
(b) Calculate the mean value of the data.
(c) Find the equation for the normal distribution that would fit the data as
closely as possible.
(d) Plot the normal distribution curve that is described by this equation.
1.11 Tabulate the relative frequencies for the following data and represent them
graphically.
x 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
f 1 4 7 12 13 9 6 4 3 1
1.12 Find the standard deviation of the following set of measurements:
15, 21, 19, 20, 18, 17, 22, 23, 16, 25.
1.13 Find the standard deviation of the set of measurements that occur with the
frequencies tabulated below:
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x 15 21 19 20 18 17 22 23 16 25
f 1 11 12 14 9 6 9 5 3 1
1.14
(a) Calculate the standard deviation σ of the distribution consisting of the
integers 1 to 5 inclusive.
(b) Samples are taken of these integers, with each sample consisting of three
different integers (10 samples in all) and a second distribution is formed
from the means of these samples. If s is the standard deviation of this
second distribution, prove that
‫ ߪݏ‬ൌ ͳξ͸Ǥ
107
1.15 The following set of values of a quantity x was obtained experimentally:
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
f 1 5 8 12 10 7 4 1 2
(a) Calculate the mean value of the quantity x.

(c) Draw the histogram for this distribution.
1.16 A group of 100 individuals each made an estimate of the interpolation of the
readings of a scale instrument. The values of the estimates and the number of
individuals who made the same estimate are tabulated below.
Reading 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8

Number of individuals 4 11 18 24 21 14 8
(a) Draw the relative frequency curve.

(b) Calculate:
i. the mean
ii. the standard deviation from the mean.
1.17 The diameters of the spores of lycopodium can be found by an interference

method. The results of such an experiment are given below. The constant
factor k = 5880 when the diameters are measured in cm.
k ൈ diameter (cm) 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Number of spores 1 1 8 24 48 58 35 16 8 1
(a) Find the mean diameter of the spores.

(c) Draw a normalised histogram of the data.
(d) Plot the corresponding normal frequency curve on the same set of axes.
108
NOTES:
109
TOPIC 2
Topic 2
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
Study Unit 9 Standard error
Study Unit 10 Combinations of measurements and errors
Study Unit 11 A case study revisited
110
STANDARD ERROR
TOPIC 2
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
The more things change, the more they remain the same.
Michel de Montaigne (1533 – 1592)
INTRODUCTION
We have now said a lot about precision, the dispersion of measurements about a
mean value and the standard deviation from the mean. The next step is to find a
way to estimate the accuracy of a measurement. In this topic we will show how
the best estimate of the precision and the accuracy of a measurement can be
calculated. Thinking back to the soft drink experiment, the following two
questions about errors were asked:
Ø What is the meaning of the errors in the measurements?

Ø How were the errors estimated?
In this topic we answer these questions and show how they apply to the
experiments you are going to conduct.
STUDY UNIT 9
STANDARD ERROR
Learning Objectives
1. define
(a) the adjusted standard deviation from the mean s

(b) the standard error in the mean ߪ௠
(c) the adjusted standard error in the mean ‫ݏ‬௠
111
STANDARD ERROR
2. indicate when and how to apply Bessel's correction
3. calculate the
(a) adjusted standard deviation from the mean s

(b) the standard error in the mean ߪ௠
(c) the adjusted standard error in the mean ‫ݏ‬௠ of an experimental result
9.1 BEST ESTIMATE OF THE TRUE VALUE: THE MEAN

We discussed the The limiting frequency curve represents the results of a measurement that was
limiting repeated an infinite number of times. When carrying out an experiment we can
frequency curve only repeat a measurement a finite number of times, so we have to be satisfied
with making an estimate of the true value X of any measurement. Suppose some
in Study Unit 6.
unknown quantity x is measured N times and this measurement gives the values
‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ǡ ǥ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ே Ǥ
The value of N is not necessarily large (in the experiments that you are going to
conduct, N will typically lie between 5 and 10). The best estimate of the quantity
that we are trying to measure is the mean value ‫ݔ‬which is given by equation (3.1)
or (3.5). One always has to keep in mind that this is not a precise determination of
the true value of the quantity. As consolation, we can expect the mean value ‫ ݔ‬to
BEST approach the true value X as N increases. This implies that the best estimate of the
ESTIMATE mean of an infinitely repeated measurement is given by the mean of a finite
number of measurements that are made in the actual experiment.
9.2 BEST ESTIMATE OF PRECISION: ADJUSTED STANDARD

DEVIATION
In the discussion of the limiting frequency distribution in Study Unit 6, we saw

that at a certain point the frequency distribution takes on a fixed shape that will
not change no matter how many more measurements we make. This means that
LIMIT TO there is a limit to the precision of a measurement. We have to decide on the best
PRECISION estimate of this limiting number that can be calculated from a finite number of
measurements.
In Study Unit 7 we evaluated the precision of a measurement that was repeated N

times, by first calculating the mean ‫ݔ‬, then the deviation ߜ௜ of each measurement
from the mean and finally the standard deviation ߪ. The mean approaches the true
value X as N increases. There is, however, a flaw in this argument which, although
unimportant for large values of N, becomes significant for small numbers of
measurements.
If we take only one measurement, the value of N = 1, ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ߜଵ ൌ Ͳand ߪ ൌ Ͳ.

This implies that a single measurement is the best estimate of the true value.
112
STANDARD ERROR
However, as we saw when we initially compared John’s and Thabo’s first

measurements, one measurement does not provide us with enough information to
evaluate its precision. We need at least two independent measurements of the
same variable to enable us to make an estimate of the precision. In general, if N
measurements ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ǥ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ே are available, there are N ways of choosing ‫ݔ‬௜ from
among them, which leaves (Nെ1) measurements for choosing a second value ‫ݔ‬௝ .
To provide for this bias, we define the adjusted standard deviation s by ADJUSTED
STANDARD
ଶ
ܰ ଶ
‫ ݏ‬ൌ ߪ DEVIATION
ܰെͳ
ܰ ߜଵଶ ൅ ߜଶଶ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ߜேଶ

ൌ ቈ ቉ ሺ͹ǤͶሻ
ܰെͳ ܰ
ߜଵଶ ൅ ߜଶଶ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ߜேଶ

ൌ Ǥ
ܰെͳ
Thus
ଵ
σே ଶ ଶ
௜ୀଵ ߜ௜
‫ݏ‬ൌቈ ቉
ܰെͳ
(9.1)
When comparing equations (7.4) and (9.1), we see that equation (9.1) differs from
equation (7.4) in that (N െ1) replaces N. This is known as Bessel’s correction, BESSEL’S
and we make use of it when N is small. It becomes insignificant when N is large. CORRECTION
The adjusted standard deviation s is almost equal to ߪ for large values of N, but
gives a more reasonable interpretation of an experiment involving very few
measurements. We shall therefore adopt s as the best estimate of ߪ, the standard
deviation. This means that s gives the best estimate of the precision of the
measurement.
9.3 ACCURACY OF THE MEAN VALUE. STANDARD ERROR IN THE

MEAN
Let us take a closer look at the N measurements of the unknown quantity
mentioned above. The best estimate of the true value X of the quantity we are
trying to measure is the mean value ‫ ݔ‬of the N measurements. What we need to do
now is to find a way to evaluate how good an estimate ‫ ݔ‬is of X, that is how close
the mean value is to the true value. If the frequency distribution has a narrow
symmetrical peak, and therefore a small ߪǡ the measurements will be close
together and their mean will be near the true value X. If the peak is broad, the
measurements will be more widely scattered and ‫ݔ‬is less likely to be close to X.
On the other hand, since we believe that ‫ݔ‬approaches X as N increases, this
means that by making N large enough, we can obtain a value of ‫ݔ‬as close to X as
the apparatus we are using allows us to get.
113
STANDARD ERROR
Let us consider once again N measurements ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ǥ ǡ ‫ݔ‬ே of some unknown
quantity with a true value of X. The error ݁௜ in the i-th reading is
݁௜ ൌ ‫ݔ‬௜ െ ܺ (9.2)
and the error E in the mean is given by
‫ ܧ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬െ ܺǤ (9.3)
Suppose we now make some more sets of measurements that contain N readings
in each set, all taken under the same circumstances. These sets of measurements
together form a very large distribution of which the standard deviation is ߪ. Each
of these sets has its own mean value, and the means of all the sets of data form
STANDARD another distribution of which the standard deviation is ߪ௠ . This quantity is known
as the standard error in the mean. Of course, in an actual experiment we make
ERROR IN THE
only one set of N measurements which will have a mean value ‫ݔ‬, but we can view
MEAN this value of the mean as being a member of a distribution which consists of all
the possible values of the mean.
From the definition of standard deviation, we have seen that

భ
σே
௜ୀଵሺ‫ݔ‬௜ െ ‫ݔ‬ሻ
ଶ మ
ߪൌቈ ቉
From Study Unit 7 ܰ
you will remember (9.4)
that the square root
of the mean value and if we assume the mean value to be exactly equal to the actual value
of a squared
భ
quantity is also
σே
௜ୀଵሺ‫ݔ‬௜ െ ܺሻ
ଶ మ
known as the root ߪൌቈ ቉Ǥ
mean square or rms
ܰ
value of the
(9.5)
quantity.
As you can now see from equation (9.2), the standard deviation is actually the
rms value of e for all the measurements in the distribution, or
STANDARD
ERROR IN ߪଶ ൌ ݁ଶ (9.6)
SINGLE
OBSERVATION which is known as the standard error in a single observation. The quantity ߪ ଶ is
known as the variance of the distribution. In the same way the standard error in
VARIANCE the mean is related to the rms value of E by
ଶ
ߪ௠ ൌ ‫ܧ‬ଶ. (9.7)
There is a simple relation between ߪ and ߪ௠ which is given by
114
STANDARD ERROR
ߪ
ߪ௠ ൌ Ǥ
ξܰ
(9.8)
Put in words, equation (9.8) means that the standard error in the mean of N
observations is 1/ξܰ times the standard error in a single observation. From
equation (9.1) we know that the best estimate of ߪ is given by
భ
ߜଵଶ ൅ ߜଶଶ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ߜேଶ మ
‫ݏ‬ൌቈ ቉Ǥ
ܰെͳ
(9.9)
If we substitute this expression into equation (9.8) we get the best estimate of ߪ௠ ,
namely
భ
ߜଵଶ ൅ ߜଶଶ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ߜேଶ మ
‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ ቈ ቉
ܰሺܰ െ ͳሻ
‫ݏ‬
ൌ Ǥ
ξܰ
(9.10)
The quantity ‫ݏ‬௠ is known as the adjusted standard error in the mean. If the N ADJUSTED
measurements consist of n different values ‫ݔ‬௜ which occur with frequencies ݂௜ , STANDARD
where ERROR IN THE
௡
෍ ݂௜ ൌ ܰ MEAN
௜ୀଵ
then the expression for ‫ݏ‬௠ can be written as

భ
σ௡௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ߜ௜ଶ మ
‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ ቈ ቉Ǥ
ܰሺܰ െ ͳሻ
(9.11)
We now have a way to include an estimate of the error in a measurement when we

write it down in an experiment. This can be done by summarising the result in the
form
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬േ ‫ݏ‬௠ Ǥ (9.12)
This tells the reader what the result of the measurement was, while at the same
time giving an indication of the experimental error involved.
115
STANDARD ERROR
9.4 CONCLUDING THE MATTER OF ERRORS

Before we continue by applying the error evaluation we have just discussed, we
would like to draw your attention to the following important points:
1. The standard deviationߪ depends only on the precision of the individual

measurements and is independent of the number of measurements, whereas
the value of ߪ௠ can be reduced by increasing N.
2. The adjusted standard error in the mean ‫ݏ‬௠ is not a third quantity
independent of ‫ ݔ‬and s, although it depends in a more explicit way upon the
number of measurements.
3. It is important to understand the difference between the best estimate of the

precision s and the best estimate of the error ‫ݏ‬௠ . The value of the standard
deviation σ depends only on the precision of the individual measurements and
not on the number of measurements, whereas the standard error in the mean
ߪ௠ can be reduced by increasing the number of measurements N. Similarly,
s does not decrease as the number of measurements N increases; it simply
approaches the quantity ߪ that defines the precision of the experiment. The
adjusted standard error ‫ݏ‬௠ does, however, decrease as N increases, because it
gives the best estimate of the mean deviation of the mean value ‫ ݔ‬from the
true value X of the quantity that is being measured.
4. Because the adjusted standard error ‫ݏ‬௠ involves both the precision of the
measurement (of which the standard deviation ߪ is a measure) and the
number of measurements N, the accuracy of the mean value improves with
an increase in the accuracy of the measurement as well as with an increase in
the number of measurements.
5. The improvement in the accuracy as the number of measurements increases is

proportional to 1/ξܰ. If a certain period of time was measured 10 times, and
the adjusted standard error was calculated to be ‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ ͲǤͳ, 1000
measurements would have to be made on the same apparatus to get a tenfold
(i.e. 10 times) improvement to ‫ݏ‬௠ = 0.01 s. The same result could be obtained
by still taking 10 measurements, but using an apparatus that can measure
accurately to 0.01 s. Clearly, it becomes more and more unprofitable to take
readings of the same quantity (time in this case). One should rather try to
reduce ‫ݏ‬௠ by reducing s, that is, by making more careful measurements in the
first place!
116
STANDARD ERROR
9.5 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Finally, something has to be said about significant figures because we are now To refresh your
going to get involved in a lot of calculations using measured quantities, each memory about
with its own error. The number of figures you record when quoting data is not significant
arbitrary (i.e. you cannot simply decide for yourself how many figures to record).
figures, turn back
It indicates how accurately the measurement has been made. You can use the
following guidelines to decide about the number of significant figures to record to Study Unit 2
when making measurements and analysing the errors involved in your results: before you go on.
1. The accuracy to which a physical quantity (length, time, mass, etc.) can be
measured on the apparatus being used, should give an indication of the
number of significant figures to be recorded. For example, if the length of a
book is measured with a millimetre ruler, the measurement is accurate to the
nearest millimetre but an estimate of 0.5 mm can be made if the reading falls
between 2 scale divisions. The length can then be recorded as 204.5 mm, for
example, and the reading contains four significant digits. If the reading falls
exactly on the scale division at 204 mm, the measurement should be recorded
as 204.0 mm, so that it still indicates the accuracy with four significant digits
(the zero after the decimal point is meaningful in this case!).
The measuring cup we used in the soft drink experiment could only be read
accurately to 20 ml and an estimate of 10 ml could be made for readings that
fell between two scale divisions. That is why we recorded readings like 350
ml and 360 ml for the volume of the can. Recording values like 361 ml or 359
ml would have been meaningless, because it is unrealistic to make estimates of
1 ml in a 20 ml scale division.
2. For a large number of measurements, the relative accuracy of ‫ݏ‬௠ gives us a LARGE
quantitative basis for deciding on how many digits to retain. This accuracy is NUMBER OF
given by ̱ͳȀξܰ െ ʹ. For example, if 100 measurements give values MEASUREMENTS
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͳ͹Ǥ͵ͺ͸ǡ ‫ ݏ‬ൌ ͳǤʹʹ͸‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ ͲǤͳʹʹ͸
the relative accuracy of ‫ݏ‬௠ is around 10% (i.e. 1/ξͳͲͲ െ ʹ ൈ ͳͲͲ). The third
and fourth digits of s and ‫ݏ‬௠ are then of no practical importance and the
result can be written as
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͳ͹Ǥ͵ͻ േ ͲǤͳʹǤ (9.13)

SMALL
3. In any experiment involving 10 or fewer measurements, there is no point at all NUMBER OF
in giving s to more than two and ‫ݏ‬௠ to more than one significant digit. MEASUREMENTS
117
STANDARD ERROR
Example 9.1
We will now apply some of this theory about errors. Let’s try some time
measurements with the soft drink can that we used before. You need the
following:
1. An empty 340 ml soft drink can

2. Water
3. A container with a volume of at least 500 ml
4. A stop watch that can measure to 1/100th of a second (0.01 s) [Such a stop
watch is supplied in the home experiment kit].
Perform the experiment in the following way:
1. Fill the can to the brim of the opening in the lid with water. (Remember that
the capacity of the can is more than 340 ml.)
2. Hold the can vertical in an upright position above the container with your one
hand (the opening in the lid is at the top).
3. Zero the stopwatch with your other hand.
4. Tilt the can through ͳͺͲ୭ so that the opening is at the bottom.
5. Start the stopwatch as soon as you tilt the can.
6. Stop the watch as soon as the can has run empty of water. This is more or less
when the water from the can starts dripping and is not running anymore.
Record the value of the time.
7. Try to keep the can vertical and steady while the water is running out.
8. Repeat the procedure 5 times. Save water by re-using the water in the
container.
9. Finally repeat the procedure 5 more times for a total of 10 measurements.
The results for the measurements of the time t in seconds are listed in Table 9.1.
i t (s)
1 14.97
2 15.32
3 18.12
4 19.25
5 16.47
6 18.94
7 17.97
8 16.78
9 14.59
10 16.03
TABLE 9.1: Measurements of the time to empty a soft drink can
118
STANDARD ERROR
We would like to illustrate step by step how the value of ߪ differs from that of its
best estimate s and likewise how ߪ௠ differs from ‫ݏ‬௠ . For this purpose we will
calculate:
(a) the standard deviation in the mean time
(b) the adjusted standard deviation in the mean time
(c) the standard error in the mean time
(d) the adjusted standard error in the mean time to empty the can
From the results for the first five measurements of the time to empty the can, the
mean value for the time was
σ ݂‫ݐ‬
‫ݐ‬ହҧ ൌ
ܰ
ሺͳͶǤͻ͹ ൅ ͳͷǤ͵ʹ ൅ ͳ͸ǤͶ͹ ൅ ͳͺǤͳʹ ൅ ͳͻǤʹͷሻ
ൌ
ͷ
ൌ ͳ͸Ǥͺʹ͸
؄ ͳ͸Ǥͺ͵Ǥ (9.14)
Construct the following table: (To do this, the time is listed in increasing order
and a number of intermediate steps were performed.)
i t(s) f ߜ(s) fߜሺଶ ሻ

1 14.97 1 –1.86 3.460
2 15.32 1 –1.51 2.280
3 16.47 1 –0.36 0.130
4 18.12 1 1.29 1.664
5 19.25 1 2.42 5.856
∑ 5 13.390
TABLE 9.2: Calculations for the adjusted standard deviation
(a) The standard deviation in the height of the can is given by equation (7.5) as
భ

σ ݂ߜ ଶ మ
ߪൌቈ ቉
ܰ
భ
ͳ͵Ǥ͵ͻͲଶ మ
ൌቈ ቉
ͷ
ൌ ͳǤ͸͵͸
119
STANDARD ERROR
؄ ͳǤ͸ͶǤ (9.15)
(b) The adjusted standard deviation in the height of the can follows from (9.1)
భ

σ ݂ߜ ଶ మ
‫ݏ‬ൌቈ ቉
ܰെͳ
భ

ͳ͵Ǥ͵ͻͲଶ మ
ൌቈ ቉
Ͷ
ൌ ͳǤͺ͵Ͳ
؄ ͳǤͺ͵Ǥ (9.16)
Comparing the values of ߪ and s shows that the best estimate of the standard
deviation is somewhat larger than the value obtained without Bessel’s correction.
This is exactly why we make use of s rather than ߪ for a small number of readings
— we have to guard against making too optimistic an estimate of the precision of
a measurement. (In other words, we should be careful not to think that a
measurement is more precise than it actually is.)
(c) The standard error in the mean of the time to empty the can is
ߪ
ߪ௠ ൌ
ξܰ
ͳǤ͸͵͸
ൌ
ξͷ
ൌ ͲǤ͹͵ʹ
؄ ͲǤ͹͵Ǥ (9.17)
(d) The adjusted standard error in the mean is

‫ݏ‬
‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ
ξܰ
ͳǤͺ͵Ͳ
ൌ
ξͷ
ൌ ͲǤͺͳͺ
؄ ͲǤͺʹǤ (9.18)
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STANDARD ERROR
When we compare the values of ߪ௠ and ‫ݏ‬௠ it is clear that the best estimate of
the standard error is somewhat larger than the unadjusted value. This proves
the need for using ‫ݏ‬௠ as an indication of the overall accuracy of a
measurement rather than ߪ௠ .
Finally, the result of the measurement of the time can be summarised as
‫ݐ‬ହҧ ൌ ሺͳ͸Ǥͺ͵ േ ͲǤͺʹሻǤ (9.19)
You can now investigate how the adjusted standard error changes with an increase
in the number of measurements by repeating the calculation of ‫ݏ‬௠ using the
results that you obtained when you measure the time 10 times. Use the value of
the mean time you obtained from 10 measurements (retaining one or two extra
significant digits) to complete the table below and then calculate the adjusted
!
standard deviation in the mean time.
i t(s) ݂௜ ߜ௜ ሺ ሻ ݂௜ ߜ௜ଶ ሺ ሻ
∑ 10
TABLE 9.3: Calculations for 10 measurements of the time to empty the can
The adjusted standard error in the mean time is
‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ
121
STANDARD ERROR
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
The mean time calculated for 10 measurements is
σ ݂‫ݐ‬
ҧ ൌ
‫ݐ‬ଵ଴
σ݂
ͳ͸ͺǤͶͶ
ൌ
ͳͲ
ൌ ͳ͸ǤͺͶͶ
؄ ͳ͸ǤͺͶǤ (9.20)
i t(s) f ߜ(s) fߜሺଶ ሻ

1 14.59 1 –2.25 5.036
2 14.97 1 –1.87 3.497
3 15.32 1 –1.52 2.310
4 16.03 1 –0.81 0.656
5 16.47 1 –0.37 0.137
6 16.78 1 –0.06 0.004
7 17.97 1 1.13 1.277
8 18.12 1 1.28 1.638
9 18.94 1 2.10 4.410
10 19.25 1 2.41 5.808
∑ 10 24.800
TABLE 9.4: Feedback: calculations for 10 measurements
The adjusted standard error in the mean is
‫ݏ‬
‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ
ξܰ
భ
σே ଶ మ
௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ߜ௜
ൌቈ ቉
ܰሺܰ െ ͳሻ
భ
ʹͶǤͺͲͲଶ మ
ൌቈ ቉
ͳͲሺͻሻ
ൌ ͲǤͷʹͷ
؄ ͲǤͷ͵Ǥ (9.21)
122
STANDARD ERROR
When we compare this value of ‫ݏ‬௠ with that obtained in Example 9.1 for five
measurements, we find that the error in the time was decreased by ሺͲǤͺʹ െ ͲǤͷ͵) s
= 0.29 s. This represents a marked improvement (±35%) in the overall accuracy of
the measurement. Note that the mean time did not change much.
The result of the measurement of the time to empty the soft drink can after 10
measurements can be summarised as
ҧ ൌ ሺͳ͸ǤͺͶ േ ͲǤͷ͵ሻ.
‫ݐ‬ଵ଴ (9.22)
....................................................................................................................................
123
COMBINATIONS OF MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS
STUDY UNIT 10
COMBINATIONS OF MEASUREMENTS
AND ERRORS
Learning Objectives
After having completed this study unit, you should be able to calculate the error
resulting from a combination of errors that arise from the following types of
calculations:
1. sum ሺ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ݕ‬ሻ and difference ሺ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݕ‬ሻ

2. scale factor ሺ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ܽ‫ݔ‬ሻ
3. linear combination ሺ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ߙ ൅ ܽ‫ ݔ‬൅ ܾ‫ ݕ‬൅ ‫ ڮ‬ሻ
4. product ሺ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݕݔ‬ሻ and quotient ሺ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬Ȁ‫ݕ‬ሻ
5. general product ሺ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ߙ‫ ݔ‬௔ ‫ ݕ‬௕ ǥ ሻ
6. exponents ሺ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬௡ ሻ
7. logarithms ( ‫ ݔ‬and ͳͲ௫ )
8. natural logarithms ( ‫ ݔ‬and ݁ ௫ )
10.1 COMBINING ERRORS

Now that we have established a way to calculate the error in a single variable, we
can go on to consider the way in which errors should be combined when a
calculation involving more than one quantity, each with its own error, is being
MEASURED made. When a number of quantities are involved in the final calculation of a
QUANTITIES parameter, the errors of all the measured quantities will affect the end result. You
will frequently encounter this type of calculation in the experiments that you will
be conducting, because the aim of an experiment is often to evaluate a parameter
that is a function of several measured quantities. Because they are measured
quantities, they will each contain an error. The following examples illustrate the
way in which individual errors compound the error in the calculated quantity.
(a) The volume of a right cylinder

If the height h and the diameter d of a cylinder are measured, they each
contain an error Δh and Δd (read “delta” h and “delta” d). The volume of the
cylinder can be calculated from
ܸ ൌ ߨ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ݄
124
ߨ ଶ
ൌ ݀ ݄
Ͷ
(10.1)
where r is the radius of the cylinder. The final error ΔV in V will be influenced
by both Δh and Δd.
(b) Measurement of the resistivity of a wire

The aim of a typical experiment in a first year laboratory could be to
determine the resistivity of the material of which a piece of wire is made. This
can be done by measuring the resistance R, the length κ and the diameter d of
the wire. The resistivity is then calculated from the formula
ܴ‫ܣ‬
ߩൌ
κ
ܴߨ݀ଶ
ൌ
Ͷκ
(10.2)
where A is the cross-section area of the wire given by
ߨ݀ ଶ
ଶ
‫ ܣ‬ൌ ߨ‫ ݎ‬ൌ
Ͷ
The final error Δߩ in the resistivity will be compounded by the errors of

measurement ΔR in the resistance, Δκ in the length and Δ݀ in the diameter of
the wire.
(c) Gravitational acceleration from the period of a simple pendulum

By measuring the period T and the length κ of a simple pendulum, one can
calculate the gravitational acceleration ݃ from the formula for the period of a
simple pendulum
κ
ܶ ൌ ʹߨඨ
݃
(10.3)
from which
Ͷߨ ଶ κ
݃ൌ Ǥ
ܶଶ
(10.4)
The final error ȟ݃ in the experimentally determined value of ݃ is therefore a

composition (or combination) of errors in determining the period and
measuring the length κ, that is of ȟT and ȟκ.
125
Exactly how we calculate this type of compounded error will become clear as we
progress through this study unit. The rules that apply to the calculation of a
compounded error (which is also called a combined error) depend on the type of
PROPORTIONAL calculation that is being made. We will consider each type of calculation in turn.
Although the discussion will only deal with the adjusted standard error ‫ݏ‬௠ , the
ERROR
rules are valid for the standard deviation ߪ and the adjusted standard deviation
s as well.
In the discussion that follows, we will sometimes refer to the proportional error
of a quantity. This is simply the ratio of error Δ‫ ݔ‬in the specific quantity x to the
magnitude of the quantity itself, that is Δ‫ݔ‬Ȁ‫ݔ‬. Sometimes we will also consider
PERCENTAGE the percentage error. It is often useful to express the estimated error as a
ERROR percentage of the mean value of the observed quantity. This gives us an idea of
the relative magnitude of the error in the final evaluation. Let us look at an
example:
The length κ of a pencil was measured five times, and the mean value of its length
was found to be (17.02 ± 0.01) cm. The percentage error in the length is then
ͲǤͲͳ
ൈ ͳͲͲ ൌ ͲǤͲ͸ΨǤ
ͳ͹ǤͲʹ
This is a very small percentage error, but in the case of a quantity with a smaller
numerical value, the percentage error can be much larger. We can see this by
looking at another example:
If a rise in temperature of (5 ± 0.2) °C is measured with an ordinary mercury

thermometer, the percentage error in the temperature rise is
ͲǤʹ
ൈ ͳͲͲ ൌ ͶΨǤ
ͷ
A temperature rise of (20 ± 0.2) °C, on the other hand, has the same actual error,
but a percentage error of only
ͲǤʹ
ൈ ͳͲͲ ൌ ͳΨǤ
ʹͲ
10.2 SUM AND DIFFERENCE

Suppose x and y are measured quantities with errors Δ‫ ݔ‬and Δ‫ݕ‬, which we write
as ‫ ݔ‬േ ο‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬േ ο‫ݕ‬. When calculating the value of a quantity z from the sum
of x and y
‫ ݖ‬ൌ‫ݔ‬൅‫ݕ‬ (10.5)
126
the error ο‫ ݖ‬in z will arise partly from ο‫ ݔ‬and partly from ο‫ݕ‬. The errors are not
simply added, because they do not necessarily affect the result in the same
direction. The error in x may work in the opposite direction to the error in y. The
compounded error in this case is given by the square root of the sum of the
squares,
భ
ο‫ ݖ‬ൌ ሾሺο‫ݔ‬ሻଶ ൅ ሺο‫ݕ‬ሻଶ ሿమ Ǥ (10.6)
If z is given by the difference between x and y
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݕ‬ǡ (10.7)
the error ο‫ ݖ‬is also given by equation (10.6). The magnitudes of the errors are still
the same and they have the same chance of increasing or decreasing the value of z.
10.3 SCALE FACTOR

If the value of z is calculated by multiplying a measured quantity x with an error
ο‫ ݔ‬by a constant factor a
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ܽ‫ݔ‬ǡ (10.8)
the error in z is found by multiplying ο‫ ݔ‬by the same constant, so
ο‫ ݖ‬ൌ ܽο‫ݔ‬. (10.9)
In this case the percentage error in z is the same as the percentage error in x.
10.4 LINEAR COMBINATION

If z is given by a linear combination
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ߙ ൅ ܽ‫ ݔ‬൅ ܾ‫ ݕ‬൅ ‫ڮ‬ (10.10)
of a number of measured quantities x, y, ... with respective errors ο‫ݔ‬, οy , ... the
error in z is given by
భ
ο‫ ݖ‬ൌ ሾܽଶ ሺο‫ݔ‬ሻଶ ൅ ܾ ଶ ሺο‫ݕ‬ሻଶ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬ሿమ Ǥ (10.11)
Any of the scale factors a, b, ... may be negative. The sign affects the mean value
of z, but in the expression for the compounded error ο‫ݖ‬, each of the measurements
contributes a positive amount. Note that the constant α does not affect the error.
10.5 PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT

When z is given by the product of one measured quantity x and another measured
quantity y
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݕݔ‬ (10.12)
127
or by the quotient of x and y

‫ݔ‬
‫ݖ‬ൌ
‫ݕ‬
(10.13)
The fractional increase in either x or y produces the same fractional increase in z

in both cases. The errors ο‫ ݔ‬and ο‫ ݕ‬may lead to either an increase or a decrease in
z and may cancel each other out, so the proportional error in z is given by
భ
ο‫ݖ‬ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ ο‫ ݕ‬ଶ మ
ൌ ቈ൤ ൨ ൅ ൤ ൨ ቉ Ǥ
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݕ‬
(10.14)
INDEPENDENT In equation (10.14), x and y are independent quantities. This means that the one
QUANTITIES has no influence on the other.
10.6 GENERAL PRODUCT

Suppose z is given by a general product
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ߙ‫ ݔ‬௔ ‫ ݕ‬௕ ǥ (10.15)
of any number of measured quantities x, y, ... involving errors where ߙ is a

constant. In this case the proportional error in z is a combination of the relative
errors in each quantity, that is
భ
ο‫ݖ‬ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ ο‫ ݕ‬ଶ మ
ൌ ቈܽଶ ൬ ൰ ൅ ܾ ଶ ൬ ൰ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬቉
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݕ‬
(10.16)
10.7 EXPONENTS
When z is given by a measured quantity x which is raised to an exponent n,
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬௡ (10.17)

the proportional error in z is
ο‫ݖ‬ ο‫ݔ‬
ൌ ݊ Ǥ
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݔ‬
(10.18)
128
10.8 NATURAL LOGARITHMS

When z is calculated from the natural logarithm of a measured quantity x
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ (10.19)
the error in z is given by
ο‫ݔ‬
ο‫ ݖ‬ൌ
‫ݔ‬
(10.20)
and when
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݁௫ (10.21)
the error in z follows from

ο‫ݖ‬
ൌ ο‫ݔ‬Ǥ
‫ݖ‬
(10.22)
10.9 LOGARITHMS
If z is calculated from the logarithm of a measured quantity x
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ (10.23)
the error in z is given by
ο‫ݔ‬
ο‫ ݖ‬ൌ
ʹǤ͵‫ݔ‬
(10.24)
and when
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ͳͲ௫ (10.25)
the proportional error in z is given by
ο‫ݖ‬
ൌ ʹǤ͵ο‫ݔ‬Ǥ
‫ݖ‬
(10.26)
The factor of 2.3 in equations (10.24) and (10.26) stems from the fact that
ͳͲ ൌ ʹǤ͵Ǥ
129
10.10 SUMMARY
Table 10.1 gives a summary of the rules to be applied when calculating an error
that is compounded by the errors of a number of measured quantities, each with its
own error.
Relation between x, y and z Relation between ο࢞, ο࢟ and οࢠ

z = x + y and ሺο‫ݖ‬ሻଶ ൌ ሺο‫ݔ‬ሻଶ ൅ ሺο‫ݕ‬ሻଶ
z=xȂy
z = ax ο‫ ݖ‬ൌ ܽο‫ݔ‬
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ߙ ൅ ܽ‫ ݔ‬൅ ܾ‫ ݕ‬൅ ‫ڮ‬ ሺο‫ݖ‬ሻଶ ൌ ܽଶ ሺο‫ݔ‬ሻଶ ൅ ܾ ଶ ሺο‫ݕ‬ሻଶ ൅ ‫ڮ‬
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ ݕݔ‬and
ο‫ ݖ‬మ ο‫ ݔ‬మ ο‫ ݕ‬మ
‫ݔ‬ ൤ ൨ ൌ൤ ൨ ൅൤ ൨
‫ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݖ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݕ‬
‫ݕ‬
ο‫ ݖ‬మ ο‫ ݔ‬మ ο‫ ݕ‬మ
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ߙ‫ ݔ‬௔ ‫ ݕ‬௕ ǥ ൤ ൨ ൌ ܽଶ ൤ ൨ ൅ ܾ ଶ ൤ ൨ ǥ
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݕ‬
ο‫ݖ‬ ο‫ݔ‬
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬௡ ൌ݊
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݔ‬
ο‫ݔ‬
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ ο‫ ݖ‬ൌ
‫ݔ‬
ο‫ݖ‬
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ݁௫ ൌ ο‫ݔ‬
‫ݖ‬
ο‫ݔ‬
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ ο‫ ݖ‬ൌ
ʹǤ͵‫ݔ‬
ο‫ݖ‬
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ͳͲ௫ ൌ ʹǤ͵ο‫ݔ‬
‫ݖ‬
TABLE 10.1: Summary of the rules that apply to the combination of errors
ERRORS AND Now that all the rules have been given, we need to put them into practice by
working through a number of examples. In the examples that follow we will be
UNITS
using dimensionless quantities to simplify matters a little, but in an actual
experiment each measured quantity will have a dimension that has to be indicated
by units. Remember, the error in a quantity has the same unit as the quantity
itself.
Example 10.1
The measured quantities A and B have values A = 100 ± 3 and B = 45 ± 2, and Z is
given by the sum
ܼ ൌ ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ܤ‬Ǥ
130
Calculate Z and οZ.
Solution
The value of Z is
ܼ ൌ‫ܣ‬൅‫ܤ‬
ൌ ͳͲͲ ൅ Ͷͷ
ൌ ͳͶͷ
and the error in Z is given by

భ
οܼ ൌ ሾሺο‫ܣ‬ሻଶ ൅ ሺο‫ܤ‬ሻଶ ሿమ
భ
ൌ ሾሺ͵ሻଶ ൅ ሺʹሻଶ ሿమ
ൌ ͵Ǥ͸
؄ Ͷ
Answer:
ܼ ൌ ͳͶͷ േ ͶǤ
NOTE:
Make sure that you know why we keep only one significant figure in the answer
SIGNIFICANT
of οܼ. If you cannot remember, turn back to Study Unit 2 and read through the
rules that determine the number of significant figures again. FIGURES
!
Now you try one:
Let Z be given by the difference
ܼ ൌ‫ܣ‬െ‫ܤ‬
where A and B are two measured quantities with the same values as in the
preceding example. Calculate Z and οܼ.
131
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
The value of Z is given by

ܼ ൌ ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܤ‬
ൌ ͳͲͲ െ Ͷͷ
ൌ ͷͷǤ
The calculation for οܼ is exactly the same as for the sum we did in the preceding
example, so ο‫ ݖ‬ൌ Ͷ , and
ܼ ൌ ͷͷ േ ͶǤ
....................................................................................................................................
Example 10.2
The value of Z is given by a measured quantity ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ʹͷ േ ʹ multiplied by a
constant ܿ ൌ ͶǤ Calculate the value of Z and its error οܼ.
Solution
ܼ ൌ ܿ‫ܣ‬
ൌ ሺͶሻሺʹͷሻ
ൌ ͳͲͲ
and the error in Z is

οܼ ൌ ሺͶሻሺʹሻ
ൌ ͺ
Answer:
ܼ ൌ ͳͲͲ േ ͺǤ
Example 10.3
The value of the parameter Z is given by the product of two measured quantities
‫ ܣ‬ൌ ͳͷ͸ േ ͹ and ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ͶǤʹ േ ͲǤ͵Ǥ Calculate Z and the error in Z.
Solution
The value of Z is
ܼ ൌ ‫ܤܣ‬
ൌ ሺͳͷ͸ሻሺͶǤʹሻ
ൌ ͸ͷͷǤʹ
؄ ͸͸Ͳ
and the proportional error in Z is given by
132
భ
οܼ ο‫ ܣ‬ଶ ο‫ ܤ‬ଶ మ
ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
ܼ ‫ܣ‬ ‫ܤ‬
so
భ
ο‫ ܣ‬ଶ ο‫ ܤ‬ଶ మ
οܼ ൌ ሺܼሻ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
‫ܣ‬ ‫ܤ‬
భ
͹ ଶ ͲǤ͵ ଶ మ
ൌ ሺ͸ͷͷǤʹሻ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅൬ ൰ ቉
ͳͷ͸ ͶǤʹ
ൌ ͷͷǤ͵
؄ ͸Ͳ
Answer:
ܼ ൌ ͸͸Ͳ േ ͸Ͳ.
Do you agree with the number of significant figures in the answer? Remember, in
a product the number of significant figures is determined by the number
containing the least significant digits. In this case it is B, which has two
significant figures. In the calculation of the error οܼ, both ο‫ ܣ‬and ο‫ ܤ‬have only
one significant digit, so Z is rounded off to one significant digit. Note that we
used 655.2 in the calculation of the error οܼ and not 660. We keep the extra
significant digits, because this is an intermediate step. By using the rounded off
value here, we would lose accuracy in our final answer. In the calculation of the
error, both ο‫ ܣ‬and ο‫ ܤ‬have only one significant figure, so οܼ is rounded off to
one significant digit.
Your turn again! Using the values ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ͳͷ͸ േ ͹ and ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ͶǤʹ േ ͲǤ͵, calculate Z
and οܼ if
ܼൌ Ǥ
‫ܣ‬
‫ܤ‬
!
133
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

‫ܣ‬
ܼ ൌ
‫ܤ‬
ͳͷ͸
ൌ
ͶǤʹ
ൌ ͵͹Ǥͳ
؄ ͵͹Ǥ
From
భ
οܼ ο‫ ܣ‬ଶ ο‫ ܤ‬ଶ మ
ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
ܼ ‫ܣ‬ ‫ܤ‬
it follows that
భ
ο‫ ܣ‬ଶ ο‫ ܤ‬ଶ మ
οܼ ൌ ሺܼሻ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
‫ܣ‬ ‫ܤ‬
భ
͹ ଶ ͲǤ͵ ଶ మ
ൌ ሺ͵͹Ǥͳሻቈ൬ ൰ ൅൬ ൰ ቉
ͳͷ͸ ͶǤʹ
ൌ ͵Ǥͳ
؄ ͵
Answer:
ܼ ൌ ͵͹ േ ͵Ǥ
....................................................................................................................................
Example 10.4
ܼ ൌ ‫ܣ‬௡
where ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ʹͷ േ ʹ is a measured quantity and n = 3. Calculate Z and οܼ.
134
Solution
ܼ ൌ ‫ܣ‬௡
ൌ ʹͷଷ
ൌ ͳͷ͸ʹͷ
؄ ͳ͸ͲͲͲ
and from
οܼ ο‫ܣ‬
ൌ݊
ܼ ‫ܣ‬
it follows that
ο‫ܣ‬
οܼ ൌ ܼ݊
‫ܣ‬
ʹ
ൌ ሺͳͷ͸ʹͷሻሺ͵ሻ ൤ ൨
ʹͷ
ൌ ͵͹ͷͲ
؄ ͶͲͲͲ
Answer:
ܼ ൌ ͳ͸ͲͲͲ േ ͶͲͲͲ
ൌ ሺͳǤ͸ േ ͲǤͶሻ ൈ ͳͲସ Ǥ
Example 10.5
A certain variable is measured to be ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ʹͷ േ ʹ and the parameter Z is given by
ܼ ൌ ‫ܣ‬Ǥ
Calculate Z and οܼ.
Solution
The value of Z is
ܼ ൌ ‫ܣ‬
ൌ ሺʹͷሻ
ൌ ͵Ǥʹ
and the error in Z is given by
135
ο‫ܣ‬
οܼ ൌ
‫ܣ‬
ʹ
ൌ
ʹͷ
ൌ ͲǤͲͺ
؄ ͲǤͳ
Answer:
ܼ ൌ ͵Ǥʹ േ ͲǤͳǤ
Now you can do a calculation again.
! Calculate the value of Z and the error in Z in the space provided below if ‫ ܣ‬ൌ
ͲǤͶ͸ͺ േ ͲǤͲͳʹ is a measured quantity and Z is given by
ܼ ൌ ݁ ஺Ǥ
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
The value of Z is
ܼ ൌ ݁ ஺
ൌ ݁ ଴Ǥସ଺଼
ൌ ͳǤͷͻ͸ͺ
؄ ͳǤ͸Ͳ
and from
οܼ
ൌ ο‫ܣ‬
ܼ
the error in Z is given by
136
οܼ ൌ ܼο‫ܣ‬
ൌ ሺͳǤͷͻ͸ͺሻሺͲǤͲͳʹሻ
ൌ ͲǤͲͳͻͳ͸
؄ ͲǤͲʹ
Answer:
ܼ ൌ ͳǤ͸Ͳ േ ͲǤͲʹǤ
....................................................................................................................................
Example 10.6
The instances where you will have to calculate the combined error of a number of
experimentally determined quantities will not always be as straightforward as in
the examples that we have been considering up to now. To show you what is
meant, we will look at a more complicated example.
Let Z be a function of the independently measured quantities A, B, C and D, where
‫ ܣ‬ൌ ͲǤͳͲͲ േ ͲǤͲͲ͵ǡ ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ʹǤͲͲ േ ͲǤͲͷǡ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ͷͲǤͲ േ ͲǤͷǡ ‫ ܦ‬ൌ ͳͲͲ േ ͺ
and
భ
‫ ܣ‬ቀ‫ ܥ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ܦ‬మ ቁ
ܼൌ Ǥ
‫ܤ‬
Calculate the value of Z and its standard error οܼ.
Solution
The value of Z is
భ
‫ ܣ‬ቀ‫ ܥ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ܦ‬మ ቁ
ܼൌ
‫ܤ‬
భ
ሺͲǤͳͲͲሻ ቂሺͷͲǤͲሻଶ ൅ ሺͳͲͲሻమ ቃ
ൌ
ʹǤͲͲ
ൌ ͳʹͷǤͷ
؄ ͳʹ͸Ǥ
To find the error, we group the quantities in the equation and determine the error
for each group. Let
‫ܣ‬
‫ ܩ‬ൌ
‫ܤ‬
భ
‫ ܪ‬ൌ ‫ ܥ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ܦ‬మ
‫ ܭ‬ൌ ‫ ܥ‬ଶ
భ
‫ ܮ‬ൌ ‫ܦ‬మ
137
then
ܼ ൌ ‫ܪܩ‬
ൌ ‫ܩ‬ሺ‫ ܭ‬൅ ‫ܮ‬ሻ
The value of K is
‫ ܭ‬ൌ ‫ ܥ‬ଶ
ൌ ሺͷͲǤͲሻଶ
ൌ ʹͷͲͲǤͲ
and from
ο‫ܭ‬ ο‫ܥ‬
ൌʹ
‫ܭ‬ ‫ܥ‬
the error in K is given by

ο‫ܥ‬
ο‫ ܭ‬ൌ ‫ ܭ‬൤ʹ ൨
‫ܥ‬
ሺʹሻሺͲǤͷሻ
ൌ ሺʹͷͲͲǤͲሻ ቈ ቉
ͷͲǤͲ
ൌ ͷͲǤͲ
The value of L is given by

భ
‫ ܮ‬ൌ ‫ܦ‬మ
భ
ൌ ሺͳͲͲሻమ
ൌ ͳͲ
and the error in L follows from

ο‫ ͳ ܮ‬ο‫ܦ‬
ൌ
‫ܮ‬ ʹ ‫ܦ‬
as
ͳ ο‫ܦ‬
ο‫ ܮ‬ൌ ‫ ܮ‬൤ ൨
ʹ ‫ܦ‬
ͳ ͺ
ൌ ሺͳͲሻ ൤ ൨
ʹ ͳͲͲ
ൌ ͲǤͶǤ
The value of H is
‫ ܪ‬ൌ‫ܭ‬൅‫ܮ‬
ൌ ʹͷͲͲǤͲ ൅ ͳͲ
ൌ ʹͷͳͲǤͲ
and the error in H is given by

భ
ο‫ ܪ‬ൌ ሾሺο‫ܭ‬ሻଶ ൅ ሺο‫ܮ‬ሻଶ ሿమ
భ
ൌ ሾሺͷͲǤͲሻଶ ൅ ሺͲǤͶሻଶ ሿమ
ൌ ͷͲǤͲ
138
The value of G is given by

‫ܣ‬
‫ ܩ‬ൌ
‫ܤ‬
ͲǤͳͲͲ
ൌ
ʹǤͲͲ
ൌ ͲǤͲͷͲ
and from
భ
ο‫ܩ‬ ο‫ ܣ‬ଶ ο‫ ܤ‬ଶ మ
ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
‫ܩ‬ ‫ܣ‬ ‫ܤ‬
the error in G is
ଵ
ȟ‫ ܣ‬ଶ ȟ‫ ܤ‬ଶ ଶ
ȟ‫ ܩ‬ൌ ‫ ܩ‬ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
‫ܣ‬ ‫ܤ‬
ଵ
ͲǤͲͲ͵ ଶ ͲǤͲͷ ଶ ଶ
ൌ ሺͲǤͲͷͲሻ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅൬ ൰ ቉
ͲǤͳͲͲ ʹǤͲͲ
ൌ ͲǤͲͲʹ
The value of Z can now be calculated by substituting the values of G and H into
ܼ ൌ ‫ܪܩ‬
ൌ ሺͲǤͲͷͲሻሺʹͷͳͲǤͲሻ
ൌ ͳʹͷǤͷ
؄ ͳʹ͸
and from
భ
οܼ ο‫ ܩ‬ଶ ο‫ ܪ‬ଶ మ
ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
ܼ ‫ܩ‬ ‫ܪ‬
the error in ܼ is given by

భ
ο‫ ܩ‬ଶ ο‫ ܪ‬ଶ మ
ȟܼ ൌ ܼ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
‫ܩ‬ ‫ܪ‬
భ
ͲǤͲͲʹ ଶ ͷͲǤͲ ଶ మ
ൌ ሺͳʹͷǤͷሻ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅൬ ൰ ቉
ͲǤͲͷͲ ʹͷͳͲǤͲ
ൌ ͷǤ͸ͳ
؄ ͸Ǥ
The final answer is

ܼ ൌ ͳʹ͸ േ ͸Ǥ
139
NOTE:
As we have seen, no rounding off was done in the intermediate calculations. Only
the final value Z and the final error in Z are rounded off.
Try this yourself! See how you fare with the following example:
! Calculate the value of Z and the error οZ if
ܼ ൌ ‫ܤ ܣ‬
where ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ͳͲǤͲͲ േ ͲǤͲ͸and ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ͳͲͲ േ ʹare independent measured quantities.
Use the space provided below.
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
To simplify the final calculation, we group the quantities as before. Let
ܼ ൌ ‫ܩܣ‬
where
‫ ܩ‬ൌ ‫ܤ‬Ǥ
The value of G is given by

‫ ܩ‬ൌ ‫ܤ‬
ൌ ሺͳͲͲሻ
ൌ ͶǤ͸ͳ
140
and the error in G is

ο‫ܤ‬
ο‫ ܩ‬ൌ
‫ܤ‬
ʹ
ൌ
ͳͲͲ
ൌ ͲǤͲʹ
Now we can calculate Z by substituting G in
ܼ ൌ ‫ܩܣ‬
ൌ ሺͳͲǤͲͲሻሺͶǤ͸ͳሻ
ൌ Ͷ͸ǤͳͲ
؄ Ͷ͸ǤͳǤ
From
భ
οܼ ο‫ ܣ‬ଶ ο‫ ܩ‬ଶ మ
ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
ܼ ‫ܣ‬ ‫ܩ‬
the error in Z is given by

భ
ο‫ ܣ‬ଶ ο‫ ܩ‬ଶ మ
οܼ ൌ ܼ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
‫ܣ‬ ‫ܩ‬
భ
ͲǤͲ͸ ଶ ͲǤͲʹ ଶ మ
ൌ ሺͶ͸Ǥͳሻ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅൬ ൰ ቉
ͳͲǤͲͲ ͶǤ͸ͳ
ൌ ͲǤ͵Ͷͳ
؄ ͲǤ͵Ǥ
The final answer is therefore
ܼ ൌ Ͷ͸Ǥͳ േ ͲǤ͵Ǥ
....................................................................................................................................
141
A CASE STUDY REVISITED
STUDY UNIT 11
Learning Objectives
This study unit does not contain any new material — it summarises the discussion
about the evaluation of the reliability of an experimental result. After having
completed it, you should be able to interpret the information given about an
experimental result by:
Ø the mean value ‫ݔ‬

Ø the adjusted standard deviation s
Ø the adjusted standard error in the mean ‫ݏ‬௠
11.1 TWO STUDENTS AGAIN

We are now able to summarise the information about an experimental result as
three numbers
Ø the mean value ‫ݔ‬, which is the best estimate of the true value X of the
quantity we are trying to measure
Ø the adjusted standard deviation s, which is the best estimate of the
precision of the measurement
Ø the adjusted standard error in the mean ‫ݏ‬௠ , which is the best estimate of
the overall accuracy of the experiment
If we calculate ‫ݔ‬, s and ‫ݏ‬௠ at each stage of John’s and Thabo’s experiments, the
results can be summarised as shown in Table 11.1.
Number of ‫ݔ‬ s ‫ݏ‬௠

Experimenter
Measurements (s) (s) (s)
John 1 1.4 — —
Thabo 1 1.52 — —
John 5 1.56 0.15 0.07
Thabo 5 1.514 0.010 0.005
John 500 1.533 0.163 0.007
TABLE 11.1: Summary of the results of John’s and Thabo’s experiments.
142
The information that is summarised in Table 11.1 enables us to answer some of

the questions we asked when we first considered their experiments. Let us
consider the results at each stage of the process.
1. After one measurement

After John and Thabo had each made one measurement, they gave two
independent and different results. No information was available on the
precision or the accuracy of these results, so no comparison was possible.
2. After five measurements

After five measurements each, it appeared as if Thabo’s result was some 15
times more precise than John’s. We can say this because the adjusted standard
deviation s in Thabo’s measurement was 0.01 s compared with 0.15 s in
John’s measurement. At this stage, Thabo’s estimate of the true value of the
period and of its standard error were 1.514 s and 0.005 s, which we can write
as ሺͳǤͷͳͶ േ ͲǤͲͲͷሻs, compared with John’s result of ሺͳǤͷ͸ േ ͲǤͲ͹ሻs. This
means that the accuracy of Thabo’s estimate is more than 10 times better than
John’s, and clearly, if one of the results had to be chosen, it would be Thabo’s.
3. After John's 500 measurements

After John had repeated his number of measurements 500 times the poor
precision of his measurement was confirmed. In fact it looks a little worse at
this stage. The adjusted standard deviation s is now 0.163 s, compared with
the earlier value of 0.15 s, which is still more than 15 times less precise than
Thabo’s. However, his hard work has had an effect, because his value of
ሺͳǤͷ͵͵ േ ͲǤͲͲ͹ሻ s for the true value bears a standard error of 0.007 s which,
although greater than Thabo’s 0.005 s, is certainly not so different as to justify
our disregarding his estimate completely in favour of Thabo’s. We might well
feel that since the results are of comparable accuracy, and within 0.002 s of
each other, that the true value is somewhere between the two, perhaps a little
nearer to Thabo’s because his is still the more accurate estimate of the two.
Time for a self-evaluation test again! Now that we have completed Topic 2, you
can test yourself by writing Self-Evaluation Test 2. It contains questions about
the most important aspects of the work we have covered in Topic 2. A
memorandum for the test is given on the pages following the test. Do not look
at the memorandum before doing the test — it would defeat the purpose of
self-evaluation! After completing the test, you can mark it according to the
mastered, and which areas still need some attention. Remember, this test is a
143
1. Mrs Mashinini wants to measure the chest of her four year old son, Temba,
because she wants to know what shirtsize to buy for him. He is rather an
active little boy, however, and she cannot get him to stand still. Because she is
not quite certain of her first reading, she repeats it, and when she finds it
slightly different from the first reading, she repeats it a third time. Again she
gets a slightly different value and repeats the measurement once again. In the
end Mrs Mashinini has seven readings for Temba’s chest. The table below
shows the frequency distribution of these repeated measurements:
c (cm) 56.9 57.0 57.3 57.4

f 1 3 2 1
(a) Which shirt would you recommend Mrs Mashinini to buy?

(b) Calculate the best estimate of the accuracy of Mrs Mashinini’s
measurements.
2. The results of the measurement of the height h of a group of 100 persons is

shown in the table below:
h (m) 1.58 1.63 1.68 1.73 1.78 1.83

f 10 20 30 20 10 10
(a) Find the average height of the sample and the standard deviation from
the mean.
(b) Is Bessel’s correction needed for the calculation of the standard
deviation?
3. In an experiment to determine the resistivity of a piece of wire, the following

measurements were recorded:
Resistance of the wire R ൌ ሺʹǤͲ͸ േ ͲǤͲͳሻȳ

Diameter of the wire d ൌ ሺͲǤͷ͹ േ ͲǤͲͳሻ mm
Length of the wire κ ൌ ሺͳͲͷǤ͸ േ ͲǤͳሻ cm.
If the resistivity ߩ is given by

ܴߨ݀ଶ
ߩൌ
Ͷκ
calculate ߩ and the standard error in ߩ from the given measurements.
4. When using the apparatus known as Kater’s pendulum, the gravitational

acceleration ݃ is given by
Ͷߨ ଶ ሺ݄ଵ ൅ ݄ଶ ሻ
݃ൌ Ǥ
ܶଶ
144
In an experiment with Kater’s pendulum, the following measurements were made:

Length of ݄ଵ ൅ ݄ଶ ൌ ሺͳǤͲͶʹ͵ േ ͲǤͲͲͲͷሻ m
Period of the oscillation T ൌ ሺʹǤͲͶͺ േ ͲǤͲͲͷሻ s
Calculate ݃ and the standard error in ݃.
145

1.
(a) The average value of Mrs Mashinini’s measurements gives an indication of
which shirt size she should buy for Temba, that is
σସ௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ܿ௜
ܿൌ
σସ௜ୀଵ ݂௜
͵ͻͻǤͻ
ൌ
͹
ൌ ͷ͹Ǥͳʹͻ cm
؄ ͷ͹ǤͳǤ
A shirt marked for chest size 57 cm, or perhaps one size bigger to allow for
little Temba to grow, is recommended.
(b) The best estimate of the accuracy of Mrs Mashinini’s measurements is given
by the adjusted standard error in the mean ‫ݏ‬௠ . The following table shows the
summations used for the calculation of ‫ݏ‬௠ :
i ݂௜ ܿ௜ ݂௜ ܿ௜ ߜ௜ ݂௜ ߜ௜ଶ
(cm) (cm) (cm) (ଶ )
1 1 56.9 56.9 െ0.229 0.052
2 3 57.0 171.0 െ0.129 0.050
3 2 57.3 114.6 0.171 0.058
4 1 57.4 57.4 0.271 0.073
∑ 7 399.9 0.233
భ
σସ௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ߜ௜ଶ మ
‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ ቈ ቉
ܰሺܰ െ ͳሻ
భ
ͲǤʹ͵͵ଶ మ
ൌ ቈ ቉
͹ሺ͸ሻ
ൌ ͲǤͲ͹Ͷ
؄ ͲǤͳǤ
146
The result of Mrs. Mashinini’s measurements can therefore be summarized as
ܿ ൌ ሺͷ͹Ǥͳ േ ͲǤͳሻ
2.
(a) The summations needed for the calculation of the average height ݄ത and the
standard deviation from the mean σ have been summarised in the following
table:
i ݂௜ ݄௜ ݂௜ ݄௜ ߜ௜ ݂௜ ߜ௜ଶ
(m) (m) (m) (ଶ )
1 10 1.58 15.8 െ0.115 0.1322
2 20 1.63 32.6 െ0.065 0.0845
3 30 1.68 50.4 െ0.015 0.0068
4 20 1.73 34.6 0.035 0.0245
5 10 1.78 17.8 0.085 0.0722
6 10 1.83 18.3 0.135 0.1822
∑ 100 169.5 0.5024
The average height of the persons in the sample is
σ଺௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ݄௜
݄ൌ
σ଺௜ୀଵ ݂௜
ͳ͸ͻǤͷ
ൌ
ͳͲͲ
ൌ ͳǤ͸ͻͷ
؄ ͳǤ͹ͲǤ
and the standard deviation from the mean is

భ
σ଺௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ߜ௜ଶ మ
ߪ ൌ ቈ ଺ ቉
σ௜ୀଵ ݂௜
ଵ
ͲǤͷͲʹͶଶ ଶ
ൌ ቈ ቉
ͳͲͲ
ൌ ͲǤͲ͹ͳ
؄ ͲǤͲ͹Ǥ
147
(b) Bessel’s correction is not needed to calculate the standard deviation in a

sample as large as this. To prove this point, let’s do the calculation with the
correction. In this case we calculate s, the best estimate of the standard
deviation ߪ:
భ
σ଺௜ୀଵ ݂௜ ߜ௜ଶ మ
‫ ݏ‬ൌ ቈ ቉
ܰെͳ
భ
ͲǤͷͲʹͶଶ మ
ൌ ቈ ቉
ͻͻ
ൌ ͲǤͲ͹ͳ
؄ ͲǤͲ͹Ǥ
As you can see, the correction leaves the value of σ unchanged, correct to two
decimal places.
3. In a problem like this, it is a convenient practice to convert all measured

values and constants to SI units before substituting them into a formula.
The diameter of the wire ሺͲǤͷ͹ േ ͲǤͲͳሻmm becomes ሺͷǤ͹ േ ͲǤͳሻ ൈ ͳͲିସ m.
The length of the wire ሺͳͲͷǤ͸ േ ͲǤͳሻ cm becomes ሺͳǤͲͷ͸ േ ͲǤͲͲͳሻ m.
The resistivity of the wire is

ܴߨ݀ଶ
ߩൌ
Ͷκ
ሺʹǤͲ͸ȳሻሺߨሻሺͷǤ͹ ൈ ͳͲିସ ሻଶ

ൌ
ͶሺͳǤͲͷ͸ሻ
ൌ ͶǤͻ͹ͺ ൈ ͳͲି଻ ȳǤ
To save time, calculate the standard error in ߩ in one go using equation

(10.16):
భ
οܴ ଶ οκ ଶ ο݀ ଶ మ
οߩ ൌ ߩ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ൅ ሺʹሻଶ ൬ ൰ ቉
ܴ κ ݀
భ
ଶ ଶ ିସ ଶ మ
ͲǤͲͳȳ ͲǤͲͲͳ ͲǤͳ ൈ ͳͲ
ൌ ሺͶǤͻ͹ͺ ൈ ͳͲି଻ ȳሻ ൥൬ ൰ ൅൬ ൰ ൅ Ͷቆ ቇ ൩
ʹǤͲ͸ȳ ͳǤͲͷ͸ ͷǤ͹ ൈ ͳͲିସ
ൌ ͳǤ͹͸Ͷ ൈ ͳͲି଼ ȳ
148
The final answer, taking significant figures into account is
ߩ ൌ ሺͶǤͻ͹ͺ ൈ ͳͲି଻ ሻ േ ሺͳǤ͹͸Ͷ ൈ ͳͲି଼ ሻȳ

ൌ ሺͶǤͻ͹ͺ േ ͲǤͳ͹͸Ͷሻ ൈ ͳͲି଻ ȳ
؄ ሺͷǤͲ േ ͲǤʹሻ ൈ ͳͲି଻ ȳ
4. First calculate a value of ݃. Let
݄ ൌ ݄ଵ ൅ ݄ଶ
then
Ͷߨ ଶ ݄
݃ ൌ ଶ
ܶ
Ͷߨ ଶ ሺͳǤͲͶʹ͵ሻ
ൌ
ሺʹǤͲͶͺሻଶ
ൌ ͻǤͺͳͳିଶ
The standard error on ݃ is

భ
ο݄ ଶ οܶ ଶ మ
ο݃ ൌ ݃ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ሺെʹሻଶ ൬ ൰ ቉
݄ ܶ
భ
ିଶ ሻ
ͲǤͲͲͲͷ ଶ ͲǤͲͲͷ ଶ మ
ൌ ሺͻǤͺͳͳ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ Ͷ൬ ൰ ቉
ͳǤͲͶʹ͵ ʹǤͲͶͺ
ൌ ͲǤͲͶͺͳ ିଶ
Answer:
݃ ൌ ሺͻǤͺͳͳ േ ͲǤͲͶͺሻ ିଶ Ǥ
149

2.1 A motorist goes for a drive, keeping the reading on the speedometer at a
constant value of ͶͲିଵ . The speedometer is assumed to be accurate to
േʹିଵ . At the end of the day he wants to know how far he has
travelled, but unfortunately he forgot to look at the distance indicator when
he set out. He thinks that he drove for four hours, give or take a quarter of an
hour. Estimate how far he travelled and assign an error to your result.
2.2 The volume of the rectangular block in the figure is calculated from the
following measurements of its dimensions:
ܽ ൌ ͳͲǤͲͲ േ ͲǤͳͲǡ ܾ ൌ ͷǤͲͲ േ ͲǤͲ͸ and ܿ ൌ ͶǤͲͲ േ ͲǤͲͶǤ
Calculate the error in the value of the volume of the block assuming:
(a) the errors are independent
(b) the errors are correlated such that they all push the estimate in the same
direction
2.3 The area of a circle is given by ߨ‫ ݎ‬ଶ where r is the radius. This can be written
as area ൌ ሺߨ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൈ ‫ݎ‬. Can we regard this equation as being of the form

‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݕݔ‬
where ‫ ݖ‬ൌ area, ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ߨ‫ ݎ‬and ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݎ‬so that one can use equation (2.13)
instead of equation (2.15) for determining the error in the area? Give reasons
for your answer.
2.4 Consider the function

‫ ݖ‬ൌ ʹ‫ ݔ‬൅ ͵‫ݕ‬
where‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͳ͵Ǥ͵͸ േ ͲǤͲ͵and ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ͸Ǥʹ͹ േ ͲǤͲͷ are two independent
measured quantities each containing an error. Calculate the value of z and
the standard error ο‫ݖ‬.
150
2.5 Consider the function

భ
‫ ݔ‬మ
‫ ݖ‬ൌ ൬ ଷ൰
‫ݕ‬
where ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͳ͵Ǥ͵͸ േ ͲǤͲ͵and ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ͸Ǥʹ͹ േ ͲǤͲͷ are two independent
measured quantities, each with its own error. Calculate the value of z and the
standard error ο‫ݖ‬.
2.6 If
‫ݔ‬ଶ
‫ݕ‬ൌ
ͳ ൅ ‫ݔ‬ଶ
find the percentage error in y when

(a) ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͵ǤͲ േ ͲǤͳ
(b) ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ʹǤͲͲ േ ͲǤͲͷ
2.7 Given
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ሺʹ߱‫ ݐ‬൅ ߙሻ
గ
(a) Find the fractional error in y when‫ ݐ‬ൌ
ଶఠ
గ
(b) Find the fractional error in y when ‫ ݐ‬ൌ
ఠ
(c) Find the values of ‫ݐ‬for which the fractional error in y is least.
2.8 The diameter D of a squash ball is directly measured as 3.04 cm, and the
volume V of the ball is calculated from

ߨ‫ܦ‬ଷ
ܸൌ
͸
to be 14.71 ଷ . It is later discovered that the value of D has a systematic

error of + 0.01 cm. What is the error in V and the correct value of V?
2.9 A rectangular brass bar of mass M has dimensions a, b, c as shown in the

figure below. The moment of inertia I about the axis at the centre of the ab
face and perpendicular to it, is given by

‫ ܯ‬ଶ
‫ܫ‬ൌ ሺܽ ൅ ܾ ଶ ሻǤ
ͳʹ
The following measurements are made:
151
‫ ܯ‬ൌ ͳ͵ͷǤͲ േ ͲǤͳ

ܽ ൌ ͺͲ േ ͳ
ܾ ൌ ͳͲ േ ͳ
ܿ ൌ ʹͲǤͲͲ േ ͲǤͲͳ
Calculate the standard error in:

(a) the density ߩ of the material
(b) the moment of inertia I
2.10 The surface tension ߛ of a liquid of density ߩ is found by placing the liquid
in a U-tube of which the two limbs have radii ‫ݎ‬ଵ and ‫ݎ‬ଶ respectively. The
difference in height h in the two limbs is measured and ߛ is calculated from
the formula
ͳ ͳ ͳ
ߛ ൬ െ ൰ ൌ ݃ߩ݄Ǥ
‫ݎ‬ଵ ‫ݎ‬ଶ ʹ

Calculate the value of ߛ and the error in ߛ from the following experimental
results:
݄ ൌ ͳǤͲ͸ േ ͲǤͲͲͷ
‫ݎ‬ଵ ൌ ͲǤͲ͹ േ ͲǤͲͲͷ
‫ݎ‬ଶ ൌ ͲǤͳͶ േ ͲǤͲͲͷ
2.11 The ideal gas equation relates the pressure P, volume V and temperature T
for any gas at low pressure. The equation is
ܸܲ ൌ ܴ݊ܶ
where R is the gas constant with value ͺǤ͵ͳͶ ିଵ ିଵ and n is the
number of moles of gas present. Use the experimentally determined values
ܲ ൌ ሺͲǤ͸ േ ͲǤͳሻ ൈ ͳͲହ

ܸ ൌ ሺʹʹ േ ʹሻ ൈ ͳͲିଷ ଷ
ܶ ൌ ሺ͵ʹͷ േ ͷሻ
to calculate the value of n and the error in n. Assume the error in R is

negligible.
152
2.12 The period T of the motion of a body of mass M at the end of a spring with
spring constant k is given by
‫ܯ‬
ܶ ൌ ʹߨඨ
݇
Use the experimentally determined values
‫ ܯ‬ൌ ሺʹͳͲ േ ͷሻ

ܶ ൌ ሺͳǤͳ േ ͲǤͳሻ
to calculate k and the error in k.
153
TOPIC 3
Topic 3
GRAPHS
Study Unit 12 Graphs in experimental work
Study Unit 13 Straight line graphs
Study Unit 14 Relationships between variables
Study Unit 15 The best straight line
Study Unit 16 Hints on how to plot graphs
154
GRAPHS IN EXPERIMENTAL WORK
TOPIC 3
GRAPHS
One picture is worth a thousand words.

Anonymous
STUDY UNIT 12
Learning Objectives
After having completed this study unit, you should:
1. know the reasons for using graphs in experimental physics
2. know the meaning of the terms
(a) interpolation
(b) extrapolation
3. be able to apply the principles of both interpolation and extrapolation to
obtain information from a graph
4. know the meaning of the terms
(a) coordinates of a point
(b) x-axis
(c) y-axis
5. be able to read the coordinates of a point from a graph
6. be able to plot a graph of a set of experimental data
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Graphs play a very important role in experimental physics, and they will form a
central part of most of the experiments that you will be doing in the laboratory. By
working through this topic, you will acquire the important skills of plotting and
interpreting graphs. Before we start, we would like to demonstrate the way in
which graphs are generally used in experimental physics. For this purpose, we
155
The meaning of will pay a visit to the laboratory of a certain Prof Albert Onestone. He performed
“viscosity” is an experiment to measure the viscosity of a fluid.
explained in
The experiment consisted of dropping solid spheres of different diameters into a
Study Unit 12.
viscous fluid contained in a glass cylinder. From the theory of viscous fluids, Prof
Onestone knew that when the diameter d of the sphere is small compared with the
diameter of the cylinder containing the fluid, the terminal velocity ‫ݒ‬௧ of the sphere
is directly proportional to the square of its diameter ݀ଶ , that is
‫ݒ‬௧ ‫݀ ן‬ଶ Ǥ (12.1)
The results of the professor’s experiment are listed in Table 2.1. The diameter of
the cylinder that was used was 46 mm.
݀ ݀ଶ ‫ݒ‬௧
ሺͳͲିଷ ሻ ሺͳͲି଺ ଶ ሻ ሺͳͲ ିଵ ሻ
ିଷ
1.55 2.4 9.5

2.39 5.7 20.8
3.30 10.9 35.0
4.11 16.9 50.3
4.58 21.0 55.0
4.76 22.7 71.0
5.34 28.5 85.0
6.35 40.3 114.3
9.13 83.4 176.7
TABLE 12.1: The results of Prof Onestone’s experiment
In the time-honoured tradition among physicists the world over, Prof Onestone
then plotted a graph of the data. Figure 12.1 shows the professor’s graph of
‫ݒ‬௧ versus ݀ଶ .
FIGURE 12.1: Graph of ‫ݒ‬௧ versus ݀ ଶ
156
Looking at the graph, we immediately have a few questions:

Ø Why did Prof Onestone plot a graph?
Ø Why did the professor plot ‫ݒ‬௧ versus ݀ଶ and not simply ‫ݒ‬௧ versus ݀?
Ø Up to a certain point the graph is a straight line, and then it has the shape
of a curve. What does that mean?
Ø Was it really worth all the trouble of plotting the graph?
In the discussion that follows, these questions will be answered, and you will see
that our venerable professor knew the truth of the saying “One picture is worth a
thousand words”. When you have completed this topic, you might fully agree with
him!
12.2 PURPOSE OF GRAPHS IN EXPERIMENTAL WORK

The advantage of presenting experimental results graphically can best be
illustrated by an example of an actual experiment. Let’s do this by means of Prof
Onestone’s experiment, but before we begin, you need some background about a
few basic principles of the fluid dynamics involved. This will be brief! For the
purpose of this discussion it is sufficient that you know that the viscosity of a fluid VISCOSITY
is the internal friction that exists within the fluid. Viscous forces oppose the
motion of one portion of a fluid relative to another. Fluids that flow readily (or
easily), such as water or petrol, have smaller viscosities than slower flowing fluids
like honey or motor oil.
A second physical concept that plays a role in this experiment is the familiar
phenomenon of buoyancy. When a body is immersed in water, it seems to weigh BUOYANCY
less than when it is in air, out of the water. This can be explained by the upward
force, known as the buoyant force, which is exerted on a solid body when it is
completely or partially immersed in a fluid.
Lastly, there is the force of gravity, ݉݃, with which the earth attracts a body of GRAVITY
mass ݉, where ݃ is the gravitational acceleration. This force is usually called the
weight of the mass ݉.
As it falls through the fluid, there are three forces acting on a sphere in Prof
Onestone’s experiment. They are the viscous force ‫ܨ‬Ԧ୴୧ୱୡ୭୳ୱ that is retarding (or
slowing down) the sphere’s fall, the buoyant force ‫ܨ‬Ԧୠ୳୭୷ୟ୬୲ and the weight ܹ
ሬሬሬԦ of
the sphere. The sphere reaches a terminal speed ‫ݒ‬௧ when the sum of the forces TERMINAL
acting on it is zero, that is when SPEED
‫ܨ‬Ԧ୴୧ୱୡ୭୳ୱ ൅ ‫ܨ‬Ԧୠ୳୭୷ୟ୬୲ ൅ ܹ
ሬሬሬԦ ൌ ͲǤ (12.2)
The forces acting on an object while it is falling in a viscous fluid are shown in
Figure 12.2.
157
FIGURE 12.2: The forces acting on a solid sphere falling in a viscous fluid
Let us get back to Prof Onestone. Looking at the numbers in Table 12.1, he could
see that a proportionality between ‫ݒ‬௧ and ݀ଶ does exist, because ‫ݒ‬௧ becomes
steadily larger as ݀ଶ increases. “But is this proportionality linear?” he asked
himself. There was a quick way to find out — plot a graph! As he undoubtedly
knew, a graph can tell an experienced scientist in an instant how quantities are
related.
Up to a certain point, the professor’s graph of ‫ݒ‬௧ versus ݀ ଶ is a straight line, and
then it has a curved shape. “What does this mean?” you asked. To Prof Onestone
it was immediately apparent that there is a point at which the proportionality
relationship breaks down. Up to point T the graph is a straight line. This indicates
LINEARITY a direct proportionality between ‫ݒ‬௧ and ݀ ଶ . We say ‫ݒ‬௧ is linearly dependent on
݀ଶ up to point T, because the graph that represents the relation between ‫ݒ‬௧ and ݀ଶ
is a straight line. From point T onward, the graph is no longer a straight line, and
the simple relationship ‫ݒ‬௧ ‫݀ ן‬ଶ no longer holds. The curved part of the graph
NONLINEARITY represents a nonlinear relationship between ‫ݒ‬௧ and ݀ଶ . Prof Onestone could have
obtained this information from a mathematical analysis of the data, but as he well
knew, that would have been a time-consuming and laborious task. Was it really
worth all the trouble of plotting a graph? You decide.
Now that we know why the professor plotted a graph, we can consider a further
example of a graph used in an actual experiment. The speed v of an object
executing linear motion at a constant acceleration a is given by
‫ ݒ‬ൌ ‫ ݑ‬൅ ܽ‫ݐ‬ (12.3)
158
where u is the initial speed and t is the time. When an object falls from rest in the
gravitational field of the earth, the initial speed is ‫ ݑ‬ൌ Ͳ, so this equation becomes
‫ ݒ‬ൌ ݃‫ݐ‬ (12.4)
where ݃ is the gravitational acceleration of the earth. Both v and t are variables
while ݃, the gravitational acceleration, is a constant determined by the specific
position on the earth’s surface. In a laboratory experiment, the speed of an object
falling from rest was measured at intervals of one second. The results of the
experiment are tabulated in Table 12.2.
‫( ݐ‬s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
‫( ݒ‬m ିଵ ሻ 10 50 30 44 56 64 75 85 95 105
TABLE 12.2: Speed of an object in free fall as a function of time
Each pair of values, for example 1 s and 10 m ିଵ, can now be presented as a
point on a graph of the speed v against the time t as shown in Figure 12.3.
FIGURE 12.3: Graph of speed v as a function of time t
The graph reveals a number of important features of the data. It tells us that the
speed is directly proportional to the time, because the graph is a straight line. We
can say that a linear relation exists between the speed of an object in free fall and
the time. In this case there is no point beyond which the linear relation breaks
down as was the case in Prof Onestone’s experiment.
When ‫ ݐ‬ൌ Ͳǡ ‫ ݒ‬؄ Ͳ, which is, of course, nothing but the value of u, the initial
speed of the object. The fact that ‫ ݑ‬ൌ Ͳ agrees with the fact that the object fell
159
from rest. The slope of the straight line is approximately 10 m ିଶ . This

represents an experimentally determined value of the gravitational acceleration ݃
The matter of at the location where the experiment was carried out.
errors in There is a slight scatter of the points about the straight line. Because the data
experimental were experimentally obtained, they contain a certain amount of uncertainty. The
measurements degree of scatter about the line gives an idea of the size of the random errors in
was discussed in the experiment.
Study Unit 5.
The data point corresponding to ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ʹ s deviates considerably from the rest of
DOUBTFUL the data. It is considered a doubtful point, and was therefore ignored when the best
POINT line was drawn through the other data points. A doubtful point is sometimes also
referred to as an outlier. Doubtful points may arise from a misreading during the
experiment or incorrect plotting of the data point. There are no hard and fast rules
about what constitutes a doubtful point, but a graph will show up such a point and
then one can retake the particular measurement or check the plotting. Doubtful
points should not be omitted from the graph, however, especially when they lie at
the far end of the range of measurements. Unless the cause of a doubtful point can
be traced immediately, the best advice is to repeat the measurement to find out
whether you obtain the doubtful point again. If you do, it means that the point
represents a repeatable data point, and it should therefore be shown on the graph.
Throwing away a data point because it spoils the look of a graph could mean that
you are throwing away the most important measurement of the experiment.
All these aspects are not readily apparent if we simply inspect the data as they
have been tabulated in Table 12.2. By plotting a graph, we have used our ability to
take in information when it is presented visually. In the process we have saved
ourselves a lot of time and effort, while at the same time obtaining a clear picture
of the features of the experiment.
An additional advantage of a graph is that it makes it very easy for estimations to

INTERPOLATION be made between the actual measured values. This process is called interpolation.
For example, although no measurement was made at t = 5.5 s, it follows from the
graph that ‫ ݒ‬؄ ͸Ͳ ିଵ at this instant. Extrapolation enables us to estimate the
EXTRAPOLATION value of a variable outside the range of the experiment. By extending the best
straight line, we can predict that the speed of the object after 12 s would be
approximately 122 ିଵ . Extrapolation can, however, yield misleading results
and should be used with caution.
1. Can you think of a good example in which extrapolation could yield
! misleading results?
2. Was there a point on Prof Onestone’s graph that could be considered a
doubtful point?
3. A car starts moving from rest, and its displacement s is recorded at 1 s
intervals. The results are summarised in Table 12.3 and the graph of the
displacement as a function of time ‫ ݐ‬is shown in Figure 12.4.
160
t (s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
s (m) 2.5 10.0 22.5 40.0 62.5 90.0 122.5 160.0 202.5 250.0
TABLE 12.3: Displacement of a car moving from rest
FIGURE 12.4: Graph of s versus t
(a) Would you say that s is linearly related to t?

(b) Read the value of the displacement at t = 3.5 s from the graph.
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
1. Prof Onestone’s experiment springs to mind. If the measurements giving

points Q, R and S in Figure 12.1 had not been taken, then by extrapolating the
straight line part of the graph, one would be led to think that a sphere of
diameter ͸Ǥ͵ͷ ൈ ͳͲିଷ ሺ݀ ଶ ൌ ͶͲǤ͵ ൈ ͳͲି଺ ଶ ሻ has a terminal velocity of
ͳǤʹʹ ൈ ͳͲିଵ ିଵ , which is incorrect. The non-linear relation between
݀ଶ and ‫ݒ‬௧ in this region gave a value of ͳǤͳͶ ൈ ͳͲିଵ െͳ for the terminal
velocity of a sphere with a diameter of ͸Ǥ͵ͷ ൈ ͳͲିଷ Ǥ
2. Prof Onestone chose to ignore point P when he drew the straight line part of
the graph. He did this because the distance of point P from the line is several
times as big as that of any of the other points. It is important to note that points
R and S are not doubtful points, even though they deviate considerably from
the straight line. They are valid data points that provide important information
about the behaviour of the system under consideration.
161
3.
(a) As you can see in Figure 12.4, the displacement-time graph is not a straight
line, so s is not linearly related to t. This tells us that the displacement of
the car during every 1 s interval is not constant, which means that it is
accelerating.
(b) Read from the graph, the value of the displacement after 3.5 s is 30 m.
....................................................................................................................................
12.3 WHAT HAVE WE LEARNT FROM PROF ONESTONE?
As you will no doubt agree after working through this study unit, graphs provide a
simple and convenient way of presenting a set of experimental results with a view
to investigating it objectively and drawing reliable conclusions. The reading and
plotting of graphs are most important skills. We have seen that there are two
especially important reasons for using graphs in experimental physics:
Ø They serve as visual aids, which is by far their most important function.
In Study Unit 14 Ø They can be used to determine the value of a quantity, usually from the
we will discuss slope or the intercept of a straight line presenting the relation between two
the relationship variables.
between
variables. In the experiments that you are going to conduct during the laboratory session,
you will often be required to investigate the relationship between physical
quantities. You may also have to determine the value of a physical quantity (such
as the resistivity of a material or the focal distance of a lens) and in most cases
graphs will be the tool you use to do this, so the rest of this topic will be devoted
to showing you how to use this tool to its best advantage.
12.4 PLOTTING A GRAPH

When plotting a graph, we present numbers by means of a coordinate system
CARTESIAN devised by the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes. This
COORDINATE system is known by the latinized form of his name as the Cartesian coordinate
SYSTEM system and makes use of a straight line along which the value of a number can be
indicated by its position on the line. When plotting a graph, we use two such lines,
AXES known as axes, to present the values of the two variables that are being
considered. The one axis is in the horizontal position, and the other in the vertical
position. It is customary to refer to the horizontal axis as the x-axis and to the
vertical axis as the y-axis (see Figure 12.5). Each data point plotted on this system
COORDINATES of axes is specified by a pair of numbers known as the coordinates of the point.
The coordinates of a point are written as (x, y). The first coordinate is known as
the x-coordinate of the point and the second coordinate is called the y-coordinate
of the point. For example, point P in Figure 12.5 has the coordinates x = 5 and y =
8, which can be written as (5, 8).
162
FIGURE 12.5: Example of x and y-axes
Choose the correct coordinates for points Q and R in Figure 12.5 from the
!
possibilities given below:
1. The coordinates of point Q are
(a) (x, y)
(b) (12, 8)
(c) (9, 11)
(d) (8, 12)
(e) (9, 12)
2. The coordinates of point R are
(a) (5, 2)
(b) (3, 6)
(c) (3, 5)
(d) (x, y)
(e) (6, 3)
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

1. The coordinates of point Q are (8, 12) (answer 1d)
2. The coordinates of point R are (3, 6) (answer 2b)
....................................................................................................................................
Let us have a look at the steps one has to follow when plotting a set of
experimental data. Table 12.4 shows the results of an experiment in which the
163
thermal expansion of an aluminium rod was investigated by measuring its length κ

at different temperatures T.
T (°Cሻ 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225

κ (m) 0.1155 0.1164 0.1170 0.1172 0.1180 0.1190 0.1199 0.1210 0.1213 0.1223
We will explain TABLE 12.4: Length of an aluminium rod at various temperatures

in Study Unit 14
why the axes The length of the rod was plotted on the y-axis, and the temperature on the x-axis.
were chosen in The steps that were followed to produce the graph shown in Figure 12.6 are listed
this way. below:
1. A scale was chosen for each axis. In this case the x-axis values range from
SCALE
0 °C to 225 °C, and the y-values from 0.1155 m to 0.1223 m. It is best to
choose the scale for each axis in such a way that we use the entire length of
the axis. On many graphs the numbering of both axes begins at zero, so that
the point where the axes intersect has the coordinates (0, 0). This point is
ORIGIN referred to as the origin of the graph. There is no rule that says the origin must
be included in a graph. Including the origin for the data we are plotting would
result in too large a scale on the y-axis and would not show up the small
changes in the length of the rod, so we will not include 0 on this axis, but
rather start at a value just below the smallest reading, say 0.114 m.
LABEL 2. Each axis was given a label. Each axis carries a label that clearly indicates the
variable it represents. Because each axis represents a physical quantity in this
case, it is important that we also include the units of the quantity in the label.
This is usually done by writing the units in brackets after the name of the
quantity. The label of the x-axis is therefore T (°C) and that of the y-axis is
κ(m).
HEADING 3. The graph was given a heading. It should be clear to anyone reading the graph
exactly what is being shown, so it is customary to give the graph a heading. In
this case the heading could be either Graph of κ versus T or Graph of the
length of an aluminium rod versus temperature.
4. The data points were plotted according to the scale on each axis. When
indicating data points on a graph, each point should be clearly visible and
SYMBOLS accurately placed. Points indicated by symbols like ٖ or ٔ are easy to see,
whereas points indicated by small dots could be overlooked or mistaken for
accidental marks on the paper.
5. The graph shows a clear linear tendency, so a straight line was drawn through
the data points. For the moment we will simply estimate the best line through
THE BEST the points “by eye” although there are more accurate ways of determining the
STRAIGHT best straight line through a set of experimental data points. To draw the best
LINE straight line “by eye” one positions a clear plastic ruler along the plotted data
points. The ruler is then moved until the points are scattered as equally as
164
possible above and below the line. Actually, using a stretched thread is better More accurate
than a ruler, because the view is unobstructed on both sides. In situations methods for
where points lie along a curve, it can be difficult to draw a smooth curve that drawing the best
passes as close as possible to all the points by hand, so a stiffened piece of
rubber known as a flexi-curve can be used as an aid for drawing the curve. straight line
through a set of
data points will be
discussed in Study
Unit 15.
FIGURE 12.6: Graph of the length of an aluminium rod versus temperature
Now it is your turn. In an experiment about the temperature dependence of the
!
electrical resistance of a specimen of iron, the resistance of the specimen was
measured for temperatures ranging from 40 °C to 90 °C, and the results were
recorded in Table 12.5.
T (°C) 40 50 60 70 80 90
R (Ω) 6.22 6.51 6.74 7.05 7.29 7.51
TABLE 12.5: Variation of resistance with temperature for a specimen of iron
1. Plot a graph of the resistance R versus the temperature T, beginning the x-axis
at 30 °C and the y-axis at 6 Ω on the graph paper provided below. You can
estimate the best straight line through the points “by eye”.
165
FIGURE 12.7: Your graph of R versus T
2. Read the value of the resistance of the specimen at 65 ° C from the graph.
166
………………………………..................................... FEEDBACK .......................

1. The graph of R versus T is shown in Figure 12.8.
FIGURE 12.8: Graph of R versus T
2. Read off at point P, the resistance of the specimen at 65 °C is 6.89 Ω.
....................................................................................................................................
167
STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS
STUDY UNIT 13
Learning Objectives
1. interpret and apply the equations
(a) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿ
(b) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ݔ‬
to represent data in the form of a straight line graph
2. define the concepts
(a) gradient
(b) x-intercept
(c) y-intercept
of a straight line graph
3. calculate the value of the

(a) gradient
(b) x-intercept
(c) y-intercept
of a specific straight line graph
13.1 WHY STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS?

Straight line graphs have an important place in the analysis of experimental data.
They provide a convenient way of displaying data, they are easy to draw, have a
simple mathematical format and certain physical constants can be obtained
directly from a straight line through the data points. To give some substance to
these statements, let us have another look at Prof Onestone’s results. We used the
professor’s data in Table 12.1 to plot a graph of ‫ݒ‬௧ versus ݀. This graph is non-
linear, as you can see in Figure 13.1, and no useful information can be obtained
from it. Prof Onestone, on the other hand, chose the variables for his graph in such
a way that it would give a straight line (in the region where ‫ݒ‬௧ ‫ ݀ ן‬ଶ at least). This
graph (see Figure 12.1) clearly showed up the direct proportionality between ‫ݒ‬௧
and ݀ଶ and provided a lot of other information as well.
168
FIGURE 13.1 Graph ‫ݒ‬௧ versus d
13.2 EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE
The y-coordinate of any point on a straight line can be related to the

corresponding x-coordinate by the equation
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿǤ (13.1)
This equation contains two constants, m and c. The constant m is known as the
gradient or the slope of the graph when y and x are plotted as the variables on the GRADIENT
y-axis and the x-axis respectively. The gradient is defined as
‫ݕ‬
݉ൌ
‫ݔ‬
(13.2)
or
ο‫ݕ‬ሺ‫ݕ‬ሻ
݉ൌ Ǥ
ο‫ݔ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
(13.2)
The gradient of a straight line graph is calculated by choosing any two points with
coordinates ሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݕ‬ଵ ሻ and ሺ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ‫ݕ‬ଶ ሻ on the line, as shown in Figure 13.2. The
gradient of the graph is then given by
‫ݕ‬
݉ൌ
‫ݔ‬
169
‫ݕ‬ଶ െ ‫ݕ‬ଵ
ൌ
‫ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ݔ‬ଵ
ο‫ݕ‬
ൌ Ǥ
ο‫ݔ‬
(13.4)
FIGURE 13.2: Straight line graph
The constant c in equation (13.1) is known as the y-intercept of the line. An

INTERCEPT intercept is the distance from the origin to the point at which a line or a curve cuts
an axis.
At the point where the straight line in Figure 13.2 intercepts the y-axis, x = 0 and
the value of the y-coordinate at this point is given by equation (13.1) as
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉ሺͲሻ ൅ ܿ
ൌ ܿ (13.5)
so the coordinates of the y-intercept are (0, c). The same line intercepts the x-axis
where y = 0, so from equation (13.1)
Ͳ ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿ
giving an x-coordinate of
ܿ
‫ݔ‬ൌെ
݉
(13.6)
which is the intercept on the x-axis. The coordinates of the x-intercept are
therefore ሺെܿȀ݉ǡ Ͳሻ. From Figure 13.2 it is clear that
ሺ‫ݕ‬ሻ
݉ൌെ Ǥ
ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
170
(13.7)
In the special case where the c = 0, equation (13.1) becomes
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ݔ‬ (13.8)
which is the equation of a straight line through the origin. Theoretically the line
represented by equation (13.8) should pass through the origin since when y = 0,
x = 0 as shown in Figure 13.3. In practice an experimental line might not pass
through the origin. This could be caused by a consistent systematic error in
either x or y so that all the values of x or y are wrong by the same amount. This
does not, however, affect the value of m.
FIGURE 13.3: Straight line graph passing through the origin
Example 13.1
The temperature dependence of a resistor is given by
ܴ ൌ ܴ଴ ሺͳ ൅ ߙܶሻǤ (13.9)
A student wants to determine the constants ܴ଴ and ߙand decides to measure the
resistance R as a function of the temperature T. Her results are listed below:
171
T (°C) 31 41 51 61 71 81 91
R (Ω) 5.35 5.55 5.71 5.90 6.07 6.28 6.44
TABLE 13.1: Measurements of R as a function of T
Solution
Equation (13.9) can be rewritten as
ܴ ൌ ሺܴ଴ ߙሻܶ ൅ ܴ଴ Ǥ (13.10)
We can see immediately that equation (13.10) has the same form as equation
(13.1) with
‫ܴ ؠ ݕ‬ǡ ‫ܶ ؠ ݔ‬ǡ ݉ ‫ܴ ؠ‬଴ ߙ and ܿ ‫ܴ ؠ‬଴ Ǥ
The experimental results have been used to draw the graph of R versus T in Figure
13.4. It is a straight line graph with gradient ܴ଴ ߙ and an intercept on the R-axis
that is equal to ܴ଴ .
FIGURE 13.4: Graph of resistance R as a function of temperature T
From the graph the gradient is calculated as follows:
οܴ
݉ൌ
οܶ
ͳǤͳͲȳ
ൌ
͸Ͳι
172
ൌ ͲǤͲͳͺȳιିଵ
ൌ ܴ଴ ߙǤ (13.11)
From the intercept along the R-axis it follows that
ܴ଴ ൌ ͶǤͺȳ (13.12)
so the value of ߙ is given by

݉
ߙൌ
ܴ଴
ͲǤͲͳͺȳιିଵ
ൌ
ͶǤͺȳ
ൌ ͵Ǥͺ ൈ ͳͲିଷ ιିଵ Ǥ (3.13)
!
It is time to try some of this yourself, so here is an interesting one for you! The
free fall of a body in the gravitational field of the earth is investigated by dropping
a ball from a height and recording the distance it has fallen by means of a
photograph taken by stroboscopic lighting. This means that as the ball falls, it is
illuminated (i.e. lit up) at short intervals. The camera shutter is left open during
the entire motion and as each flash occurs the position of the body at that instant is
recorded on the photographic film. In this way, the position of the body is
recorded at regular intervals during its fall. The results of this experiment are
given in Table 13.2.
The distance the ball has fallen is given by
ͳ
݄ ൌ ‫ݒ‬଴ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ݃‫ ݐ‬ଶ
ʹ
(13.14)
where ݃ is the gravitational acceleration, and since ‫ݒ‬଴ ൌ Ͳ
ͳ ଶ
݄ൌ ݃‫ ݐ‬Ǥ
ʹ
(13.15)
This equation is of the same form as equation (13.8) for a straight line through
the origin, with
ͳ
‫݄ ؠ ݕ‬ǡ‫ ݐ ؠ ݔ‬ଶ ݉ ‫݃ ؠ‬Ǥ
ʹ
This means that if we plot a graph of h versus ‫ ݐ‬ଶ , the value of the gradient will be
ଵ
equal to ݃.
ଶ
173
1. Calculate the values of ‫ ݐ‬ଶ for each value of ‫ݐ‬. Record the results in the column
provided in Table 13.2.
Time ‫ݐ‬ ‫ݐ‬ଶ Distance fallen h

(s) ሺ ଶ ሻ (m)
0.00 0.000
0.04 0.008
0.08 0.033
0.12 0.073
0.16 0.128
0.20 0.198
0.24 0.285
TABLE 13.2: Results of free fall experiment
2. Plot a graph of h versus ‫ ݐ‬ଶ on the graph paper provided below. You can
estimate the best straight line through the points “by eye”.
FIGURE 13.5: Your graph of h versus ‫ ݐ‬ଶ
174
3. Find the value of ݃ from the gradient of the graph.

The value of the gradient is given by
ο݄
݉ ൌ
ο‫ ݐ‬ଶ
ൌ
ൌ
ൌ
But we know that

ͳ
݉ ൌ ݃
ʹ
so
݃ ൌ
ൌ
ൌ
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
1. The values of ‫ ݐ‬ଶ for each value of ‫ ݐ‬are shown in Table 13.3.
Time ‫ݐ‬ ‫ݐ‬ଶ Distance fallen h

(s) ሺଶ ሻ (m)
0.00 0.0000 0.000
0.04 0.0016 0.008
0.08 0.0064 0.033
0.12 0.0144 0.073
0.16 0.0256 0.128
0.20 0.0400 0.198
0.24 0.0576 0.285
TABLE 13.3: Feedback: Results of free fall experiment
175
2. The graph of h versus ‫ ݐ‬ଶ is shown in Figure 13.6
FIGURE 13.6: Feedback: graph of h versus ‫ ݐ‬ଶ
3. By using the values we have read off at points A and B, the gradient of the
graph is given by
ο݄
݉ ൌ ଶ
ο‫ݐ‬
ሺͲǤʹͻͷ െ ͲǤͲͷͲሻ
ൌ
ሺͲǤͲ͸ െ ͲǤͲͳሻ ିଶ
ൌ ͶǤͻͲଶ Ǥ
But we know that

ͳ
݉ൌ ݃
ʹ
so
݃ ൌ ʹ݉
ൌ ʹሺͶǤͻͲିଶ ሻ
ൌ ͻǤͺͲ ିଶ
؄ ͻǤͺିଶ Ǥ
....................................................................................................................................
176
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES
STUDY UNIT 14
Learning Objectives
1. define the terms
(a) independent variable
(b) dependent variable
(c) controlled variable
2. identify the dependent variable, the independent variable and the controlled
variable in an experiment
3. rewrite equations of various forms in linear form ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿ
14.1 TYPES OF VARIABLES

In experimental physics one is often confronted by a situation in which there are
several variable quantities. The behaviour of an ideal gas, for example, is
determined by the pressure P, the volume V and the temperature T. The
relationship between these quantities (which can all vary) is given by the ideal gas
law
ܸܲ
ൌ Ǥ
ܶ
(14.1)
If we want to find out how the pressure affects the volume of the gas, we have to
keep the temperature constant, and if we want to see how the temperature
influences the volume, we have to keep the pressure constant. This procedure is a
specific example of the general approach followed in experimental work in
physics. Whenever we want to investigate the way in which one quantity varies
when another quantity is changed, the other possible variables have to be kept INDEPENDENT
constant. The variable that is manipulated (or changed) during the experiment is VARIABLE
known as the independent variable while the variable that is influenced by the
change in the independent variable is called the dependent variable. A variable DEPENDENT
that is kept constant during an experiment is a controlled variable. In VARIABLE
mathematical language, we say that the dependent variable is a function of the
independent variable, and we describe the relationship between the quantities by a CONTROLLED
mathematical equation. The ideal gas law we have just considered is an example VARIABLE
of such an equation.
177
It is a well-established convention in physics to plot the independent variable

along the horizontal axis and the dependent variable along the vertical axis. This
means that the quantity whose value the experimenter chooses for each
measurement is plotted along the x-axis, while the quantity whose value is then
determined is plotted along the y-axis. We can summarise this by saying that the
cause is plotted along the x-axis, and the effect is plotted along the y-axis.
!
1. Which of the following was the independent variable in Prof Onestone’s
experiment?
(a) the buoyant force
(b) the square of the diameter ݀ ଶ of the sphere
(c) the diameter d of the sphere
(d) the terminal speed ‫ݒ‬௧ of the sphere
2. What about the dependent variable? Choose one of the following:
(a) the diameter of a cylinder
(b) the terminal speed ‫ݒ‬௧ of the sphere
(c) the diameter d of the sphere
(d) the viscosity of the fluid
3. In your opinion, which of the following variables were kept constant during
the experiment?
(a) the terminal speed ‫ݒ‬௧ of the sphere
(b) the diameter of the cylinder
(c) the viscosity of the fluid
(d) the diameter of the sphere
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
1. (c) The diameter d of the sphere is the independent variable.

2. (b) The terminal speed ‫ݒ‬௧ of the sphere is the dependent variable.
3. Both (b) the diameter of the cylinder and (c) the viscosity of the fluid were
kept constant.
....................................................................................................................................
14.2 LINEARISING EQUATIONS

The experiments that you will be conducting often require some prior knowledge
about the relationship between the quantities that you are studying. If the
relationship between two variables is written in the form of an equation, it is
possible to choose the variables in such a way that this equation can be presented
by a straight line. When using straight line graphs, we have to distinguish between
two types of applications:
178
1. A linear relationship given by ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ܽ‫ ݔ‬൅ ܾ. LINEAR

If a linear relationship exists between a variable y and another variable x, the RELATIONSHIP
equation expressing the relationship is of the general form of the equation of a
straight line [equation (13.1)] with ܽ ‫ ݉ ؠ‬and ܾ ‫ܿ ؠ‬. In Example 13.1, for
instance, we considered the linear relationship ܴ ൌ ሺܴ଴ ߙሻܶ ൅ ܴ଴ that exists
between R and T. Another example of a linear relationship between two
quantities is that of the speed ‫ ݒ‬of an object in linear motion and the time t,
which can be expressed as
‫ ݒ‬ൌ ܽ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫ݑ‬ (14.2)
where a is the acceleration and u is the initial velocity of the object.
2. The more specialised proportionality given by ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ܽ‫ݔ‬. PROPORTIONALITY

When one variable y is directly proportional to another variable x, the
equation expressing the proportionality is of the same form as equation (13.8)
with the gradient m representing the constant of proportionality. When
conducting his experiment, Prof Onestone made use of the direct
proportionality that exists between ‫ݒ‬௧ and ݀ ଶ . Another example of a direct
proportionality is the relationship between the potential difference V and the
current I through a resistor, which can be written as
ܸ ‫ܫ ן‬Ǥ (14.3)
When multiplying by a constant of proportionality, which in this case is the

resistance R, this proportionality can be expressed in the form of a straight line
through the origin
ܸ ൌ ‫ܴܫ‬Ǥ (14.4)
The equations you will encounter will not always be in linear form as in the
examples just mentioned. To be able to plot a straight line graph, it is often
necessary to rewrite nonlinear equations in the linear form. This is known as LINEAR FORM
linearising the equation.
Example 14.1
The relationship between the length κ of a metal rod and the temperature ߠ is
given by
κఏ =κ଴ ሺͳ ൅ ߙߠሻ (14.5)
where κఏ is the length of the rod at the temperature ߠ,κ଴ is the length at 0 °C and
ߙ is the coefficient of linear expansion. In order to write this equation in linear
form, the first step is to expand the right-hand side of the equation by multiplying
throughout by κ଴ . This gives us
κఏ ൌ κ଴ ൅ κ଴ ߙߠ (14.6)
which, when we compare it with equation (13.1), is a linear equation with

‫ߠ ؠ ݔ‬ǡ‫ ؠ ݕ‬κఏ ǡ݉ ‫ ؠ‬κ଴ ߙܿ ‫ ؠ‬κ଴
179
Plotting κఏ versus ߠ should give a straight line with a gradient equal to κ଴ ߙ and a
y-intercept κ଴ .
When a body of mass M is attached to the end of a spring and set oscillating
! vertically, the relationship between the period T of the oscillation and the mass
can be expressed as
‫ܯ‬
ܶ ൌ ʹߨඨ
݇
(14.7)
where k is the spring constant. An experiment is conducted in which the period of

oscillation is recorded for different masses, using the same spring.
1. Which is the independent variable in this experiment?

(a) the period T of the oscillation
(b) the spring constant k
(c) the mass M
(d) the factor ʹߨ
2. Which is the dependent variable?

(a) the period T of the oscillation
(b) the spring constant k
(c) the mass M
(d) the factor ʹߨ
3. Is equation (14.7) in linear form?
4. If your answer to 3 was NO, use the space below to write it in linear form. If
your answer was YES, use the space below to show which variable represents
the y and x in the linear equation ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿ, and which constants are
equivalent to m and c.
180
5. Which graph would you plot to show the relationship between T and M?
(a) ܶ versus ‫ܯ‬
(b) ܶ versus ξ‫ܯ‬
(c) ‫ ܯ‬versus ܶ
(d) ܶ ଶ versus ‫ܯ‬
(e) ξ‫ ܯ‬versus ܶ
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
1. Answer 2(c). The mass M was the independent variable. Its value was changed
for each measurement of T.
2. Answer 1(a). The period T of the oscillation is the dependent variable in the
experiment. It was measured as a function of the mass.
3. No, equation (14.7) is not in linear form, but it needs very little manipulation
to be linearised.
4. The linearisation can be done in one of two ways: Rearranging the right side
of the equation gives us
‫ܯ‬
ܶ ൌ ʹߨඨ
݇
ʹߨ
ൌ ξ‫ܯ‬
ξ݇
(14.8)
which is of the form ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬with
ʹߨ
‫ܶ ؠ ݕ‬ǡ‫ ؠ ݔ‬ξ‫ؠ ݉ܯ‬ Ǥ
ξ݇
OR
Squaring equation (14.7) gives us
‫ܯ‬
ܶ ଶ ൌ Ͷߨ ଶ
݇
Ͷߨ ଶ
ൌ ‫ܯ‬
݇
(14.9)
which is of the form ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬with
ଶ
Ͷߨ ଶ
‫ ܶ ؠ ݕ‬ǡ‫ؠ ݉ܯ ؠ ݔ‬ Ǥ
݇
181
5. Depending on which alternative you used to linearise the equation, you could
plot either
5(b) ܶ versus ξ‫ܯ‬
5(d) ܶ ଶ versus ‫ܯ‬
NOTE: It is preferred to plot ܶ ଶ versus M, since that leaves the independent

variable unchanged. We try to plot the independent variable as it is, without
changing it to ‫ܯ‬ଶ , ξ‫ܯ‬, ‫ܯ‬, etc.
....................................................................................................................................
Up to now, we have considered quite simple manipulations of equations in order

to linearise them. There are, however, two slightly more complicated types of
equations that you may encounter which we will now consider in some detail.
࢔
14.3 EQUATIONS OF THE FORM ࢅ ൌ ࢑
If the dependence of the variables X and Y that were measured in an experiment is
given by
ܻ ൌ ݇ܺ ௡ (14.10)
logarithms can be taken on both sides and the equation can be written as
ܻ ൌ ሺܺ ௡ ሻ ൅ ݇

ൌ ݊ ܺ ൅ ݇ (14.11)
A summary of the which is of the form
rules that apply to ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿ
calculations with
exponents and with
logarithms is given ‫ܻ ؠ ݕ‬ǡ‫ܺ ؠ ݔ‬ǡ݉ ‫݇ ؠ ܿ݊ ؠ‬Ǥ
in Appendix A.
Plotting ܻ on the y-axis and ܺ on the x-axis should yield a straight line
graph with a gradient equal to n and the intercept on the y-axis equal to ݇.
Example 14.2
Sometimes situations may occur where the exact form of the dependence between
variables is not known. In the case of a heated filament the relationship between
the potential difference V across the filament and the current ‫ ܫ‬is given by
ܸ ‫ܫ ן‬௡ (14.12)
182
where n is the power term. To replace the “proportional to” sign by an “equal to” POWER TERM
sign, we multiply the right-hand side by a constant of proportionality, say D,
which enables us to write the equation as
ܸ ൌ ‫ ܫܦ‬௡ Ǥ (14.13)
To obtain a straight line graph from a series of measurements of V and I, equation

(14.13) has to be written in the form of equation (13.1). First, we take logarithms
on both sides of the equation, so that
ܸ ൌ ሺ‫ ܫܦ‬௡ ሻ

ൌ ‫ ܦ‬൅ ሺ‫ ܫ‬௡ ሻ
ൌ ݊ ‫ ܫ‬൅ ‫ܦ‬Ǥ (14.14)
If we compare equation (14.14) with equation (13.1), we see that
‫ܸ ؠ ݕ‬ǡ‫ܫ ؠ ݔ‬ǡ݉ ‫ܦ ؠ ܿ݊ ؠ‬Ǥ
Plotting ܸ against ‫ܫ‬yields the straight line graph shown in Figure 14.1.
FIGURE 14.1: Graph of ܸ as a function of ‫ܫ‬
It is important to note that the logarithm of a physical variable has no units. In

Figure 14.1 ܸ and ‫ ܫ‬do not have units although V and I have been
measured in volt and ampere respectively.
183
14.4 EQUATIONS OF THE FORM ࢑ࢋି࡯ࢄ

If the dependence of the variables measured in an experiment is given by
ܻ ൌ ݇݁ ି஼௑
(14.15)
Natural natural logarithms (i.e. logarithms to the base e) can be taken on both sides so that
logarithms are the equation becomes
explained in ܻ ൌ ݇ ൅ ሺ݁ ି஼௑ ሻ
Appendix A. ൌ ݇ െ ‫ܺܥ‬ (14.16)
which is of the form

‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿ
with
‫ ܻ ؠ ݕ‬ǡ‫ܺ ؠ ݔ‬ǡ݉ ‫ ؠ‬െ‫݇ ؠ ܿܥ‬Ǥ
Plotting ܻ as the variable along the y-axis and X as the variable along the x-axis
should yield a straight line graph with a gradient of െ‫ ܥ‬and an intercept along the
ܻ-axis equal to ݇.
Example 14.3
Consider a radioactive decay process which is described by
ܰ ൌ ܰ଴ ݁ ିఒ௧ (14.17)
A discussion of where ܰ଴ is the number of atoms present at an arbitrary initial time ‫ = ݐ‬0, N is the
the base of number left after the lapse of a further time interval t and ߣ is the decay constant.
logarithms is Taking logarithms to the base e, we obtain
given in
ܰ ൌ ܰ଴ െ ߣ‫ݐ‬Ǥ (14.18)
Appendix A.
Equation (14.18) has the same form as equation (13.1). If ܰ is plotted on the
y-value axis and ‫ ݐ‬on the x-axis, the gradient of the straight line graph is given by
െߣ, and the intercept on the y-axis is ܰ଴ .
!
Use the space provided below to linearise the equation
‫ ܫ‬ൌ ‫ܫ‬଴ ݁ ିఓ௫ (14.19)
if I is the dependent variable, and x is the independent variable.
184
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Taking logarithms to the base e on both sides of the equation, we obtain
‫ ܫ‬ൌ ‫ܫ‬଴ െ ߤ‫ݔ‬ (14.20)
which can be rearranged as

‫ ܫ‬ൌ െߤ‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ܫ‬଴ (14.21)
so that it is of the form

‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿ
with
‫ ܫ ؠ ݕ‬ǡ‫ݔ ؠ ݔ‬ǡ݉ ‫ ؠ‬െߤܿ ‫ܫ ؠ‬଴ Ǥ
....................................................................................................................................
185
THE BEST STRAIGHT LINE
STUDY UNIT 15
Learning Objectives
1. explain the principle of least squares
2. use a linear regression analysis to fit the best straight line through a set of
data
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In Study Unit 12 we estimated the best straight line through the data points “by
eye”. We placed a transparent ruler on the graph and shifted it until it seemed to
represent the best straight line. This is a quick method that is useful for checking
measurements by means of a rough graph when you need to keep track of the
readings you are taking during an experiment. It is amazing how quickly you will
become good at estimating the best straight line with a bit of practice. Although it
is a quick method, it does, however, have certain shortcomings:
Ø No two people would draw the same “best” line through the points.
Ø It is difficult to estimate the best line when the data are very scattered.
Ø We need a way to determine the uncertainty in m and c, and doing so
directly from the graph is cumbersome and inaccurate.
LEAST It is obvious that we need a tool that will enable us to avoid the guesswork
SQUARES involved in estimating the best straight line through a set of data points by eye.
The best tool for this is based on the principle of least squares and is known as a
LINEAR linear regression analysis of the data.
REGRESSION
15.2 PRINCIPLE OF LEAST SQUARES

Finding the best fit through a set of data points is the same as saying that we want
to make the distance between the experimental points and the line as small as
possible for each point. This is usually done by using a statistical method known
as the principle of least squares. Have a look at the point ሺ‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݕ‬௜ ሻ in Figure 15.1.
186
FIGURE 15.1: Graph showing residual ߜ௜

OBSERVED
For the particular value that we have labelled ‫ݔ‬௜ , we can distinguish between the VALUE
observed value ‫ݕ‬௜ , and the calculated value ‫ݕ‬௖ which is obtained by using the
values m and c for our line in equation (13.1) CALCULATED
VALUE
‫ݕ‬௖ ൌ ݉‫ݔ‬௜ ൅ ܿǤ (15.1)
You will notice that the point ሺ‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݕ‬௜ ሻ does not lie exactly ON the line, whereas
ሺ‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݕ‬௖ ሻ does. The difference ߜ௜ between the observed and the calculated value is
known as the residual where RESIDUAL
ߜ௜ ൌ ‫ݕ‬௜ െ ‫ݕ‬௖ . (15.2)
The principle of least squares is based on making the sum of the squares of the
residuals as small as possible. By doing this, we determine where the best straight
line can be drawn through the data points. The sum of the squares of the residuals
can be written as
௡
ܵ ൌ ෍ ߜ௜ଶ Ǥ
௜ୀଵ
(15.3)
Substituting for ‫ݕ‬௖ and ߜ௜ from equations (15.1) and (15.2) respectively, equation
(15.3) becomes
௡
ܵ ൌ ෍ሾ‫ݕ‬௜ െ ሺ݉‫ݔ‬௜ ൅ ܿሻሿଶ Ǥ

௜ୀଵ
(15.4)
187
To minimize the value of S, we now have to calculate values for m and c that will
give the smallest value for the sum expressed in equation (15.4).
To make future equations in this topic less cumbersome, we will leave out the
limits of summation from now on. Whenever you see ∑ you can assume that we
are calculating the sum from i = 1 to i = n.
15.3 LINEAR REGRESSION

If we have n pairs of values ሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݕ‬ଵ ሻǡ ሺ‫ݔ‬ଶ ǡ ‫ݕ‬ଶ ሻǡ ǥ ǡ ሺ‫ݔ‬௡ ǡ ‫ݕ‬௡ ሻthrough which we have
to fit the best straight line, it can be shown that the value of the gradient m that
will give us the smallest value of S in equation (15.4) is given by
݊ σ ‫ ݕݔ‬െ σ ‫ ݔ‬σ ‫ݕ‬

݉ൌ
‫ܦ‬
(15.5)
where
‫ ܦ‬ൌ ݊ σ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ሺσ ‫ݔ‬ሻଶ Ǥ(15.6)
The corresponding y-intercept c is given by
σ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ σ ‫ ݕ‬െ σ ‫ ݔ‬σ ‫ݕݔ‬

ܿൌ
‫ܦ‬
(15.7)
The errors in m and c are given by
ଶ
݊ σ ߜ௜ଶ
‫ݏ‬௠ ൌቀ ቁ
݊െʹ ‫ܦ‬
(15.8)
and
ͳ σ ߜ௜ଶ σ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ
‫ݏ‬௖ଶ ൌ ൬ ൰
݊െʹ ‫ܦ‬
(15.9)
where ߜ௜ is the residual given by
ߜ௜ ൌ ‫ݕ‬௜ െ ݉‫ݔ‬௜ െ ܿǤ (15.10)
The correlation coefficient is defined as
݊ σ ‫ ݕݔ‬െ σ ‫ ݔ‬σ ‫ݕ‬

‫ݎ‬ൌ భ
ሾ‫ܦ‬ሺ݊ σ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ െ ሺσ ‫ݕ‬ሻଶ ሻሿమ
(15.11)
188
The value of r is zero if there is no correlation, that is if the points are distributed
at random over the graph. If all the points are exactly on the straight line there is
complete correlation and r = 1.
Example 15.1
To see how a linear regression analysis of a set of data is performed, let us
consider the set of data in Table 15.1.
x 2 4 6 8 10 12
y 7.1 8.2 8.8 10.0 11.0 11.8
TABLE 15.1: Data used for Example 15.1
Step 1: We draw up a table in which the required values are listed.
i ‫ݔ‬௜ ‫ݕ‬௜ ‫ݔ‬௜ ‫ݕ‬௜ ‫ݔ‬௜ଶ ݉‫ݔ‬௜ ൅ ܿ ߜ௜ଶ

1 2 7.1 14.2 4 7.1 0.00
2 4 8.2 32.8 16 8.1 0.01
3 6 8.8 52.8 36 9.0 0.04
4 8 10.0 80.0 64 9.9 0.01
5 10 11.0 110.0 100 10.9 0.01
6 12 11.8 141.6 144 11.8 0.00
σ଺௜ୀଵ 42 56.9 431.4 364 0.07
TABLE 15.2: Calculations for linear regression analysis
Step 2: Before the last two columns can be completed, we must calculate m and c.
From the table and equations (15.5), (15.6) and (15.7) it follows that
ଶ
‫ ܦ‬ൌ ݊ ෍ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ቀ෍ ‫ݔ‬ቁ
ൌ ͸ሺ͵͸Ͷሻ െ ሺͶʹሻଶ
ൌ ͶʹͲ
so that the gradient is given by

݊ σ ‫ ݕݔ‬െ σ ‫ ݔ‬σ ‫ݕ‬
݉ൌ
‫ܦ‬
͸ሺͶ͵ͳǤͶሻ െ ሺͶʹሻሺͷ͸Ǥͻሻ
ൌ
ͶʹͲ
ൌ ͲǤͶ͹
189
and the y-intercept

σ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ σ ‫ ݕ‬െ σ ‫ ݔ‬σ ‫ݕݔ‬
ܿൌ
‫ܦ‬
ሺ͵͸Ͷሻሺͷ͸Ǥͻሻ െ ሺͶʹሻሺͶ͵ͳǤͶሻ
ൌ
ͶʹͲ
ൌ ͸Ǥͳ͹Ǥ
Step 3: The calculated y-values for each ‫ݔ‬௜ -value can now be found by using the
values we obtained for m and c, that is
‫ݕ‬௖ ൌ ݉‫ݔ‬௜ ൅ ܿ
ൌ ͲǤͶ͹‫ݔ‬௜ ൅ ͸Ǥͳ͹Ǥ
These values are recorded in column 6 of Table 15.2. The residual for each
‫ݔ‬௜ -value is found by subtracting each calculated y-value in column 6 from the
corresponding observed value ‫ݕ‬௜ in column 3. The residuals are squared and
recorded in column 7. For example, for i = 4 we obtain a calculated y value of
݉‫ݔ‬ସ ൅ ܿ ൌ ሺͲǤͶ͹ሻሺͺሻ ൅ ͸Ǥͳ͹
ൌ ͻǤͻ
so the residual
ߜସ ൌ ‫ݕ‬ସ െ ሺ݉‫ݔ‬ସ ൅ ܿሻ
ൌ ͳͲǤͲ െ ͻǤͻ
ൌ ͲǤͳ
and
ߜସଶ ൌ ሺͲǤͳሻଶ
ൌ ͲǤͲͳ
The calculations for i = 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 are similar.
Step 4: The errors in m and c follow from equations (15.8) and (15.9) as
భ
݊ σ ߜଶ మ
‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ ቈቀ ቁ ቉
݊െʹ ‫ܦ‬
భ
͸ ͲǤͲ͹ మ
ൌ ൤൬ ൰൬ ൰൨
͸ െ ʹ ͶʹͲ
ൌ ͲǤͲʹǤ
and
190
భ
ͳ σ ߜଶ σ ‫ݔ‬ଶ మ
‫ݏ‬௖ ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ቉
݊െʹ ‫ܦ‬
భ
ͳ ሺͲǤͲ͹ሻሺ͵͸Ͷሻ మ
ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ቉
͸െʹ ͶʹͲ
ൌ ͲǤͳʹǤ
Now we have all the information we need to write down the equation of the best
straight line, which in this case is given by
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ሺͲǤͶ͹ േ ͲǤͲʹሻ‫ ݔ‬൅ ሺ͸Ǥͳ͹ േ ͲǤͳʹሻǤ
This best line is shown in Figure 15.1. It is drawn as follows:
Ø First mark the y-intercept ܿ ൌ ሺͲǡ ͸Ǥͳ͹ሻ on the y-axis.

Ø Now select a convenient value of the x-axis, say ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͳͲ, and calculate the
corresponding y-value using the equation for the best straight line. This
gives
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ͲǤͶ͹‫ ݔ‬൅ ͸Ǥͳ͹
ൌ ͲǤͶ͹ሺͳͲሻ ൅ ͸Ǥͳ͹
ൌ ͳͲǤͺ͹Ǥ
Let us call the point with coordinates ሺͳͲǡ ͳͲǤͺ͹ሻǡ ܲǤ

Ø Mark point P on the graph and draw the best line between point P and the
y-intercept ሺͲǡ ͸Ǥͳ͹ሻ.
FIGURE 15.2: Graph of y as a function of x for Example 15.1
Remember the line you estimated “by eye” for the graph of h versus ‫ ݐ‬ଶ in Study
Unit 13 in the activity about the free fall experiment using stroboscopic lighting?
You can now try a linear regression analysis by using the same set of data to see !
191
how this statistical tool improves the fit. For the sake of convenience, the table
with the data is repeated below:
Time t ‫ݐ‬ଶ Distance fallen h

(s) ሺ ଶ ሻ (m)
0.00 0.0000 0.000
0.04 0.0016 0.008
0.08 0.0064 0.033
0.12 0.0144 0.073
0.16 0.0256 0.128
0.20 0.0400 0.198
0.24 0.0576 0.285
TABLE 15.3: Results of the free fall experiment
Turn to Study You can use the table below for the summations you need for the linear regression
Unit 2 if you analysis. Take special notice of the orders of magnitude that have been
want to refresh indicated in the heading row of the table! This will give you some practice in
your memory the use of scientific notation in tables.
about scientific
Also note that the UNITS for the quantities in the columns have been included in
notation. the column headings!
‫ݔ‬௜ ‫ݕ‬௜ ‫ݔ‬௜ ‫ݕ‬௜ ‫ݔ‬௜ଶ ݉‫ݔ‬௜ ൅ ܿ ߜ௜ଶ

i
ሺͳͲିଶ ଶ ሻ ሺͳͲିଵ ሻ ሺͳͲିଷ ଶ ሻ ሺͳͲିଷ ସ ሻ ሺͳͲିଵ ሻ ሺͳͲି଺ ଶ ሻ
1 0.00 0.00
2 0.16 0.08
3 0.64 0.33
4 1.44 0.73
5 2.56 1.28
6 4.00 1.98
7 5.76 2.85
σ
TABLE 15.4: Calculations for the free fall experiment
‫ ܦ‬ൌ
ൌ
ൌ
so that the gradient is given by

݉ ൌ
ൌ
192
ൌ
and the y-intercept
ܿ ൌ
ൌ
ൌ
The errors in m and c follow from equations (15.8) and (15.9) as
‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ
ൌ
ൌ
and
‫ݏ‬௖ ൌ
ൌ
ൌ
Finally, the value of ݃ is given by
݃ ൌ
ൌ
ൌ
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

The summations needed for the linear regression analysis are tabulated below:
‫ݔ‬௜ ‫ݕ‬௜ ‫ݔ‬௜ ‫ݕ‬௜ ‫ݔ‬௜ଶ ݉‫ݔ‬௜ ൅ ܿ ߜ௜ଶ

i
ሺͳͲିଶ ଶ ሻ ሺͳͲିଵ ሻ ሺͳͲିଷ ଶ ሻ ሺͳͲିଷ ସ ሻ ሺͳͲିଵ ሻ ሺͳͲି଺ ଶ ሻ
1 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.00
2 0.16 0.08 0.013 0.003 0.087 0.49
3 0.64 0.33 0.211 0.041 0.324 0.36
4 1.44 0.73 1.051 0.207 0.718 1.44
5 2.56 1.28 3.277 0.655 1.270 1.00
6 4.00 1.98 7.920 1.600 1.980 0.00
7 5.76 2.85 16.416 3.318 2.848 0.04
σ 14.56 7.25 28.888 5.824 3.33
TABLE 15.5: Feedback: Calculations for the free fall experiment
ଶ
‫ ܦ‬ൌ ݊ ෍ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ቀ෍ ‫ݔ‬ቁ
ൌ ͹ሺͷǤͺʹͶ ൈ ͳͲିଷ ସ ሻ െ ሺͳͶǤͷ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଶ ଶ ሻଶ
193
ൌ ͳǤͻ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଶ ସ Ǥ
The gradient is given by
݊ σ ‫ ݕݔ‬െ σ ‫ ݔ‬σ ‫ݕ‬

݉ൌ
‫ܦ‬
͹ሺʹͺǤͺͺͺ ൈ ͳͲିଷ ଶ ሻ െ ሺͳͶǤͷ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଶ ଶ ሻሺ͹Ǥʹͷ ൈ ͳͲିଵ ሻ

ൌ
ͳǤͻ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଶ ସ
ൌ ͶǤͻ͵ିଶ
and the y-intercept

σ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ σ ‫ ݕ‬െ σ ‫ ݔ‬σ ‫ݕݔ‬
ܿൌ
‫ܦ‬
ሺͷǤͺʹͶ ൈ ͳͲିଷ ସ ሻሺͲǤ͹ʹͷሻ െ ሺͳͶǤͷ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଶ ଶ ሻሺʹͺǤͺͺͺ ൈ ͳͲିଷ ଶ ሻ
ൌ
ͳǤͻ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଶ ସ
ൌ ͺǤ͵ʹ ൈ ͳͲିସ
The errors in m and c follow from equations (15.8) and (15.9) as
FIGURE 15.3: Feedback: Graph of h versus ‫ ݐ‬ଶ using linear

regression analysis
194
భ
݊ σ ߜଶ మ
‫ݏ‬௠ ൌ ቈቀ ቁ ቉
݊െʹ ‫ܦ‬
భ
͹ ͵Ǥ͵͵ ൈ ͳͲି଺ ଶ మ
ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ቆ ቇ቉
ͷ ͳǤͻ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଶ ସ
ൌ ͲǤͲʹ ିଶ
and
భ
ͳ σ ߜଶ σ ‫ݔ‬ଶ మ
‫ݏ‬௖ ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ቉
݊െʹ ‫ܦ‬
భ
ͳ ሺ͵Ǥ͵͵ ൈ ͳͲି଺ ଶ ሻሺͷǤͺʹͶ ൈ ͳͲିଷ ସ మ
ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ቆ ቇ቉
ͷ ͳǤͻ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଶ ସ
ൌ ͲǤͲͲͲͶ
From these results, the value of the gravitational acceleration ݃ is
݃ ൌ ʹ݉
ൌ ʹሺͶǤͻ͵ േ ͲǤͲʹሻିଶ
ൌ ሺͻǤͺ͸ േ ͲǤͲͶሻ ିଶ
which tells us that the result for ݃ was not as accurate as the previous
calculation made it seem. The experimental range found for ݃ is from
ሺͻǤͺ͸ െ ͲǤͲͶ ൌ ͻǤͺʹ ିଶ ሻሺͻǤͺ͸ ൅ ͲǤͲͶ ൌ ͻǤͻͲିଶ ሻǤ
The known value of ͻǤͺͳ ିଶ for ݃, lies just outside the range ͻǤͺʹ െ
ͻǤͻͲିଶ Ǥ
....................................................................................................................................
195
HINTS ON HOW TO PLOT GRAPHS
STUDY UNIT 16
Learning Objectives
This study unit summarises the most important aspects that one should take into
account when plotting a graph. After having completed this topic, you should be
able to:
1. decide which quantity should be plotted on the x-axis, and which on the y-axis
2. choose an appropriate scale for each axis
3. correctly label the axes and provide a heading for the graph
4. indicate data points clearly, including error-bars
16.1 HINTS
One of the most important skills that we would like you to master as part of this
module is the plotting of graphs. It is a skill that you will be able to apply to many
other subject areas, so it is well worth acquiring. A large part of the marks
awarded in the evaluation of the experimental report you will be writing for each
experiment is allocated to the graphs in the report. By making sure that your
graphs are correctly plotted, you can easily obtain good marks for this part of your
report. To help you with this, we have compiled a list of hints about plotting a
graph. It is a good idea to keep these hints at hand and to consult them while
plotting a graph. Make sure that your graph complies with all the requirements
before you proceed to the next step. Here goes:
1. You usually change one quantity (the independent variable) by given

amounts and measure the effect on the other quantity (the dependent
variable). The independent variable is plotted along the horizontal axis and
the dependent variable along the vertical axis.
If possible, try to plot the independent variable unchanged. Rather change the
dependent variable if the equation is not in linear form.
2. Choose a scale for each axis such that the experimental points are spread as
widely as possible over the sheet of paper.
3. Choose simple scale divisions. This will reduce the work involved in
estimating to fractions of a division and will also reduce the risk of making a
mistake.
4. Always label the axis with the name of the quantity being plotted along that
axis and also the units in which the quantity is measured.
196
5. Give a graph a heading by stating which quantity is plotted as a function of

what other quantity.
6. When taking readings, try to spread them out evenly over the range of values
of the quantity being measured.
7. If possible, plot a graph as your experiment proceeds. You can check
immediately if a point is so widely off as to need repeating. This will enable
you to see at once whether the distribution of points is in accordance with the
considerations outlined under point 6.
8. Indicate data points accurately and clearly by using a symbol such ۨ ۪,
do not use a blob. Small dots may go unnoticed as data points, while large
dots hide the exact position of the data point.
9. If you know the errors in the individual y-values of data points, indicate them The graph in
by a vertical bar according to scale and if you know the errors in x-values, Study Unit 18
indicate them by a horizontal bar according to scale. Should the errors in both shows how error
the x and y-values be known, you can indicate them by using both a horizontal
bars are
and a vertical error bar for each point.
indicated
16.2 EXAMPLE
!
A student named Susan was asked to investigate how the time of free fall of a
steel sphere depends on the distance fallen and determine an experimental value
for ݃, the gravitational acceleration. The apparatus that she used enabled her to
measure the time of the fall of the sphere directly with an electric timer. The
distance h could be varied over a range of 0 to 1.5 m and the timer was accurate to
0.005 s. Susan tabulated her results as shown in Table 16.1.
h (m) t (s)
0.20 0.200
0.40 0.285
0.60 0.350
0.80 0.495
1.00 0.450
1.20 0.450
1.40 0.535
1.50 0.550
TABLE 16.1: Susan's results
According to the theory of free fall, the distance h is related to time t by
ͳ ଶ
݄ൌ ݃‫ ݐ‬Ǥ
ʹ
(16.1)
197
To investigate the validity of this relationship, Susan plotted the graph of h against
t shown in Figure 16.1.
FIGURE 16.1: Susan’s graph
Use the space provided below to list five bad features of this graph.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
198
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
1. Susan plotted the incorrect graph for verifying that the data satisfy the
ଵ
equation hൌ ݃‫ ݐ‬ଶ Ǥ The graph is a parabola which tells her little about the
ଶ
relationship between h and t, other than the fact that they are NOT directly
proportional. She should have plotted ‫ ݐ‬ଶ against h to give a straight line graph
with a gradient ʹȀ݃. Take note that h is the independent variable in this case,
because the value of h was set at convenient values and the time t was then
measured as a function of h. In the experiment with the stroboscope that we
considered in Study Unit 13, the distance fallen was measured as a function of
time, so h was the dependent variable in that case.
2. The scale division is rather cumbersome, because 0.1 s on the t-axis is
represented by 2.67 divisions, making the accurate plotting of points very
difficult. A better choice would have been to let 0.1 s be represented by two
divisions.
3. The scale along the h-axis could easily be doubled.
4. The units of h and t are not given.
5. The graph has no title.
What Susan should have done is shown in figure 16.2.
FIGURE 16.2: Feedback: the correct version of Susan's graph
....................................................................................................................................
199
16.3 ERROR-BARS
An error can be assigned to a variable quantity either by taking into account the
precision with which it was measured, or by calculating a standard error on
account of having repeated the measurement. In both cases the error can be
indicated on a graph by using error-bars.
Error-bars are drawn to scale as
Ø horizontal lines for errors associated with variables plotted on the x-axis
Ø vertical lines for errors associated with variables plotted on the y-axis.
Let’s assume the expansion E of a good conductor of heat was measured in

millimetres as a function of temperature T in degrees Celsius. The procedure
followed was that the conductor was heated from 0 °C and a value was recorded
for E at three temperatures namely 5, 9 and 13 °C. The process was repeated 5
times. The data are listed in Table 16.2.
T (°C) Error in T (°C) E (mm) Error in E (mm)

5 0.5 0.8 0.1
9 0.5 1.9 0.2
13 0.5 2.6 0.3
TABLE 16.2: Results of measurements of the expansion E of a conductor

as a function of temperature T
The following observations were made during the experiment:
Ø The temperature T was taken at 3 specific values. The error on T

remained the same and was taken as the precision with which T could be
measured. The precision of the thermometer was 0.5 °C.
Ø For each temperature 5 values of E were recorded. So an average and a
standard error were calculated for E at each temperature. This error
increased with increasing temperature.
These observations are illustrated in Figure 16.3. Note that:
Ø the horizontal error-bars indicate errors on T and are all the same length
(the error on T remained the same).
Ø the horizontal error-bars all have a length of 0.5 °C to the left and 0.5 °C
to the right of each data point [5.0 ± 0.5 °C, 9.0 ± 0.5 °C and 13.0 ± 0.5
°C]. The total length of these bars is 0.5 + 0.5 °C = 1.0 °C.
Ø the vertical error-bars indicate errors on E and they are not the same length
(the error on E is larger for higher temperatures).
200
Ø The E values and the errors are 0.8 ± 0.1 mm, 1.9 ± 0.2 mm and 2.6 ± 0.3
mm. The total length of the error-bars for E is 0.2 mm, 0.4 mm and 0.6
mm respectively.
FIGURE 16.3: The expansion E of a conductor of heat as a

function of temperature T
Let us see how well you have mastered the skill of plotting graphs. Now that we
have completed Topic 3, you can test yourself by writing Self-Evaluation Test
3. It contains questions about the most important aspects of the work we have
covered in Topic 3. A memorandum for the test is given after the test. Do not
look at the memorandum before doing the test — it would defeat the purpose of
self-evaluation! After completing the test, you can mark it according to the
mastered and which areas still need some attention. Remember, this test is a
201
1. In an experiment with the aim of determining the focal length of a convex
lens, the image distance v is measured as a function of the object distance u.
The relationship between the object distance u and the image distance v of a
thin lens is given by
ͳ ͳ ͳ
൅ ൌ
‫݂ ݒ ݑ‬
where f is the focal distance of the lens.

(a) Linearise the equation so that it can be used to plot a straight line graph
from which the focal length of the lens can be determined.
(b) Which variable would you plot on each axis?
(c) What is the gradient of this graph?
(d) What is the y-intercept?
2. The speed v of a car was recorded at various times t as shown in the table by a
first year student named Jeremy.
t (s) 0 10 20 30 40 50
v ሺିଵ ሻ 64 69 73 76 78 79
Jeremy has not had much experience in plotting graphs, and he presents the
measurements as shown in the graph below.
(a) This graph can be criticised for at least six reasons. List all the
shortcomings you can see in the graph.
202
(b) Replot the results to correct these shortcomings.

(c) Use your graph to estimate the speed of the car after 25 s.
3. At low temperature a ceramic conductor was observed to exhibit unusual

characteristics. The variation of the electrical resistance R of a sample of the
ceramic as the current I through it was increased, is shown in the table.
I R
(A) (Ω)
0.001 0.0006
0.002 0.0022
0.004 0.0063
0.008 0.0200
0.016 0.0420
0.032 0.1200
0.064 0.3400
0.130 1.1000
0.260 3.2000
0.520 9.5000
Assume that the relationship between R and I can be written as
ܴ ൌ ݇‫ ܫ‬௡
where k and n are constants.

(a) Linearise the equation in order to plot a suitable straight line graph of the
data given in the table.
(b) Fit the best straight line through the data by means of a linear regression
analysis.
(c) Find values for k and n from the graph.
203

1.
(a) The equation
ͳ ͳ ͳ
൅ ൌ
‫݂ ݒ ݑ‬
can be written as
ͳ ͳ ͳ
ൌെ ൅
‫ݒ‬ ‫݂ ݑ‬

‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿǤ
(b) Since v was the dependent variable in the experiment, ͳȀ‫ ݒ‬should be
plotted on the y-axis, and since u was the independent variable in the
experiment, ͳȀ‫ ݑ‬should be plotted on the x-axis.
(c) The gradient of the graph is െͳ.
(d) The y-intercept of the graph is ͳȀ݂.
2.
(a) The six most important faults in Jeremy’s graph are:
(i) The axes have been incorrectly chosen — the dependent variable is
time and it should be plotted on the horizontal axis.
(ii) The horizontal axis has no label.
(iii) The scale on the horizontal axis has been poorly chosen.
(iv) Several points have been incorrectly plotted
(v) The points should be indicated as ۨ or ۪, not large blobs.
(vi) The graph should have a title.
(b) A better graph of Jeremy's data is shown below
204
(c) Read off at point A, the speed of the car after 25 s is 74.6 ିଵ .
3.
(a) The equation
ܴ ൌ ݇‫ ܫ‬௡
can be linearised by taking logarithms on both sides and rearranging the

terms. This gives us
ܴ ൌ ݇ ൅ ݊ ‫ܫ‬
ൌ ݊ ‫ ܫ‬൅ ‫ܭ‬

‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿ
with
‫ ܴ ؠ ݕ‬ǡ‫ ܫ ؠ ݔ‬ǡ݉ ‫݇ ؠ ܿ݊ ؠ‬Ǥ
(b) To fit the best straight line through the data, a linear regression analysis
was performed on the data. The summations used for this analysis are
tabulated as follows.
i ‫ݔ‬௜ ‫ݕ‬௜ ‫ݔ‬௜ ‫ݕ‬௜ ‫ݔ‬௜ଶ

1 െ3.0000 െ3.2218 9.6654 9.0000
2 െ2.6990 െ2.6576 7.1729 7.2846
3 െ2.3979 െ2.2007 5.2771 5.7499
4 െ2.0969 െ1.6990 3.5626 4.3970
5 െ1.7959 െ1.3768 2.4726 3.2253
6 െ1.4949 െ0.9208 1.3765 2.2347
7 െ1.1938 െ0.4685 0.5593 1.4252
8 െ0.8861 0.0414 െ0.0367 0.7852
9 െ0.5850 0.5051 െ0.2955 0.3422
10 െ0.2840 0.9777 െ0.2777 0.0807
∑ െ16.4335 െ11.0210 29.4765 34.5248
Summations used for linear regression analysis

ଶ
‫ ܦ‬ൌ ݊ ෍ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ቀ෍ ‫ݔ‬ቁ
ൌ ሺͳͲሻሺ͵ͶǤͷʹͶͺሻ െ ሺെͳ͸ǤͶ͵͵ͷሻଶ

ൌ ͹ͷǤͳͺͺͳǤ
The gradient of the graph is given by
205
݊ σ ‫ ݕݔ‬െ σ ‫ ݔ‬σ ‫ݕ‬

݉ൌ
‫ܦ‬
ሺͳͲሻሺʹͻǤͶ͹͸ͷሻ െ ሺെͳ͸ǤͶ͵͵ͷሻሺെͳͳǤͲʹͳͲሻ
ൌ
͹ͷǤͳͺͺͳ
ൌ ͳǤͷͳͳ͸
؄ ͳǤͷͳǤ
The y-intercept of the graph is given by
σ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ σ ‫ ݕ‬െ σ ‫ ݔ‬σ ‫ݕݔ‬

ܿൌ
‫ܦ‬
ሺ͵ͶǤͷʹͶͺሻሺെͳͳǤͲʹͳͲሻ െ ሺെͳ͸ǤͶ͵͵ͷሻሺʹͻǤͶ͹͸ͷሻ
ൌ
͹ͷǤͳͺͺͳ
ൌ ͳǤ͵ͺͳͻ
؄ ͳǤ͵ͺǤ
The best line through the experimental data is therefore
ܴ ൌ ͳǤͷͳ ‫ ܫ‬൅ ͳǤ͵ͺǤ
To plot the best line through the data points using these results, an arbitrary
value of ‫ ܫ‬ൌ െͳǤͲͲͲͲwas chosen. At this point the value of ܴ is
given by
ܴ ൌ ሺͳǤͷͳሻሺെͳǤͲͲͲͲሻ ൅ ͳǤ͵ͺ
ൌ െͲǤͳ͵Ǥ
The point ሺെͳǤͲͲǡ െͲǤͳ͵ሻ was used to plot a line with gradient 1.51 and y-
intercept 1.38 through the data points. This graph of ܴ versus ‫ ܫ‬is
shown in the next figure.
206
(c) The value of k is given by

ܿ ‫݇ ؠ‬
so using the value of c calculated above
݇ ൌ ͳͲ௖
ൌ ͳͲଵǤଷ଼ଵଽ
ൌ ʹͶǤͲͻȳ‫ିܣ‬௡ .
(Did you notice that k must have a unit?)
The value of n is given by

݉ ൌ ݊
ൌ ͳǤͷͳǤ
207
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS FOR TOPIC 3

3.1 A student was supplied with a stop watch, two metre rules and a simple
pendulum suspended from a ceiling and was asked to measure the height of
the ceiling indirectly. He set the pendulum swinging through a small angle
and measured the period of oscillation for different lengths of the pendulum.
Since he was unable to measure the length of the pendulum directly, he
measured the height of the centre of the pendulum bob above the floor. He
obtained the results tabulated below.
Height of bob above floor Time for 50 oscillations

(mm) (s)
400 155.3
600 148.8
800 142.2
1000 134.0
1200 127.4
1400 119.2
1600 110.5
The period T of the pendulum of length κ is given by
κ
ܶ ൌ ʹߨඨ
݃
(1)
where ݃ is the acceleration due to gravity. But κ ൌ ‫ ܪ‬െ ݄where ‫ ܪ‬is the
height of the ceiling and h is the height of the centre of the pendulum above
the floor. Therefore
భ
ሺ‫ ܪ‬െ ݄ሻ మ
ܶ ൌ ʹߨ ൤ ൨Ǥ
݃
(2)
Plot a suitable graph to find the height of the ceiling H from the two
intercepts using linear regression to fit the best straight line through the data
points. Assume that ݃ ൌ ͻǤͺିଶ (݃ could be obtained from the slope of
the graph). Having obtained your values for H, answer the following
questions:
(a) Which value of H do you consider to be the least accurate? Give reasons
for your choice and explain how the accuracy could have been
improved.
(b) Why was the bob set swinging through a small angle?
208
(c) Why was h measured to the centre of the bob?

(d) Why was the completed number of oscillations chosen to be large?
(e) Can you see any advantage in measuring the height of the ceiling in this
way?
3.2 A light wooden uniform metre rule was clamped to the surface of a bench so
that a length L of the metre rule was hanging over the edge. The overhanging
end of the metre rule was loaded with a mass and the depression D produced
at the loaded end was measured. Values of D were obtained for different
lengths L.
L (mm) D (mm)
200 2.0
300 6.0
400 13.0
500 28.0
600 49.0
700 75.0
800 109.0
Assume that ‫ ܦ‬ൌ ‫ܮܭ‬௡ , where K and n are constants, and draw a graph that
would enable you to determine the values of n and K. Use a linear regression
analysis of the data to fit the best straight line through the data and determine
the value of D for L = 100 mm from the graph.
3.3 Fit a linear relation to the following data:
x 10 12 13 17 19 20
y 11.0 7.6 6.2 െ0.1 െ3.2 െ5.0
3.4 Values of the surface tension of water, ߛ inିଵ , at different temperatures,

T in °C, are given below. If
ߛ ൌ ܽ െ ܾߠ
where ߠ is the temperature on the Kelvin scale, find the most probable
values of the constants a and b.
T (°C) 10 20 30 40 50 60
ߛሺିଵ ሻ 0.074 0.073 0.071 0.070 0.068 0.066
209
3.5 Values of the surface tension ߛ of bromobenzene, measured in ିଵ, at

different temperatures, T in °C, are given below.
T (°C) 15 42 49 78 90 105 125

ߛሺିଵ ሻ 0.038 0.035 0.034 0.031 0.029 0.028 0.025
The relationship between the surface tension and the absolute temperature
(i.e. the temperature measured in degrees Kelvin) ߠ is given by
ߠ ௡
ߛ ൌ ߛ଴ ൤ͳ െ ൨
͸͹Ͳ
where ߛ଴ is a constant. Rewrite this equation in linear form, and plot a graph
of the straight line that fits the data best. Determine the values of n and ߛ଴.
3.6 The values of x and y given below are linearly related. Find the equation of
the straight line that represents this relationship.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
y 4.6 7.1 9.5 11.5 13.7 15.9 18.6 20.9 23.5 25.4
Plot the values of x and y and draw the straight line that fits the points best.
3.7 Use a graph to find the resistance ܴ଴ at 0 °C and the temperature coefficient
ߙ, where the resistance
ܴ ൌ ܴ଴ ሺͳ ൅ ߙܶሻ
for a sample of wire giving the following data:
ܴሺȳሻ 2.0700 2.1465 2.2225 2.2990 2.3740 2.4515

T (°C) 10 20 30 40 50 60
3.8 Observations are made of the excess temperature ߠ of a cooling body as a

function of time t. Determine whether the data obey Newton’s law of cooling
ߠ ൌ ߠ଴ ݁ ି௕௧
and if so, determine the constants ߠ଴ and b by graphical methods.
t (in minutes) 0 4 8 12 16 20
ߠሺιሻ 40.5 27.0 18.0 12.0 8.0 5.3
210
3.9 Find the constants A and B for Cauchy’s equation
‫ܤ‬
ߤൌ‫ܣ‬൅
ߣଶ
for the index of refraction of light through a refracting medium. The data
given below are for sodium light refracted through water. Does the equation
appear to be inaccurate in any region? If so, state which region.
ߤ 1.4040 1.3435 1.3371 1.3330 1.3307 1.3289

ߣሺՀሻ 2144 3968 4861 5893 6708 7685
3.10 In an experiment designed to investigate the frictional forces between

bodies, a force was applied to a block of wood lying on a flat metal surface,
as shown.
It was observed that a minimum force was needed to move the block. The
minimum force ‫ܨ‬୫୧୬ was measured for different blocks made of the same
wood but with different masses M. The results of the experiment are shown
in the table.
M (kg) 0.52 0.58 0.64 0.75 0.88 1.01 1.21

‫ܨ‬୫୧୬ ሺܰሻ 3.1 3.6 3.9 4.4 5.2 6.2 7.4
(a) Plot a graph of ‫ܨ‬୫୧୬ against M.

(b) Use a linear regression analysis to fit the best straight line through the
data points.
3.11 The table shows the pressure P of a fixed volume of gas which was
measured as a function of the temperature of the gas.
P ሺͳͲହ ሻ 0.92 0.98 1.02 1.05 1.15 1.20 1.30

T (K) 280 295 305 320 350 370 390
Plot a graph of P versus T by using a linear regression analysis to fit the best
straight line through the data points. Find:
(a) the pressure at 330 K and at 400 K

(b) the temperature corresponding to a pressure of ͳǤͲͲ ൈ ͳͲହ Pa
211
3.12 The electric current I in a circuit shown in the figure was measured as a
function of the resistance R in the circuit. The relationship between I and R is
given by
ߝ
‫ܫ‬ൌ
ܴ൅‫ݎ‬
where ߝ is the emf of the battery in the circuit and r is the internal resistance
of the battery.
(a) Linearise the equation above, and state which variable you would plot
on the x-axis and which on the y-axis.
(b) How are ߝ and r related to the gradient and/or y-intercept of the graph?
212
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A
EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS
EXPONENTS
For real numbers, the following rules apply to calculations with terms containing
an exponent:
ܽ௡ ൌ ܽ ൈ ܽ ൈ ܽ ǥ ݊
ͳ
ܽି௡ ൌ
ܽ௡
భ ೙
ܽ ೙ ൌ ξܽ
భ ಮ
ܽ ಮ ൌ ξܽ ൌ ܽ ଴ ൌ ͳ
ሺܾܽሻ௣ ൌ ܽ௣ ൈ ܾ ௣
ܽ௣ ܽ௤ ൌ ܽ௣ ൈ ܽ௤ ൌ ܽ௣ା௤
ܽ௣
ൌ ܽ௣ି௤
ܽ௤
೛ ೜ ೜
ܽ ೜ ൌ ξܽ௣ ൌ ሺ ξܽሻ௣
ሺܽ௣ ሻ௤ ൌ ܽ௣௤
LOGARITHMS
If ܽ ൐ Ͳ and ܽ௡ ൌ ܾ then ܾ ൐ Ͳ for all real values of n. Then
݊ ൌ ௔ ܾ
LOGARITHM and we say that n is the logarithm of b to the base a. This means that n is the
exponent to which the base a must be raised to give b. We can also say that
ܾ ൌ ௔ ݊Ǥ
Logarithms to the base 10 are frequently used in calculations, and the base is
usually not indicated in this case. When the logarithm of a number is written as
230
APPENDIX A
‫ ݎ‬ൌ ‫ݏ‬

it means that
‫ ݏ‬ൌ ͳͲ௥ Ǥ
Another logarithm that is often used has ݁ ൌ ʹǤ͹ͳͺʹͺ ǥ as base, and is known as NATURAL
a natural logarithm. When we write LOGARITHM
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ௘ ܾ ൌ ܾ
it means that
ܾ ൌ ݁௬Ǥ
The notation ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ܾ is generally accepted for natural logarithms.
When p, q and r are positive numbers and ܽ ് ͳ, the following rules apply for
calculations involving logarithms:
௔ ‫݌‬௡ ൌ ݊ ௔ ‫݌‬
ͳ
௔ ೙ඥ‫ ݌‬ൌ ௔ ‫݌‬
݊
ͳ
௔ ൬ ൰ ൌ െ ௔ ‫݌‬
‫݌‬
௔ ͳ ൌ Ͳ
௔ ሺ‫ݍ݌‬ሻ ൌ ௔ ‫ ݌‬൅ ௔ ‫ݍ‬
‫݌‬
௔ ൬ ൰ ൌ ௔ ‫ ݌‬െ ௔ ‫ݍ‬
‫ݍ‬
It is sometimes necessary to change the base of a logarithm. If ܾ ് ͳ and ܾ ൐ Ͳ

and we want to change the base of a logarithm of p from a to b, then
௕ ‫ ݌‬ൌ ௔ ‫ ݌‬ൈ ௔ ܾǤ
231
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B
GREEK ALPHABET
Upper case Lower case Name
A ߙ alpha
B ߚ beta
Γ ߛ gamma
Δ ߜ delta
E ߳ epsilon
Z ߞ zeta
H ߟ eta
Θ ߠ theta
I ߡ iota
K ߢ kappa
Λ ߣ lambda
M ߤ mu
N ߥ nu
Ξ ߦ xi
O ߧ omicron
Π ߨ pi
P ߩ rho
∑ ߪ sigma
T ߬ tau
ߓ ߭ upsilon
Φ ߶ phi
X ߯ chi
Ψ ߰ psi
Ω ߱ omega
232
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX C
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND
CONVERSION FACTORS
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Speed of light ܿ ൌ ͵ǤͲͲ ൈ ͳͲ଼ ିଵ
Gravitational constant ‫ ܩ‬ൌ ͸Ǥ͸͹ ൈ ͳͲିଵଵ ଶ ିଶ
Gas constant ܴ ൌ ͺǤ͵ͳ ିଵ ିଵ
Avogadro’s number ܰ௔ ൌ ͸ǤͲʹ ൈ ͳͲଶଷ ିଵ
Coulomb’s constant ݇ ൌ ͻǤͲͲ ൈ ͳͲଽ ଶ ିଶ
Boltzmann’s constant ݇஻ ൌ ͳǤ͵ͺ ൈ ͳͲିଶଷ ିଵ
Planck’s constant ݄ ൌ ͸Ǥ͸͵ ൈ ͳͲିଷସ
Electron charge (magnitude) ݁ ൌ ͳǤ͸Ͳ ൈ ͳͲିଵଽ
Electron mass ݉௘ ൌ ͻǤͳͳ ൈ ͳͲିଷଵ
Proton mass ݉௣ ൌ ͳǤ͸͹ ൈ ͳͲିଶ଻
Bohr radius ܽ଴ ൌ ͷǤʹͻ ൈ ͳͲିଵଵ
CONVERSION FACTORS
ͳ ൌ ͳǤ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଵଽ
ͳ% ൌ ͳͲିଵ଴
ͳ ൌ ʹǤͷͶ
ͳ ൌ ͶǤͳͻ
ͳ ൌ ͳǤ͸͸ ൈ ͳͲିଶ଻
ͳͺͲι ൌ Ɏ
233
APPENDIX D
APPENDIX D
MICROCOMPUTERS FOR DATA ANALYSIS
During the practical session at Unisa, you will often have to plot a straight line
graph as part of the report you have to write for each experiment. You will be able
to use a microcomputer to perform a linear regression analysis to find the gradient
and the y-intercept of the best straight line through the data points you obtained
from the experiment. The computer program also calculates the error in the
gradient, the error in the y-intercept and the correlation coefficient r. At the end of
the calculation, a graph of your data will be displayed on the computer screen.
This serves as a preliminary graph from which you will be able to see whether
your data points are evenly distributed over the range of values that is allowed by
the apparatus you are using. They should not be clustered in any one region of the
graph. You will also be able to identify doubtful points for which the
measurements need to be repeated.
Please do not be concerned if you have not used a computer before, because you
will be given a detailed description of the procedure you have to follow at the
beginning of the laboratory session.
In the figure below, an image of the spreadsheet program is given which will be
used for the linear regression analysis. White blocks are used to enter data from
your experiment, while coloured blocks contain formulas which perform the linear
regression analysis. Type your name / student number and experiment number in
the white blocks on the top right. Since you will print this linear regression
analysis, this information enables you to identify your print-out among the print-
outs from other students.
Type your x and y values in the two columns labelled as x and y.

· To enter the decimal point (for example 1.234), use a ‘.’ dot. Do not use a
‘,’ comma since this will confuse the program.
· If you have data which has a power of 10 (such as 1.234 × 10-5), use an ‘E’
to represent the power of 10.
· Example: 1.234 × 10-5 should be entered as 1.234E-05.
· In the same way, if your result contains a power of 10, the spreadsheet will
also display it using the ‘E’.
Once you have finished typing your x and y values, the spreadsheet will plot a
graph of your data points which you can use to identify any possible issues with
the data (do the data points form a straight line, are there any outliers, etc.?)
234
APPENDIX D
Once you are satisfied with the data, you can record the results of the linear
regression analysis, including the slope m, error on the slope Δm, y-intercept c,
error on the y-intercept Δc, and the correlation coefficient r for your report. (See
Study Unit 15 for more information).
The correlation coefficient measures how close the data is to a straight line, with a
value of 100.0% indicating that the data is exactly on a straight line (high
precision and small random error).
Once you have completed the linear regression analysis, it can be printed by using
the print icon (shown by an arrow in the figure below).
After completing this, you can close the program by clicking on the red cross on
the top right hand corner of the program. It will ask you if you want to save the
data: always answer “No” or “Discard” (otherwise the next user will first have to
remove your data). Also, if something goes wrong with entering your data, you
can always close the program using the red cross in the top right hand corner of
the program and start again.
235

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PHYSICS

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Page layout by the Department

Topic 1 Measurements and errors

Study Unit 8: Normal distribution 88

Topic 2 Interpretation of results 111

Study Unit 9: Standard error 111

Study Unit 10: Combinations of measurements and errors 124

Study Unit 11: A case study revised 142

Self-evaluation Test 2 144

Topic 3 Graphs 155

Study Unit 12: Graphs in experimental work 155

Study Unit 14: Relationships between variables 177

Study Unit 15: The best straight line 186

Study Unit 16: Hints on how to plot graphs 196

Self-evaluation Test 3 202

Topic 4 Planning an experiment and writing a report 214

Study Unit 17: Planning an experiment 215

Study Unit 18: Writing a scientific report 218

Appendix A: Exponents and logarithms 230

Study Unit 2 Units and significant figures

Study Unit 3 Single variables

Study Unit 4 A case study

Study Unit 5 Precision and accuracy

Study Unit 6 Repeated measurements

Study Unit 7 Evaluating the precision of a measurement

Study Unit 8 Normal distribution

In the same way, any experimental measurement contains a certain amount of

ܸୱ୭୤୲ୢ୰୧୬୩ ൌ ሺ͵ͶͲ േ ͳͲሻ ଷ Ǥ

Ø Why was the volume of the can determined five times?

FIRST THINGS FIRST

1. explain what is meant by SI units

ͳ ൌ ͳିଶ Ǥ (2.1)

DEFINITION OF STANDARD UNITS

Table 2.2: Examples of base and derived SI units

.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Table 2.3: Feedback: Examples of base and derived SI units

Prefix Abbreviation Factor

Table 2.4: Standard prefixes that denote multiples of 10

TABLE 2.5: Activity: Conversion to SI units

.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Quantity Measurement Measurement in SI units

TABLE 2.6: Feedback: Conversion to SI units

2.2 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

1. The leftmost nonzero digit is always the most significant digit.

most significant significant least significant

most significant significant least significant

The following numbers all have four significant digits:

1 234, 123 400, 123.4, 1 001, 101.0, 0.001010.

Suppose we have measured a certain distance to be one thousand two hundred

Number Number of significant figures

Table 2.7: Significant figures

.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Number Number of significant figures

Table 2.8: Feedback: Significant figures

Inductance ሺͳͲିଷ ሻ 9.51 9.32 9.92 9.93 9.14

TABLE 2.9: Measured values of the inductance of a coil of wire

.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Pressure ሺͳͲହ ሻ 1.03 1.01 0.99 1.05 1.08

2.3 ROUNDING OFF

1. If the fraction is greater than ½, increment the least significant digit.

ܸୱ୭୤୲ୢ୰୧୬୩ ൌ ሺ͵ͶͲ േ ͳͲሻଷ Ǥ

ͳ ൌ ͳିଶ Ǥ (2.1)

Pressure ሺͳͲହ ሻ 1.03 1.01 0.99 1.05 1.08

ሺͳʹʹ ൅ ͳͳ͹ ൅ ͳͳͻ ൅ ͳʹͲ ൅ ͳʹͲሻ

ሾሺͳ ൈ ͳͳ͹ሻ ൅ ሺ͵ ൈ ͳͳͻሻ ൅ ሺͶ ൈ ͳʹͲሻ ൅ ሺͳ ൈ ͳʹͳሻ ൅ ሺͳ ൈ ͳʹʹሻሿ

ሺͳǤͶ ൅ ͳǤ͹ ൅ ͳǤͶ ൅ ͳǤ͸ ൅ ͳǤ͹ሻ

ሺͳǤͷ͵ ൅ ͳǤͷͲ ൅ ͳǤͷͳ ൅ ͳǤͷʹ ൅ ͳǤͷͳሻ