Math-Lectures 2023-2024 - Cours 1

Ass. Prof. Dr. Husham K.
Hashim Petroleum Engineering Department
Syllabus:
• Number and sets.

• Types of functions (trigonometric; inverse trigonometric functions,
logarithmic functions, exponential functions, transcendental functions,
other types of functions, graph of functions);
• Differentiation (explicit and implicit; application of derivatives in
graphing);
• Integrals (integrals as a summation of areas; definite integrals,
applications of definite integrals, areas and volumes; techniques of
integration);
• Determinants and matrices, conical section; Introduction to polar
coordinates.
References:
• THOMAS' CALCULUS , G, B.THOMAS, R.L.FINNEY, M.D.WEIR,

10TH ED, 2003
• Calculus: Graphical, Numerical, Algebraic;Finney/Thomas/Demana/Wait
s; Addison Wesley; 1995
• Calculus: Graphical, Numerical, Algebraic;

Finney/Thomas/Demana/Waits; Addison Wesley; 1995 (Copies of the
2007 version of this book are available for use to supplement the text in
place.)
Mathematics
Asst. Prof. Dr. Husham K. Hashim Petroleum Engineering Department
Chapter One
PREREQUISITES FOR CALCULUS
Sets and Intervals:

DEFINITIONS:
Set: is a collection of things under certain conditions.
Elements: are the things which set up the set.
Example 1: A={1,2,5,7,10}: A is a set ; 1,2,5,7,10 are elements.
Real Numbers (R): is a set of all rational and irrational numbers. R= {-∞, +∞}
-∞ 0 +∞
Real Number line

Integer Numbers (I): a set of all irrational numbers.
I = {-∞,----,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,----,+∞} negative and positive numbers only
Natural Numbers (N): consist of zero and positive integer numbers only.
N ={0,1,2,3,----,+∞}
Interval: is a set of all real numbers between two points on the real number
line. (it is a subset of real numbers)
-∞ +∞
A x B
1. Open interval: is a set of all real numbers between A&B excluded (A&B are
not elements in the set). {x: A < x < B} or (A, B)
-∞ +∞
A x
2. Closed interval: is a set of all real numbers between A&B included (A&B are
elements in the set). {x: A ≤ x ≤ B} or [A, B]
-∞ +∞
A x B
Mathematics- Preliminaries (1)

Chapter One
3.Half-Open interval (Half-Close): is a set
-∞ +∞
of all real numbers between A & B with one
A x B
of the end-points as an element in the set.
a) (A, B]= {x: A < x ≤ B} -∞ +∞
b) [A, B)= {x: A ≤ x < B} A x B
Types of intervals
Notation Set description Type Picture
(a,b) {x: a < x < b} Open
a b
Finite: [a,b] {x: a ≤ x ≤ b} Closed
a b
[a,b) {x: a ≤ x < b} Half-opened
a b
(a,b] {x: a < x ≤ b} Half-opened
a b
(a,∞) {x: x > a} Open
a
[a,∞) {x: x ≥ a} Closed
a
Infinite: (-∞,b) {x: x < b} Open
b
(-∞,b] {x: x ≤ b} Closed b
(-∞,∞) R (ser of all real Both open
numbers) and closed
Union and Intersections of intervals: if A and B are two sets then:

The union is the set whose numbers belong to A or B (or both) and denoted by
(A  B), and intersection is the set whose numbers belong to both A and B and
denoted by (A∩B).
Examples:
1. Solve for x the following and show their solution set {x: x2=4}
Sol: x2 = 4  x = ±2
the set is {-2,+2} -2 2
2. Solve for x the following and show their solution set {x: x2≤4}
Sol: x2 ≤ 4  x2-4≤ 0  (x-2)(x+2) ≤ 0

Let (x-2)(x+2) =0  either (x-2)=0  x=2
or (x+2)=0  x=-2
Sign of (x-2) -∞ ---------------- 2 +++ +∞

-2
Sign of (x+2) -∞ ------- ++++++++ +∞
-2 2
Mathematics- Preliminaries (2) Sign of (x-2)(x+2) -∞ +++++ ------- +++++ +∞
Chapter One
the interval is {x: -2 ≤ x ≤ 2} or [-2,2]
3. Solve for x the following and show their solution set {x: x2-x-30≤0}
Sol: x2-x-30 ≤ 0  (x-6)(x+5) ≤ 0

Let (x-6)(x+5) =0  either (x-6)=0  x=6
or (x+5)=0  x=-5
6
Sign of (x-6) -∞ +++ +∞
--------
the interval is {x: -5≤x≤6} or [-5,6] Sign of (x+5) -∞ - - - - -
-5
++++++++ +∞
-5 6
Sign of (x-6)(x+5) -∞ +++++ - - - - - +++++ +∞
4. Solve for x the following and show their solution set {x: x2-x-30>0}
Sol: from Ex.3 the interval is {x: x<-5}  {x: x>6}
or (-∞,-5)  (6, ∞)
( x − 1)( x + 2)
5. Solve for x the following and show their solution set {x:  0}
x−3
+1
Sol: Sign of (x-1) -∞ ----------------- ++++++ +∞
-
-2
Sign of (x+2) -∞ ------- +++++++++++++ +∞
+3
Sign of (x-3) -∞ ------------------------- +++ +∞
-2 ++++ +1------ +3++++
-∞ --------- +∞
Sign of
the interval is { x: -2 ≤ x ≤ +1}  {x: x >+3} or [-2,+1]  (+3, ∞)

6. Solve for x: { x: 0 < x < 5}  { x: 1< x < 7}
Sol: from the line of numbers:
(0,5) -∞ +∞
0 5
(1,7) -∞ +∞
1 7
(0,5) (1,7) -∞ +∞
0 7
 the interval is {0<x<7} or (0,5)  (1,7)=(0,7)

Chapter One
7. Solve for x: { x: x<1}  { x: x  0}
(-∞,1) -∞ +∞
1
[0, ∞) -∞ +∞
0
(-∞,1)∩ [0,∞)-∞ +∞
0 1
the interval is {x: 0≤ x <1} or [0,1)
8. Solve for x: { x: x<0}  { x: x >0}
(-∞,0) -∞ +∞
0
(0, ∞) -∞ +∞
0
(-∞,0) (0,∞)= -∞  +∞
0
Inequalities:
Rules for Inequalities
Let a, b, and c are real numbers, then:
1. if a < b and b < c then a < c
2. a < b  a + c < b + c
3. a < b  a - c < b - c
4. a < b and c > o  ac < bc (c is positive)
5. a < b and c < o  ac > bc (c is negative)
special case a < b  -a > -b
6. if a < b and c < d then a+c < b+d
1
7. a > 0  0
a
1 1
8. If a and b are both positive or both negative, and a < b  
a b

Chapter One
Examples: Solve for x the following:
1. 3+7x ≤ 2x-9
Sol: 3+7x-3≤2x-9-3  7x≤2x-12  7x-2x≤2x-12-2x
− 12
 5x≤-12  x≤
5
− 12 -∞ +∞
So the interval (-∞, ]
5
2. 7≤ 2-5x < 9
Sol: 7-2≤2-5 x -2<9-2  5≤-5x<7  5/(-5)≤-5x/(-5)<7/(-5)
 -1≥x>-7/5  -7/5<x≤-1
So the interval (-7/5,-1] -∞ +∞
3. x2-3x > 10
-7/5 -1
sol: x2-3x-10>0  (x-5)( x+2)>0

-2
Sign of (x+2) -∞ ------- +++++++++++++ +∞
+5
Sign of (x-5) -∞ ----------------- ++++++ +∞
--2 +5
Sign of (x-5)(x+2)-∞++++++ -------- ++++++ +∞
So the interval (-∞,-2)  (5, ∞)

Homework:
1. Explain the following intervals on the line numbers:
(a) -3 < x < 5 (b) 2 ≤ x ≤ 6 (c) -4 < x ≤ 0
(d) x >5 (e) x ≤ 2
2. Solve the following inequalities:
(a) {x: x3- 3x ≤ 5x2 - 9x} (b) {x: 6x- x2 > 0}
2x x2 −1
(c) { x :  0} (d) { x : 0}
( x − 2)( x + 1) x2 + 1
3. Solve the following inequalities and express the solution in terms of intervals:
(a) 3x < 5x – 8 (b) 12 ≥ 5x – 3 > -7
(c) 3x2 + 5x – 2 < 0 (d) 2x2 + 9x +4 ≥ 0
3x + 2 3 2
(e) 0 (f) 
2x − 7 x −9 x + 2

Chapter One
Functions
DEFINITION: Function
A function from a set D (domain) to a set R (range) is a rule that assigns to
unique (single) element f(x)  R to each element x  D
f: x f(x) it means that f sends x to f(x)

1
f: x it means that f sends x to
x2
1 R
f ( x) = y =
x2
• The set of x is called the "Domain" of the function (Df).

• The set of y is called the "Range" of the function (Rf).
❖ x & y are variables.
❖ x is independent variable.
❖ y is dependent variable.
Domain (Df): is the set of all possible inputs (x-values).
Range (Rf): is the set of all possible outputs (y-values).
To find Domain (Df) and the Range (Rf) the following points must be
noticed:
1. The denominator in a function must not equal zero (never divide by zero).
2. The values under even roots must be positive.
Examples: Find the Domain (Df) and Range (Rf) of the following functions:
1
1. y = f ( x) =
x
Sol: denominator must not equal zero  x  0  Df ={x: x ≠ 0}.
To find Rf : we must convert the function from y=f(x) into x=f(y).
1
x =  Rf={y: y ≠ 0}.
y

Chapter One
2. y = f ( x) = 9 − x 2
Sol: The values under even roots must be positive
 9-x2 ≥ 0  (3-x) (3+x) ≥ 0 +3
Sign of (3-x) -∞ ++++++++++++++ ------ +∞
 Df ={x: -3≤x ≤ 3}.
To find Rf: we must Sign of (3+x) -∞ ---------- -3+++++++++++++ +∞
convert the function from -3 +3
Sign of (3-x) (3+x) -∞ ------------- ++++++ ---------- +∞
y=f(x) into x=f(y).
y = 9 − x2  y2 = 9 − x2
 x = 9 − y  x =  9 − y2
2 2
So the values under even

+3------
roots must be positive Sign of (3-y) -∞ ++++++++++++++++ +∞
9-y2 ≥ 0  (3-y) (3+y) ≥ 0
Sign of (3+y) -∞ ---------- -3+++++++++++++ +∞
 Rf ={y: -3≤y ≤ 3}.
-3 ++++++0 +3
But the values of y must be Sign of (3-y) (3+y) -∞ -------------
//////////////////////////
---------- +∞
always positive, we must

exclude negative values,  Rf ={y: 0 ≤ y ≤ 3}.
1
3. y = f ( x) =
9 − x2
Sol: The values under even roots must be positive and the denominator must not
equal zero, so:
9-x2 > 0  (3-x) (3+x) > 0
 Df ={x: -3 < x < 3}.
1 1 1 1
y=  y2 =  9 − x2 =  x2 = 9 −
9− x 2 9 − x2 y2 y2
9y2 −1 9y2 −1 9y2 −1

 x2 =  x=  x=
y2 y2 y

Chapter One
The values under even roots must be positive and the denominator must not
equal zero, so: 9y2-1 ≥ 0
+1/3
 (3y-1) (3y+1) ≥ 0 Sign of (3y-1) -∞ --------------------------- ++++++ +∞
Sign of (3y+1) -∞ ---------- -1/3+++++++++++++ +∞
0 +1/3
+++++++-1/3------------
Sign of (3y-1) (3y+1) -∞ /////////////////////////// ++++++ +∞
 Rf ={y: -∞≤ y ≤ -1/3}  {y: 1/3≤ y ≤ ∞}.

denominator must not equal zero  y  0
But the values of y must be always positive; we must exclude negative values,
 Rf ={y: 1/3≤ y ≤ ∞}
x +1
4. y = f ( x) =
x −1
Sol: The values under even
+1
roots must be positive and the Sign of (x-1) -∞ --------------------------- +++++ +∞
denominator must not equal
Sign of (x+1) -∞ ---------- -1+++++++++++++ +∞
zero, so:
x-1≠0  x≠1 -∞ ++++++ -1----------- +1
+++++++ +∞
Sign of
x +1
and 0
x −1
Df = (-∞, -1]  (1,+ ∞)
x +1 x +1
y=  y2 =  y 2 ( x − 1) = x + 1  y2x − y2 = x + 1
x −1 x −1
y2 + 1
 y x − x = y +1
2 2
 x( y − 1) = y + 1
2 2
 x= 2
y −1
You can see that there is no root in the form x = f(y), so only the denominator
must not equal zero so:
y2-1≠0  y2≠1  y≠ ±1  Rf =R\{-1,+1}
But the values of y must be always positive; we must exclude negative values,
 Rf =[0,+∞)\{+1}

Chapter One
5. y = f ( x) = − 1 − x 2
+1
Sol: The values under even Sign of (1-x) -∞ ++++++++++++++++ ------------- +∞
-1
roots must be positive: Sign of (1+x) -∞ ---------- +++++++++++++ +∞
1-x2≥0  (1-x) (1+x) ≥ 0
------------ -1+++++++ +1
 Df=[-1,+1] Sign of (1-x)(1+x) -∞ ------------+∞
To find Rf: we must convert the function from y=f(x) into x=f(y).
y = − 1 − x2  y2 = 1 − x2  x2 = 1 − y2  x =  1 − y2
The values under even roots must be positive:

1- y2 ≥ 0  (1-y) (1+y) ≥ 0
 Rf=[-1,+1] +1
Sign of (1-y) -∞ ++++++++++++++++ ------------- +∞
But the values of y must be
always negative; we must Sign of (1+y) -∞ ---------- -1+++++++++++++ +∞
exclude positive values, 0
------------ -1+++++++ +1
Sign of (1-y)(1+y) -∞ ------------+∞
//////////////////////////
 Rf =[-1,0]
Homework: Find the domains and ranges of the following functions.

x2 −1 2x 2x
1. y = 2. y = 3. y =
x2 + 1 ( x − 2)( x + 1) ( x − 2)( x + 1)
2x
4. y = x 2 + 4 5. y = x 2 − 4 6. y =
2− x
1
7. y = 9 − x 8. y = 9. x 2 + xy + y 2 − 3 = 0
3+ x

Chapter One
Absolute Value Function: it is defined as:
 x if x0
y = x = x2 = 
− x if x0
Absolute Value Properties

1. |-a | = | a| A number and its additive inverse or negative have
the same absolute value.
2. |ab | = | a||b | The absolute value of a product is the product of the
absolute values.
a a
3. = The absolute value of a quotient is the quotient of the
b b
absolute values.
4. |a +b| ≤ |a | +| b| The triangle inequality. The absolute value of the sum
of two numbers is less than or equal to the sum of
their absolute values.
Absolute Values and Intervals

If a is any positive number, then
5. | x | = a if and only if x = ±a
6. | x | < a if and only if -a < x < a
7. | x | > a if and only if x > a or x < - a
8. | x | ≤ a if and only if -a ≤ x ≤ a
9. | x | ≥ a if and only if x ≥ a or x ≤ - a
Examples: Solve the following for x?

1. x = 3 Sol.: So x=3 & x=-3 Df={3,-3}
2. x  3 Sol.: So a: x < 3
+3
 Da=(-∞,3) Da -∞ +∞
-3
and b: -x < 3 (multiply by -1) Db -∞ +∞
 x > -3  Db = (-3,∞) -3 +3
-∞ +∞
 Df = Da  Db = (-3,3)

Chapter One
3. x  3
Sol.: Note (solution must consist the remaining part of the real numbers line of
the previous example)
So a: either x ≥ 3  Da=[3,∞)
b: or -x ≥ 3 (multiply by -1)  x ≤ -3
 Db=(-∞,-3] +3
-∞ +∞
 Df = Da  Db = (-∞,-3]  [3, ∞) Da
-3
=R\(-3,3) Db -∞ +∞
-3 +3
4. 2 x − 3  7 Da Db -∞ +∞
Sol.: − 7  2 x − 3  7 (6th property)

− 4  2 x  10  −2  x  5
 Df = [-2,5]
5. x − 9  3
Sol.: x − 9  3 or x − 9  −3 (7th property)

 x  12 or x  6
 Df = (-∞,6)  (12, ∞)
6. x − 3  x − 1
x−3
Sol.: 1 (divided by x − 1 )
x −1
x−3
 1 (3rd property)
x −1
x −3
 −1   1 (6th property)
x −1
-2
x−3 x−3
Sign of (-2) -∞ --------------------------------- +∞
a. 1  −1  0
x −1 x −1 +1
Sign of (x-1) -∞ -------------------------- +++++ +∞
x − 3 − ( x − 1)
 0 -2 +1
x −1 Sign of -∞ +++++++++++++++ ---------- +∞
x − 3 − x +1 −2
 0  0
x −1 x −1 +1
Sign of (x-1) -∞ ------- +++++++++++++ +∞
 Da = (1, ∞) +2
Sign of (x-2) -∞ ----------------- ++++++ +∞
-
- ∞++++++ +1-------- +2 ++++++ +∞
Sign of (x-1)(x-2)
Chapter One
x −3 x−3
b.  −1  +1  0
x −1 x −1
x − 3 + x −1 2x − 4 2( x − 2) x−2
 0  0  0  0
x −1 x −1 x −1 x −1
 Db = (- ∞,1)  (2, ∞)
+1
 Df = Da  Db = (2, ∞) Da -∞ +∞
+1 +2
x−4 Db -∞ +∞
7. 2
x −3 +2
Df=Da Db-∞ +∞
x−4 x−4
Sol.: either 2 or  −2
x −3 x−3
x−4 x−4
a. 2  −2  0
x −3 x −3
+2
x − 4 − 2( x − 3) Sign of (2-x) -∞ +++++++ ------------------------- +∞
 0 
x −3 +3
Sign of (x-3) -∞ ------------------ ++++++ +∞
x − 4 − 2x + 6
0  +2 +3
x−3 Sign of -∞ ---------- +++++ -------------- +∞
2− x
0
x −3
Da = [2,3) (x≠3 because denominator should not equal zero.)
x−4
b.  −2 
x−3
+10/3
x−4 Sign of (3x-10) -∞------------------------ +++++++ +∞
+2 0 
x −3 +3
Sign of (x-3) -∞ --------- ++++++++++++++ +∞
x − 4 + 2( x − 3)
0  +3-------- +10/3
x −3 Sign of (3x-10)(x-3) -∞ ++++++ ++++++ +∞
x − 4 + 2x − 6 3x − 10
0  0
x−3 x −3
+2 +3
Db = (3, 10/3] (x≠3) Da -∞ +∞
+2 +3 +10/3
So Df = Da  Db = [2,10/3]\{3} Db -∞ +∞
+2 +3 +10/3
Da Db-∞ +∞

Chapter One
The Greatest Integer Function (Stepped Function):
The function whose values at any number x is the greatest integer less
than or equal to x is called greatest integer
function. It is denoted x , or in some books [x] or
[[x]] or int x
The greatest integer function:
[x] ≤ x <[x] +1
Example 1: Find the integer of the following:
[2.4]=2, [1.9]=1, [0.1]=0, [0.0]=0,
[-1.2]=-2, [-0.3]=-1, [-2.0]=-2
Example2: Find the interval of the following functions:
1. [x]=2
Sol. 2  x  3
2. [2x]=1
1
Sol. 1  2 x  2   x 1
2
1 
3.  x  = 2
3 
1
Sol. 2  x  3  6  x  9
3
4. 2 x = −1
1
Sol. − 1  2 x  0  −  x  0
2
Properties of greatest integer value:
1. [[[[x]]]] = [x]
2. [x+n] =[x] + n where n is integer
3. [x-n] =[x] - n where n is integer
4. -[x] ≠ [-x]

Chapter One
Function Defined in Pieces:
While some functions defined by single formulas, others are defined by
applying different formulas to different parts of their
domains. One example is the absolute value function
 x if x0
y = x = x2 = 
− x if x0
Example: the values of the function
− x if x0

f ( x) =  x 2 if 0  x 1
 1 if x 1

Example: Graph the function

y = f ( x) = x − 3 + x + 2
Sol. Recall the definition of absolute value:

 x if x0
y = x = x2 = 
− x if x0
 ( x − 3) if ( x − 3)  0
It follows that: x − 3 = 
− ( x − 3) if ( x − 3)  0
 x − 3 if x3
=
− x + 3 if x3
 ( x + 2) if ( x + 2)  0
Similarly x+2 =
− ( x + 2) if ( x + 2)  0
 x + 2 if x  −2
=
− x − 2 if x  −2
These expressions show that we must consider three cases:

x < -2, -2 ≤ x < 3 and x≥3
Case I: if x < -2 we have f ( x) = x − 3 + x + 2
f ( x) = − x + 3 − x − 2

Chapter One
f ( x) = −2 x + 1
Case II: if -2 ≤x < 3 we have f ( x) = x − 3 + x + 2 y
12
f ( x) = − x + 3 + x + 2 11
10
f(x)=2x-1
f ( x) = 5 f(x)=-2x+1
9
8
f ( x) = x − 3 + x + 2
7
Case III: if x ≥ 3 we have 6
5 f(x)=5
f ( x) = x − 3 + x + 2 4
3
f ( x) = 2 x − 1 2
1
0 x
− 2 x + 1, if x  −2 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5

f ( x) =  5, −2  x  3
-2
Thus if -3
 2 x − 1, if x3


Chapter One
Sums, Difference, Product and Quotients of Functions:
Definition: If f and g are functions, then we define the functions
Sum  (f+g)(x)= f(x)+g(x)
Difference  (f-g)(x)= f(x)-g(x) or (g-f)(x)= g(x)-f(x)
Product  (f.g)(x)= f(x).g(x)
Quotient  (f/g)(x)= f(x)/g(x); where g(x) ≠0 …(1)
or (g/f)(x)= g(x)/f(x); where f(x) ≠0…(2)
are also functions of (x), defined for any value of x that lies in both Df and Dg (
x  D f  Dg ), except the points which g(x) =0 in eq.(1) or f(x) =0 in eq.(2)
Example 1: Combining Functions Algebraically:

The function defined by the formulas
f ( x) = x and g ( x) = 1 − x
have domains D( f ) = [0, ) and D( g ) = (−,1] . The points common to these

domains are the points
[0, )  (−,1] = [0,1]
The following table summarizes the formulas and domains for the various
algebraic combinations of the two functions. We also write f * g for the product
function fg.
Function Formula Domain
f +g ( f + g )( x) = x + 1 − x [0,1] = D( f )  D( g )
f −g ( f − g )( x) = x − 1 − x [0,1]
g− f ( g − f )( x) = 1 − x − x [0,1]
f *g ( f * g )( x) = f ( x) g ( x) = x(1 − x) = x − x 2 [0,1]
f f f ( x) x [0,1) ( x = 1 excluded)
g ( x) = =
g g ( x) 1− x
g g g ( x) 1− x (0,1] ( x = 0 excluded)
f ( x) = =
f f ( x) x

Chapter One
Example 2: Give the domain of f(x) and g(x) and the corresponding domains of
f+g, f-g, g-f, f.g, f /g and g /f where f ( x) = 4 − x 2 and g(x) = 3x+1

Sol. The domain of f(x) (Df) is:
4 - x2 ≥ 0  (2 – x) (2 + x) ≥ 0
 Df=[-2,+2] +2
Sign of (2-x) -∞ +++++++++++++ ---------- +∞
The domain of g(x) (Dg=R)
Sign of (2+x) -∞ ---------- -2+++++++++++++ +∞
So D f  Dg = [−2,2]
0
--------- -2 ++++++ +2
Sign of (2-x) (2+x) -∞ --------- +∞
Function Formula Domain

f+g (x) = 4 − x 2 + (3 x + 1) [-2,+2]
f-g (x) = [-2,+2]

4 − x 2 − (3 x + 1)
g-f (x) = [-2,+2]
(3 x + 1) − 4 − x 2
f.g (x) = [-2,+2]
4 − x 2 .(3x + 1)
f
(x) = [-2,+2]\{-1/3}
g 4 − x2
3x + 1
g
(x) = (-2,+2)
f 3x + 1
4 − x2
Homework: Give the domains of f and g and the corresponding domains of f+g,
f-g, f.g, f/g, and g/f for the following:
1
1. f ( x) = 3x ; g ( x) =
2
.
2x − 3
1 1
2. f ( x ) = x + ; g ( x) = x − .
x x
3. f ( x) = x + 3 ; g ( x) = x + 3 .
4. f ( x) = x + 3 x ; g ( x) = 3x 2 + 1 .
3
5. f ( x) = x + 4 ;
2
g ( x) = 7 x 2 + 1

Chapter One
Composition of Functions:
Definition: If f and g are functions, the composite f o g "f composed with g"
or g o f "g composed with f" are defined by:
(f o g)(x) =f (g(x)) and (g o f)(x) =g (f(x)) respectively.
Examples 1: Find the formula for f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) if g(x) = x2 and f(x) =x-7, then
find the value of f(g(2)) and g(f(2))
Sol.: a: For f(g(x))=?, f(x) = x-7
f(g(x)) = (g(x))-7 = x2-7  f(g(2)) = 22-7 = 4-7 = -3
b: For g(f(x))=?, g(x) = x2
g(f(x)) = (f(x))2 = (x-7)2  g(f(2)) = (2-7)2= (-5)2= 25
Examples 2: If f(x) =x2+1 and g ( x) = x , find
a: (f o g)(x) and (g o f)(x)?
b: the domains of (f o g)(x) and (g o f)(x)?
Sol.: (f o g)(x)= f(g(x)) = f ( x ) = ( x ) +1 = x +1

2
 D fo g = Dg = {x : x  0}
(go f)(x)=g(f(x)) = g ( x + 1) = x + 1  Dgo f = D f = R

2 2
Examples 3: Finding formulas for composites:

If f ( x) = x and g ( x) = x + 1, find
(a) (f o g)(x) (b) (g o f)(x) (c) (f o f)(x) (d) (g o g)(x)
Sol.:
Composite Domain
(a) (f o g)(x) = f ( g ( x)) = g ( x) = x + 1 [-1, )
(b) (g o f)(x) = g ( f ( x)) = f ( x) + 1 = x + 1 [0, )
(c) (f o f)(x) = f ( f ( x)) = f ( x) = x =x

1
4 [0, )
(d) (g o g)(x) = g ( g ( x)) = g ( x) +1 = ( x +1) + 1 = x + 2 (-, )

Chapter One
Example 4: If f ( x) = x and g ( x) = 2 − x , find each function and its domain
(a) fog (b) gof c) fof (d) gog
Sol.:
(a) ( f o g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) = f ( 2 − x ) = 2− x = 4 2− x
The domain of fog ={x: 2-x ≥ 0}={x :x ≤ 2}=(-∞,2].

(b) ( g o f )( x) = g ( f ( x)) = g ( x ) = 2 − x
For x to be defined we must have x ≥ 0. For 2 − x to be defined we must
have 2 − x  0 , that is, x  2 , or x  4 . Thus, we have 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, so the domain

of gof is the closed interval [0,4].
(c) ( f o f )( x) = f ( f ( x)) = f ( x ) = x =4 x
The domain of fof is [0,∞)

(d) ( go g )( x) = g ( g ( x)) = g ( 2 − x ) = 2 − 2 − x
This expression is defined when 2 – x ≥ 0, that is x ≤ 2, and 2 − 2 − x  0 . This

latter inequality is equivalent to 2 − x  2 , or 2 – x ≤ 4, that is, x ≥ -2. Thus, -2
≤ x ≤ 2, so the domain of gog is the closed interval [-2,2].
Homework: Find (fog), (gof), (fof) and (gog) of the following functions:
1. f ( x) = x3 ; g ( x) = x 2 + 3 .
1
2. f ( x) = 3x 2 + 2 ; g ( x) = .
3x + 2
2
3. f ( x) = 2 x + 1 ; g ( x) = x 2 + 3 .
4. f ( x) = 7 ; g ( x) = 4 .
5. f ( x) = x3 ; g ( x) = sin x − 3 .
1
6. f ( x) = ; g ( x) = 3 x .
1+ x
7. f ( x) = 3x 2 + x ; g ( x) = 2 x − 1 .

Chapter One
Graph of Functions (Graph of Curves):
To graph the curve of a function, we can follow the following steps:
1. Find the domain and range of the function.
2. Check the symmetry of the function
3. Find (if any found) points of intersection with x-axis and y-axis.
4. Choose some another points on the curve.
5. Draw s smooth line through the above points.
Symmetry Tests for Graphs:
If f(x,y) = 0 is any function then:
1. Symmetry about x-axis: If f(x,-y)= f(x,y)
2. Symmetry about y-axis: If f(-x,y)=f(x,y) It is called an even function.
3. Symmetry about the origin: If f(-x,-y)=f(x,y) It is called an odd function
Examples 1: Check the symmetry of the graph of the following curves:

1. y = f(x)=x2
sol.: f(x,y) = x2- y =0
 (i) f(x,-y)= x2- (-y) =0  . f(x,-y)= x2+ y =0 ≠ f(x,y) not o.k.
(ii) f(-x,y)= (-x)2- y =0  . f(-x,y)= x2- y =0= f(x,y) o.k.
(iii) f(-x,-y)= (-x)2-(-y)=0  . f(-x,-y)= x2+ y =0 ≠ f(x,y) not o.k.
So the function has symmetry only about y-axis. It is called an even function.
2. y= f(x)=x3
Sol. f(x,y) = x3- y =0
 (i) f(x,-y)= x3- (-y) =0  . f(x,-y)= x3+ y =0 ≠ f(x,y) not o.k.
(ii) f(-x,y)= (-x)3- y =0  . f(-x,y)= -x3- y =0 ≠ f(x,y) not o.k.
(iii) f(-x,-y)= (-x)3-(-y)=0  . f(-x,-y)= -x3+ y =0 (multiply by -1)
 f(-x,-y)= x3- y =0= f(x,y) o.k.
So the function has symmetry only about the origin. It is called an odd function.

Chapter One
3. x2 =y2 + 4
Sol. f(x,y) = y2 –x2+4=0
 (i) f(x,-y)= (-y)2 –x2+4=0  . f(x,-y)= y2 –x2+4=0= f(x,y) o.k.
(ii) f(-x,y)= y2 –(-x)2+4=0  . f(-x,y)= y2 –x2+4=0= f(x,y) o.k.
(iii) f(-x,-y)= (-y)2 –(-x)2+4=0  . f(-x,-y)= y2 –x2+4=0= f(x,y) o.k.
So the function has symmetry about x-axis, y-axis and the origin.
DEFINITIONS Even Function, Odd Function

A function y = f(x) is an
even function of x if f(-x) = f(x) symmetry about y-axis
odd function of x if f(-x) = -f(x) symmetry about origin
for every x in the function's domain.
Examples 2: Recognizing Even and Odd functions

o f(x)= x2Even function: (-x)2= x2 for all x; symmetry about y-axis.
o f(x)= x2 + 1 Even function: (-x)2 +1= x2 +1 for all x; symmetry about y-
axis.
o f(x)= x Odd function: (-x)= x for all x; symmetry about the origin.
o f(x)= x + 1 Not odd: f(-x)=-x+1, but -f(x)=-x-1. The two are not equal.
Not even: f(-x)=-x+1, but f(x)=x+1. for all x ≠ 0.

Chapter One
Example 3: Sketch the graph of the curve y = f(x) = x2-1
Sol.: Step 1: Find Df, Rf of the function?
Df=(-∞,∞);
y = x2-1  x2= y+1 x =  y +1
So y +1 ≥ 0  y ≥ -1  R=[-1,∞)
Step 2: Find x and y intercept?

To find x-intercept put y=0  x2-1=0  x2=±1
So x-intercept are (-1,0) and (+1,0).

To find y-intercept put x=0  y = 0-1  y = -1
So y-intercept is (0,-1). y
8 (3,8)
Step 3: check the symmetry:
7
f(-x) = (-x)2-1= x2-1= f(x) 6
5
- f(x) =-(x2-1)= - x2+1≠ f(x) 4
(2,3)
So it is an even function ( it is symmetric 3
about y-axis). 1
(-1,0) (1,0)
0 x
Step 4: Choose some another point on the -3 -2 -1
-1
0
(0,-1)
1 2 3
-2
curve.
x y
2 3
3 8
Step 5: Draw smooth line through the above points.
Homework: Draw the following functions:

1. y = f ( x) = 3x 2 + 2 2. x 2 + y 2 = 1
3. y 2 = 4 x − 1 4. x = y 3
5. y = [x] ; for -3 ≤ x ≤ 3 6. y = x − [x] ; for -2 ≤ x ≤ 2

Chapter One
Shifting, Shrinking and Stretching:
Shift formulas: (for c > 0)

Vertical shifts
y= f(x)+c or y-c= f(x) shifts the graph of f up by c units.
y= f(x)-c or y+c= f(x) shifts the graph of f down by c units.
Horizontal shifts
y= f(x+c) shifts the graph of f left by c units.
y= f(x-c) shifts the graph of f right by c units.
Shrinking, Stretching and Reflecting Formulas:

(for c > 1)
y=c f(x) Stretches the graph of f c units along y-axis.
1
y= f ( x) Shrinks the graph of f c units along y-axis.
c
y= f(cx) Shrinks the graph of f c units along x-axis.
x
y= f( ) Stretches the graph of f c units along x-axis.
c
(for c = -1)
y=- f(x) Reflects the graph of f across the x-axis.
y= f(-x) Reflects the graph of f across the y-axis.
Example 1: The graph of y=− x is a

reflection of y = x across the x-
axis, and y = − x is a reflection
across the y-axis.
Example 2: Shift the graph of the function

f(x) = x2 ; if Df={x: -2 ≤ x ≤ 3} and Rg={y: 0 ≤ y ≤ 9}.
(a) one unit right. (b) two units left.

(c) one unit up. (d) two units down.
Sol.: (a) Shifting the function f(x) one unit right:
g(x) = f(x-1) = (x-1)2 and Dg={x: -2 ≤ x-1 ≤ 3}={x: -1 ≤ x ≤ 4}
Note: In case of horizontal shifts, the range of the function will not be changed.

Chapter One
x y=f(x)=x2 x-1 y=g(x)=(x-1)2

-2 4 - - y
-1 1 -2 4 g(x)=f(x-1)
9
0 0 -1 1 8
f(x)
1 1 0 0 7
2 4 1 1 6
3 9 2 4 5
4 - 3 9 4
(b) Shifting the function f(x) two units left: 1
0 x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
h(x) = f(x+2) = (x+2) and Dh={x: -2 ≤ x+2 ≤ 3}={x: -4 ≤ x ≤ 1}
2 -1
-2
Note: In case of horizontal shifts, the range of the function will not be changed.
X y=f(x)=x2 x+2 y=h(x)=(x+2)2

y
-4 - -2 4
h(x)=f(x+2)
-3 - -1 1 9
f(x)
-2 4 0 0 8
-1 1 1 1 7
0 0 2 4 6
5
1 1 3 9
4
2 4 - - 3
3 9 - 2
0 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(c) Shifting the function f(x) one unit up: -1
-2
w(x) = f(x)+1 = x2 +1 and Rw={y: 0 ≤ y-1 ≤ 9}={y: 1 ≤ y ≤ 10}
Note: In case of vertical shifts, the domain of the function will not be changed.
y
2 2
X y=f(x)=x y=w(x)= x +1 10 w(x)=f(x)+1
-2 4 5 9 f(x)
-1 1 2 8
7
0 0 1
6
1 1 2 5
2 4 5 4
3 9 10 3
2
1
0 x
(d) Shifting the function f(x) two units down: -3 -2 -1
-1
0 1 2 3 4
-2

Chapter One
q(x) = f(x)-2 = x2 -2 and Rq={y: 0 ≤ y+2 ≤ 9}={y: -2 ≤ y ≤ 7}
Note: In case of vertical shifts, the domain of the function will not be changed.
y
X y=f(x)=x2 y=q(x)= x2 -29 f(x)

8
-2 4 2 7
q(x)=f(x)-2
-1 1 -1 6
5
0 0 -2
4
1 1 -1 3
2 4 2 2
1
3 9 7 0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
Example 3: Sketch the graph of the curve y= f(x) = |x| -3

-4
Sol.: Step1: Find Df, Rf of the function?

 x if x0
y = f ( x) = x = 
− x if x0
 Df=(-∞,∞) and Rf= [0,∞);

Step2: Find x and y intercept?
To find x-intercept put y=0  x=0
To find y-intercept put x=0  y=0
So x- and y-intercept is (0,0).

Step 3: check the symmetry:
f(-x) = |-x|=|x|= f(x)
- f(x) =-|x|≠ f(x)
y
So it is an even function (it is symmetric about y- f(x)=-x when x<0
f(x)=x when x>=0
3
axis).
2
Step 4: Choose some another point on the curve.
x y 1
1 1
2 2
0 x
Step 5: Draw smooth line through the above -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
points. -1

Chapter One
Example 4: Use graph of the function y=|x| to sketch the graph of the following
functions, then show their domains and range
(a) y=|x+1| y
f(x)=-(x+1) when x+1<0
f(x)=x+1 when x+1>=0
Sol. 4
 ( x + 1) if ( x + 1)  0 3
y = x +1 = 
− ( x + 1) if ( x + 1)  0 2
( x + 1) if x  −1 1
=
− x − 1 if x  −1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
0
0 1 2 3 4
x
(-1,0)
Shifting the function y=|x| one unit left. -1
Df=(-∞,∞) and Rf=[0,∞) f(x)=-x+2 when x<0

y
f(x)=x+2 when x>=0
7
(b) y=|x|+2
6
 ( x) + 2 if ( x)  0 5
Sol. y == x + 2 = 
(− x) + 2 if ( x)  0 4
Shifting the function y=|x| two up. (0,2) 2

1
Df=(-∞,∞) and Rf=[2,∞) 0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(c) y=-|x| -1
-2
− ( x) = − x if ( x)  0
Sol. y = f ( x) = − x = 
− (− x) = x if ( x)  0 y
Reflecting the graph of the function y=|x| across x-

0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
axis.
-1
Df=(-∞,∞) and Rf=(-∞,0] f(x)=x when x<0 f(x)=-x when x>=0
-2
(d) y=2-|1-x| -3
y
Sol. y=2-|1-x|=-|1-x|+2|=-|x-1|+2 3
 − ( x − 1) + 2 if ( x − 1)  0
= 2
(1,2)
− (−( x − 1)) + 2 if x −1  0
f(x)=x+1 when x<1 1 f(x)=-x+3 when x>=1
− x + 3 if x 1
=
0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
 x + 1 if x 1 -1
Reflecting the graph of the function y=|x| across x- -2

Chapter One
axis, then shifting it one unit right and two units up.
y
Df=(-∞,∞) and Rf=(-∞,2]
2
(e) y=1-|x+1| (-1,1)

1
Sol. y=1-|x+1|=-|x+1|+1 0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
 − ( x + 1) + 1 if ( x + 1)  0
=
f(x)=x+2 when x<-1 -1
f(x)=-x when x>=-1
− (−( x + 1)) + 1 if ( x + 1)  0 -2
 − x if x  −1 -3
=
 x + 2 if x  −1 -4
Reflecting the graph of the function y=|x| across x-axis, then shifting it one
unit left and one unit up.
Df=(-∞,∞) and Rf=(-∞,1]
Example 5: If f ( x) = 4 − x 2 which has Df=[-2,2] and Rf=[0,2], shrink and stretch it

horizontally by two units and then
y
sketch the original and resulting
4
functions
3
Sol.: (a) shrinking: f(x)=sqrt(4-x^2) 2
g ( x) = f (c.x) = 4 − ( 2 x) 2 = 4 − 4x = 2 1 − x2 1
g(x)=f(2x)=sqrt(4-(2x)^2)
Dg={x: -2 ≤ 2x ≤ 2}={x: -1≤ x ≤ 1} -2 -1

0
0 1 2
x
Note: In case of horizontal shrinks, the range -1
of the function will not be changed. -2
(b) stretching: y
x x 2 x2 16 − x 2 1
g ( x) = f ( ) = 4 − ( ) = 4 − = = 16 − x 2 3
c 2 4 4 2
Dg={x: -2 ≤ x/2 ≤ 2}={x: -4≤ x ≤ 4} 2
g(x)=f(x/2)=sqrt(4-(x/2)^2)
Note: In case of horizontal stretches, the range 1

f(x)=sqrt(4-x^2)
of the function will not be changed. -4 -3 -2 -1

0
0 1 2 3 4
x
-1
-2

Chapter One
y
Example 6: Repeat the above example but here shrink and
4
stretch the function vertically. 3
f(x)=sqrt(4-x^2)
Sol.: (a) shrinking: 2
g(x)=(1/2)f(x)=(1/2)sqrt(4-x^2)
1
1 1
g ( x) = f (.x) = 4 − x2 0 x
c 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
-1
Rg={y: 0 ≤ 2y ≤ 2}={y: 0 ≤ y ≤ 1} -2
Note: In case of vertical shrinks, the domain of the function will not be
y
changed. g(x)=2*f(x)=2*sqrt(4-x^2)
4
(b) stretching: f(x)=sqrt(4-x^2)

2
g ( x) = cf (.x) = 2 4 − x 2
1
0 x
-2 -1 0 1 2
Rg={y: 0 ≤ y/2 ≤ 2}={y: 0 ≤ y ≤ 4} -1
Note: In case of vertical stretches, the domain of the -2
function will not be changed. y
1.5
Example 7: Use the graph of the function y = f ( x) = 1 − x 2

1.0
y=f(x)
y=g(x)=f(2x)
to sketch the graph of the following functions: 0.5
1. y = g ( x) = 1 − 4 x 2 -1.0 -0.5
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
x
Sol.: y = 1 − 4 x 2 = 1 − (2 x) 2 -0.5
4.5
This function may be obtained by shrinking the function f ( x) = 4.01 − x 2 by

3.5
two units horizontally ( g ( x) = f (2x) ). 3.0
2.5 y
2
x 2.0
2. y = h( x ) = 1 − 1.5
9 1.0 y=h(x)=f(x/3)
0.5 y=f(x)
x2 x y=g(x)=f(2x)
Sol.: y = 1 − = 1 − ( )2 0.0
-3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
x
9 3 -0.5
This function may be obtained by stretching the function f ( x) = 1 − x 2 by

x
three units horizontally ( h( x) = f ( ) ).
3

y
Chapter One
1 4.5
3. y = w( x) = 1 − x2 4.0 y=q(x)=4.f(x/2)
3 3.5
3.0
1 2.5
Sol.: y = w( x) = 1 − x 2 2.0
3 1.5
y=f(x)
1.0
This function may be obtained by 0.5 y=w(x)=(1/3)f(x)
0.0 x
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
shrinking the function f ( x) = 1 − x 2 -0.5

by
1
three units vertically ( h( x) = f ( x) ).
3
x2
4. y = q( x) = 4 1 −
4
x2 x
Sol.: y = q( x) = 4 1 − = 4 1 − ( )2
4 2
This function may be obtained by stretching the function f ( x) = 1 − x 2 by

x
two units horizontally and four units vertically ( q( x) = 4. f ( ) ).
2
Homework:
y
1. Sketch the graph of the following curves by shifting, 9
reflecting, shrinking and stretching the graph of the 6
given functions appropriately. 3
1 y=x2
(a) The given function y=x2 -3 -2 -1
0
0 1 2 3
x
-1
(i) y=1+(x-2)2 (ii) y=2-(x+1)2

-2
(iii) y=-2(x+1)2-3 (iv) y=(1/2)(x-3)2+2

y
(v) y=x2 + 6x (vi) y=x2 + 6x -10 4
(b) The given function y = x 1
(i) y = 3 − x + 1 (ii) y = 1 + x − 4 -2 -1
0
0 1 2 3 4
x
1
(iii) y = x +1 (iv) y = − 3 x
-1
2 -2
1 40
(c) The given function y = 30
x 20
1 1 y=1/x
y= (ii) y =
10
(i)
x −3 1− x
0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-10
-20
-30
-40

Chapter One
x −1
y
1
(iii) y = 2 − (iv) y = 3
x +1 x
(d) The given function y=|x| 2
(i) y=|x+2|-2 (ii) y=1-|x-3| 1
y=|x|
(iv ) y = x 2 − 4 x + 4 -3 -2 -1
0
0 1 2 3
x
(iii) y=|2x-1|+2
= ( x − 2) 2 = x − 2
-1
(e) The given function y = 3 x

(i) y = 1 − 23 x (ii) y = 3 x − 1 − 3
(iii) y = 2 + 3 x + 1 (iv) y = −3 x − 2
2. Shrink and stretch the following functions along both x-

axis and y-axis by (3/2) units then sketch the resulting function.
(a) x2 + y2 = 4, Df={x: -2 ≤ x ≤ 2}
Rf={y: -2 ≤ y ≤ 2}
(b) 2x2 + y2/2 = 6, Df={x: -2 ≤ x ≤ 3}
Rf={y: -2 ≤ y ≤ 2 6 }
(c) y=3x2 – 2x +1, Df={x: -1 ≤ x ≤ 2}
6
Rf={y: ≤ y ≤ 9}
9

Chapter One
Trigonometric Functions
We measure angles in degrees, but in calculus it is usually best to use
radians.
1. Degree measure: One degree (1o) is the measure of an angle generated
by 1/360 of revolution.
2. Radian measure: The radian measure of the angle ACB at the center of
the unit circle (circle with radius equals one unit) equals
to the length of the arc that the angle cuts from the unit
circle.
If angle ACB cuts an arc A`B` from a second circle centered at C,
then circular sector A`CB` will be similar to circular sector ACB.
In particular,
Length of arc A`B` Length of arc AB
=
Radius of sec ond circle Radius of first circle
In notations
s  s
= =  = or s=r
r 1 r
To find the relation between degree measure and radian measure, you know that
one circle equals 360o in degree and 2 in radians so:
2 radians= 360o   radians= 180o

 1o = rad  0.01745 rad
180
o
 180 
and 1rad =    57 17 '44 .8"
o
  
The six basic trigonometric functions:

y 1 r
sine: sin  = , cosecant: csc = = ,
r sin  y
x 1 r
cosine: cos  = , secant: sec = =
r cos  x
sin  y 1 cos  x
tangent: tan  = = , cotangent: cot  = = =
cos  x tan  sin  y

Chapter One
from Pythagoras theorem:
x2 + y2 x2 y2
x2 + y2 = r2  =1  + =1
r2 r2 r2
 cos2 + sin2 = (true for all values of ) ()

When we divided eq.(1) by cos2 yields:
cos 2 sin 2 1
+ =  1 + tan2 = sec2
cos  cos  cos 2
2 2
And when we divided eq.(1) by sin2 yields:

cos 2 sin 2 1
+ =  cot2 +1 = csc2
sin  sin  sin 2
2 2
The rules for shifting, stretching, compressing, and reflecting:

The rules for shifting, stretching, compressing, and reflecting the graph of a
function apply to the trigonometric functions. The following diagram will
remind you of the controlling parameters.
The CAST rule:

It is useful for remembering when the basic trigonometric
functions are positive or negative.
The CAST rule, remembered by the statement
“All Students Take Calculus,” tells which trigonometric
functions are positive in each quadrant.
Identities:
- Periodicity: A function is periodic with period p if
f(x+p)= f(x) for every value of x.
cos(±2) =cos
sin(±2) =sin
tan(±2) =tan

Chapter One
cot(±2) =cot
sec(±2) =sec
csc(±2) =csc
- Symmetry:
Even functions Odd functions
cos(-x)=cosx sin(-x)=-sinx
sec(-x)=secx tan(-x)=-tanx
cot(-x)=-cotx
csc(-x)=-cscx
- Shift formulas:
sin(x + /2) = cos(x); cos(x + /2) = -sin(x)
sin(x - /2) = -cos(x); cos(x - /2) = sin(x)
- Addition formulas:
cos(A+B)=cosA cosB – sinA sinB
sin(A+B)=sinA cosB + cosA sinB v
- Double angle formulas: u
cos2=cos2 − sin2
sin2= 2.sin .cos
- Half angle formulas:
1 + cos 2
cos 2  =
2
1 − cos 2
sin 2  =
2
Graph of trigonometric functions:

1. y = sin x
• Domain and Range of the function
Df=(-∞,∞)
From Figure nearby, we conclude that:
-r ≤ v ≤ r (divide the inequality by r)
v
−1  1  − 1  sin   1
r

Chapter One
Rf=[-1,1]
• Symmetry:
f(-x) = sin(-x) =-sinx = - f(x)
≠ f(x)
So it is an odd function (it is symmetric about the origin).
• Additional points:
x 0   3 2
y 0 1 0 -1 0
2. y = cos x
Df=(-∞,∞)
From Figure, we conclude that:
-r ≤ u ≤ r (divide the inequality by r)
u
−1  1  −1  cos   1
r
Rf=[-1,1]
• Symmetry:
f(-x) = cos(-x) =cosx = f(x)
≠- f(x)
So it is an even function (it is symmetric about the y-axis).
x 0   3 2
y 1 0 -1 0 1
sin x
3. y = tan x =
cos x


cosx ≠ 0  xn ; n=±1, ±3, ±5
2

Df= R\{ x = n ; n=±1, ±3, ±5}
2

Chapter One
Rf=(-∞,∞)
• Symmetry:
sin( − x) − sin x
f(-x) = tan(-x) = = =-tanx ≠ f(x)
cos(− x) cos x
=- f(x)
• Asymptotes:
To find vertical asymptote put the denominator equal to zero.

cosx = 0  x=n ; n=±1, ±3, ±5
2
x 0   3 2
y 0 ±∞ 0 ±∞ 0
cos x
4. y = cot x =
sin x

sinx ≠ 0  x=n ; n=0, ±1, ±2, ±3
Df= R\{x=n; n=0, ±1, ±2, ±3}
Rf=(-∞,∞)
• Symmetry:
cos(− x) cos x
f(-x) = cot(-x) = = =-cotx ≠ f(x)
=- f(x)
• Asymptotes:
sinx = 0  x≠n ; n=0, ±1, ±2, ±3
x 0   3 2
y ±∞ 0 ±∞ 0 ±∞

Chapter One
1
5. y = sec x =
cos x


cosx ≠ 0  xn ; n=±1, ±3, ±5
2

Df= R\{ x = n ; n=±1, ±3, ±5}
2
-r ≤ u ≤ r (divide the inequality by r)
u 1
−1  1  −1  cos   1  cos  1  1
r cos
 sec  1  sec   1 or sec  −1
Rf= R\(-1,1)
• Symmetry:
1 1
f(-x) = sec(-x) = = =sec x = f(x)
cos( − x) cos x
≠- f(x)
So it is an even function (it is symmetric about the y-axis).
• Asymptotes:

cosx = 0  x=n ; n=±1, ±3, ±5
2
x 0   3 2
y 1 ±∞ -1 ±∞ 1
1
6. y = csc x =
sin x

sinx ≠ 0  x≠n; n=0, ±1, ±2, ±3
Df= R\{x=n; n=0, ±1, ±2, ±3}
-r ≤ v ≤ r (divide the inequality by r)

Chapter One
v 1
−1  1  − 1  sin   1  sin   1  1
r sin 
 csc  1  csc  1 or csc  −1
Rf= R\(-1,1)
• Symmetry:
1 1
f(-x) = csc(-x) = = =-cscx ≠ f(x) =- f(x)

• Asymptotes:
sinx = 0  x=n ; n=0, ±1, ±2, ±3
x 0   3 2
y ±∞ 1 ±∞ -1 ±∞
Example: Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

1. y=sin2x
Sol.: We obtain the graph of y=sin2x from that of y=sinx by shrinking it two
units horizontally.
Dg=(-∞,∞); Rg=[-1,1]
2. y=2cosx
Sol.: In order to get the graph of y=2cosx we
multiply the y-coordinate of each point on the
graph of y=cosx by 2. This means that the
graph of y=cosx gets stretched vertically by a
factor of 2.

Chapter One
y
Dg=(-∞,∞); Rg={y: -1 ≤ ≤1}
2
={y: -2 ≤ y ≤2} = [-2, 2]
3. y=1-sinx
Sol.: To obtain the graph of
y=1-sinx, we again start with
y=sinx. We reflect across the x-axis to get the graph of and then we shift 1
unit upward to get y=1-sinx.

Dg=(-∞,∞); Rg={y: -1 ≤ y-1 ≤1}
={y: 0 ≤ y ≤2} = [0, 2]
4. y= 2cos3x, -2  ≤ 3x ≤ 2
Sol.: We obtain the graph of y=g(x)=2cos3x from that of y=f(x)=cosx by
shrinking it three units horizontally and stretching it two units vertically.
2 2
Dg={x: -2  ≤ 3x ≤ 2} ={x: − ≤x≤ } y
3 3
g(x)=2f(3x)
2 2 2
=[ − , ]
3 3 f(x)=cosx
1
y
Rg={y: -1 ≤ ≤1}={y: -2 ≤ y ≤2} = [-2, 2] 0 x
2 -6.29 -4.71 -3.14 -1.57 0.00 1.57 3.14 4.71
-1

5. y=sin(x+ ), -2  ≤ x ≤ 2
4 -2

Sol.: We obtain the graph of y=g(x) =sin(x+ ) from that of y=f(x)=sinx by shifting
4
 y
it units left.
4 g(x)=f(x+0.785)
1
 9 7
Dg={x: -2  ≤ x+ ≤ 2} ={x: − ≤x≤ } f(x)=cosx
4 4 4 0
9 7 x
=[ − , ] -6.29 -4.71 -3.14 -1.57 0.00 1.57 3.14 4.71
4 4 -1
While the range will not be changed, Rg=[-1,1] -2

Chapter One
6. y = sin|x| y
g(x)=sin|x|
sin( x) if ( x)  0 2
Sol.: y = sin x = 
sin( − x) = − sin x if ( x)  0 1
0 x
-6.29 -4.71 -3.14 -1.57 0.00 1.57 3.14 4.71
Dg = (-∞,∞); Rg=[-1,1] f(x)=sinx-1
-2
7. y= |cosx| y
 (cos x) if (cos x)  0 2
Sol.: y = cos x = 
− (cos x) if (cos x)  0 g(x)=|cosx|
1
Dg=(-∞,∞); Rg=[0,1] 0 x
-6.29 -4.71 -3.14 -1.57 0.00 1.57 3.14 4.71
-1
f(x)=cosx
-2
Homework: Graph the following functions and show domains and ranges of
them.
1 + cos 2 x
1. y = sin 2x 2. y = 2 tan x 3. y = cot 3x 4. y =
2
x x
5. y = x 2 + 1 6. y = sin 7. y = 2 cos 8. y = x 2 − 4
3 3
x+ x cos x + cos x
9. y = 2 sec x 10. y = (2 x)2 11. y = 12. y =
2 2
3x + x x sin x
13. y = 2 x + 1 14. y = 15. y = 2
16. y =
x x cos x
x3 + x
17. y =
x

Chapter Two
LIMITS AND CONTINUTY
The most basic use of limits is to describe how a function behavior as the
independent variable approaches a given value.
Example: Let us examine the behavior of the function f ( x) = x2 − x + 2 for a
value of x closer and closer to 2.
x 1 1.5 1.9 1.95 1.99 1.995 1.999 2 2.001 2.005 2.01 2.05
f(x) 2 2.75 3.71 3.852 3.97 3.985 3.997 /// 4.003 4.015 4.03 4.152
Left side Right side

It is evident from the graph and the
table that the value of f(x) gets closer and
closer to 4 as value of x is selected closer
and closer to 2 on either left or the right
side of 2. We describe this that the limit of
(x2-x + 2) is 4 as x approaches2 from either
side, and we write:

lim ( x 2 − x + 2) = 4
x→2
Observe that in our investigation of lim ( x 2 − x + 2) we are only concerned

x →2
with the value of f(x) near x=2 and not the value of f(x) at x=2.
DEFINITION:
If the value of f(x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking the value
of x sufficiently close to a (but not equal a), then we write:
lim f ( x) = L
x→a
Which is read "the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L".
Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (40)

Chapter Two
Properties of limits:
1. If f(x) = k, then lim f ( x) = k where a and k are real numbers.
x→a
2. If lim f1 ( x ) = L1 and lim f 2 ( x) = L2 , then:

x→a x→a
(a) Sum rule: lim [ f1 ( x) + f 2 ( x)] = L1 + L2

x→a
(b) Difference rule: lim [ f1 ( x) − f 2 ( x)] = L1 − L2

x→a
(c) Product rule: lim [ f1 ( x). f 2 ( x)] = L1.L2

x→a
(d) Constant multiple rule: lim k. f1 ( x) = k.L1 (where k is constant)

x→a
f ( x) L
(e) Quotient rule: lim 1
= 1; L2  0
x→a f 2 ( x) L2
r r
(f) Power rule: lim [ f1 ( x)] s = L1 s (if s is even number L1 > 0)
x→a
lim (c0 + c1 x +c 2 x .....cn x ) = c0 + c1a +c 2 a .....cn a

2 n 2 n
3. Polynomial
x→a
sin x
4. lim =1
x→0 x
5. Sandwich theorem:
If g ( x)  f ( x)  h( x) are three functions such that:
lim g ( x) = lim h( x) = L then lim f ( x) = L .

x→a
x→a x→a
Note:
1. For sake of convenience in dealing with indeterminate forms, we define
the following arithmetic operations with real numbers, +∞ and -∞. Let c
be a real number and c > 0. Then we define:
+∞ +∞= +∞, -∞ -∞ = -∞, c(+∞) = +∞, c(-∞) = -∞, (-c)( +∞)=-∞, (-c)( -∞) = +∞,
c −c c −c −c
= 0, = 0, = 0, = 0 , (+) =  , (+ ) = 0 , (+∞) (+∞) = +∞,
c
  − −
(+∞) (-∞) = -∞, (-∞)(-∞) = +∞
2. The following operations are indeterminate quantities:
0 
( , , − , 0* )
0 

Chapter Two
Examples: Find the limits of the following:

1. lim x 2 − 4 x = 22 − 4 * 2 = 4 − 8 = −4
x→2
2. lim x3 + 2 x 2 − 3x + 4 = 13 + 2 *12 − 3 *1 + 4 = 4
x →1
(3x − 1) 2 (3 *1 − 1) 2 22 1
3. lim = = 3 =
x→1 ( x + 1) (1 + 1)3
3
2 2
x2 − 4 22 − 4 0
4. lim 2 = 2 = (Indeterminate quantities)
x →2 x − 5 x + 6 2 − 5* 2 + 6 0
( x − 2)( x + 2) ( x + 2) 2+2 4
So lim = lim = = = −4
x→2 ( x − 2)( x − 3) x→2 ( x − 3) 2 − 3 −1
x−2 2−2 0
5. lim = = (Indeterminate quantities)
x →2 x2 − 4 22 − 4 0
x−2 x−2 x−2 x−2 x−2 2−2 0

= lim = lim = lim = = =0
x→2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) x→2 x − 2 x + 2 x→2 x+2 2+2 4
x−2 2−2 0
6. lim = 2 = (Indeterminate quantities)
x→2 x −4
2
2 −4 0
x−2 x−2
= lim = lim
x→2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) x→2 x − 2 x − 2 ( x + 2)
1 1 1 1
= lim = = = = So the limit does not exist
x→2 x − 2 ( x + 2) 2 − 2 (2 + 2) 0 * 4 0
x −1 1−1 0
7. lim = = (Indeterminate quantities)
x→1 x +3 −2
2
1 +3 −2
2 0
x −1 x2 + 3 + 2
= lim * (Multiplying both the numerator and
x→1 x2 + 3 − 2 x2 + 3 + 2
denominator by conjugate factor)

( x − 1)( x 2 + 3 + 2) ( x − 1)( x 2 + 3 + 2) ( x − 1)( x 2 + 3 + 2)
= lim = lim = lim
x →1 x2 + 3 − 4 x →1 x2 − 1 x →1 ( x − 1)( x + 1)
( x 2 + 3 + 2) 12 + 3 + 2 4
= lim = = =2
x →1 ( x + 1) x +1 2
sin 3x sin 3x 3 sin 3x

8. = lim = lim * = 3 * lim = 3 *1 = 3
x→0 x x→0 x 3 x→0 3x
Remember that 3x→0 when x→0

Chapter Two
tan x sin x cos x sin x 1 1

9. = lim = lim = lim * lim = 1* = 1
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x x→0 cos x 1
cos x  
10. = lim let z = −x so as x →  z →0
  2 2
x→
2 −x
2

cos( − z)
2 sin z
 lim = lim =1
z →0 z z →0 z
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x 1 − cos 2 x

11. = lim = lim * = lim
x→0 x x→0 x 1 + cos x x→0 x(1 + cos x)
sin 2 x sin x sin x 0

= lim = lim * lim = 1* =0
x →0 x (1 + cos x ) x →0 x x →0 (1 + cos x ) 1+1
Homework: Find the limits of the following:

2 x 2 + 5x − 3 x−2 x − 16
1. lim 2 2. lim 3 3. lim
1 6x − 7x + 2 x→2 x − 8 x→16 x −4
x→
2
4x2 − 6x + 3 x+3 x2 − x − 2
4. lim 3 5. lim 6. lim
x→−3 1 x + 1 3 x→2 ( x − 2)
x→ 16 x + 8 x − 7
2
1
2
x3 + 8 x2 1 4 − 16 + h
7. lim 4 8. lim − 9. lim
x→−2 x − 16 x→1 x − 1 x −1 h→0 h
1 1 x x + sin x
10. lim ( )( − 1) 11. lim 12. lim
h→0 h 1+ h x→0 sin x x→0 x
sin x 6 x − sin 2 x
13. lim 14. lim ( x − 3) cscx 15. lim
x→0 2x2 − x x→3 x→0 2 x + 3 sin 4 x
3
8+ x −2 x 2 + 100 − 10
16. lim (Hint: assume 3 8 + x = z ) 17. lim
x →0 x x→0 x2

Chapter Two
Right-hand limits and left-hand limits

The notation for the right-hand limit is
lim f ( x) "The limit of f(x) as x approaches c from the right"
x→c +
The (+) is there to say that x

approaches c through values -∞ c x +∞
From right
greater than c on the line
numbers.
The notation for the left-hand limit is
lim f ( x) "The limit of f(x) as x approaches c from the left"
x →c −
The (-) is there to say that x

approaches c through values -∞ x c +∞
From left
less than c on the line
numbers.
Examples: The greatest integer function f(x) = [x] has difference right-hand and
left-hand limits at each integer. As we see in figure:
1. lim [ x] = 2 but lim [ x] = 1
x→2+ x→2−
2. lim [ x] = −1 but lim [ x] = −2

x→−1+ x→−1−
While
3. lim [ x] = 1 but lim [ x] = 1
x→1.5+ x→1.5−
One sided vs. two sided limits:

DEFINITION:
A function f(x) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if the right-hand
and left-hand limits at c exist and are equal. In symbol:
lim f ( x) = L  lim f ( x) = L and lim f ( x) = L
x →c x→c + x→c −

Chapter Two
Example: Discuss the limit properties of the

function f(x) which shown in figure.
at x=0 lim f ( x) = 1
x→0+
lim f ( x) does not exist (because the

x →0 −
function is not defined to the left of x=0)

at x=1 lim f ( x) = 0 even though f(1) = 1
x→1−
lim f ( x) = 1
x→1+
lim f ( x) does not exist, because the right-hand and left-hand limits are
x→1
not equal.
at x=2 lim f ( x) = 1
x→2−
lim f ( x) = 1
x→2+
lim f ( x) = 1 even though f(2) = 2

x→2
at x=3 lim f ( x) = 2
x→3−
lim f ( x) = 2
x→3+
lim f ( x) = f (3) = 2
x →3
at x=4 lim f ( x) = 1 even though f(4) = 0.5

x→4−
lim f ( x) does not exist, because the function is not defined to the right
x →4 +
of x=4.

Chapter Two
Limit Involving Infinity:

It means that the limits include x → + or x → − and limf(x)=∞ or
limf(x)=-∞
1
Let y = then
x
1
1. lim = + the limit does not exit.
x→0 +
x
1
2. lim = − the limit does not exit.
x→0 −
x
1
3. lim =0
x→+ x
1
4. lim =0
x→− x
Examples: Find the limits of the following:

1 1
1. lim (5 + ) = lim 5 + lim =5+0 =5
x→ x x→ x→ x
x x x 1 1 1
2. lim = lim = lim = =
x→ 7 x + 4 x→ 7 x x + 4 x x→ 7 + 4 x 7 + 0 7
Note: In rational functions when x approaches infinity divide both the numerator
and denominator by the largest bower of x in the denominator.
2x2 − x + 3 2x2 x2 − x x2 + 3 x2 2 −1 x + 3 x2 2 − 0 + 0 2
3. lim = lim 3x 2 x 2 + 5 x 2 = lim 3 + 5 x 2 = 3 + 0 = 3
x→ 3x 2 + 5 x→ x→
4. lim 4 x − 3 = lim 4 x x − 3 x = lim 4 x − 3 x = 4 * () = 

2 2
the limit does not exit.
x→ 3x x→ 3x x x→ 3 3
5x + 3 5x x 2 + 3 x 2 5 x + 3 x2 0 − 0 0
5. lim 2 = lim 2 2 = lim = = =0
x→ 2 x − 1 x→ 2 x x − 1 x 2 −1 x 2−0 2
2
x→
Summery for Rational Functions

f ( x)
a) lim =0 if deg(f) < deg(g)
x→ g ( x )
f ( x)
b) lim is finite if deg(f)=deg(g)
x→ g ( x)
f ( x)
c) lim is infinite if deg(f) > deg(g)
x→ g ( x)

Chapter Two
sin x
6. lim
x→ x
Sol.: Remember − 1  sin x  1 divide the inequality by x yield
− 1 sin x 1
 
x x x
1 1
lim − =0 and lim =0
x→ x x→ x
sin x
 lim =0 (sandwich theorem)
x→ x
1
7. lim x sin
x → x
1 1
Sol.: Let x=  z=
z x
When x →   z →0
1
 lim sin z = 1
x→0 z
8. lim x 2 + 6 x + 1 − x 2 + x = ( − )
x→
x2 + 6x + 1 + x2 + x
Sol.: lim x + 6 x + 1 − x + x *
2 2
x→ x2 + 6x + 1 + x2 + x
( x 2 + 6 x + 1) − ( x 2 + x) x2 + 6x + 1 − x2 − x 5x + 1
= lim = lim = lim
x → x + 6x + 1 + x + x
2 2
x + 6 x + 1 + x + x x → x + 6 x + 1 + x 2 + x
x → 2 2 2
5x x + 1 x 5+0 5 5
= lim = = = = 2.5
x → x x + 6x x + 1 x + x x + x x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1+ 0 + 0 + 1+ 0 1 + 1 2
Homework: Find the limits of the following:

2 x + x sin 3x (2 x − 1) 5
1. lim 2. lim x + x − x 3. lim 2
x→ 5x 2 − 2 x + 1 x→ x→ (3 x + 2 x − 7)( x − 9 x)
3
sin x cos(1 x) x
4. lim (2 + ) 5. lim 6. lim
x → x x→ (1 x) x→ x
x
7. lim
x →0 x

Chapter Two
Continuous Functions:
DEFINITION:
- Continuity at interior points:
A function y=f(x) is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if:
lim f ( x ) = f (c ) +∞ +∞
x→c
a c b
- Continuity at end-points:
A function y= f (x) is continuous at a left end-point a of its domain if:
lim f ( x) = f (a)
x→a +
A function y=f(x) is continuous at a right end-point b of its domain if:

lim f ( x) = f (b)
x→b−
Continuous Functions:
A function is continuous if it is continuous at each point of its domain.
Discontinuity at a point:
If a function f (x) is not continuous at a point c, we say that f (x) is
discontinuous at c and call c a point of discontinuity of f (x).
The Continuity Test
The function y=f(x) is continuous at x=c if and only if the following
statements are true:-
1. f (c) exists (c lies in the domain of f).
2. lim f ( x) exists (f has a limit as x→c).
x→ c
3. lim f ( x) = f (c) (the limit equals the function value).

x→c
Example1: Discuss the continuity conditions of the function f(x) which shown in
figure at x=0, x=1, x=2, x=3, x=1.5 and x=4.
-at x=0 (left end-point)
f (0) = 1
lim f ( x) = 1
x→0+
 lim f ( x) = f (0) = 1
x →0 +

Chapter Two
So it is continuous at the left end-point (x=0).

-at x=1 (interior point)
f(1) = 1
lim f ( x) = 0
x→1−
lim f ( x) = 1
x→1+
 lim f ( x ) does not exist, because the right-hand and left-hand limits are not
x→1
equal.
So it is discontinuous at x=1.
f(2) = 2
lim f ( x) = 1
x→2−
lim f ( x) = 1
x→2+
 lim f ( x) = 1
x →2
 lim f ( x)  f (2)
x →2
So it is discontinuous at x=2.
f(3) = 2
lim f ( x) = 2
x→3−
lim f ( x) = 2
x→3+
 lim f ( x) = 2
x→3
 lim f ( x) = f (3) = 2
x→3
So it is continuous at x=3.
-at x=1.5 (interior point)
f(1.5) = 1
lim f ( x) = 1
x →1.5−

Chapter Two
lim f ( x) = 1
x →1.5+
 lim f ( x) = 1
x→1.5
 lim f ( x) = f (1.5) = 1
x →1.5
So it is continuous at x=1.5.
-at x=4 (right end-point)
f(4) = 0.5
lim f ( x) = 1
x→4−
 lim f ( x)  f (4)
x→4−
y
So it is discontinuous at right-end point (x=4).
5
Example2: Determine weather the following 4

(2,4)
functions are continuous at x=2? 3
x2 − 4
1. f ( x) = 2
x−2 1
Sol.: f(2) is not found ( 2  D f ) 0 x

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
So the function is discontinuous at x=2. -1

y
x −4 2 5
2. f ( x) =  x − 2 x2
4
(2,4)

 3 x=2
(2,3)
3
Sol.: f(2)=3 2
x −4
2
( x − 2)( x + 2)
lim = lim = lim x + 2 = 2 + 2 = 4 1
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2

0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
 f (2)  lim f ( x) -1
x→2
y
So the function is discontinuous at x=2.
5
 x2 − 4
3. f ( x) =  x − 2 x2 (2,4)
4

 4 x=2 3
Sol.: f(2)=4 2
x2 − 4
1
lim =4  f (2) = lim f ( x)

x→2 x−2 x→ 2
-3 -2 -1
0
0 1 2 3
x
-1

Chapter Two
So the function is continuous at x=2.

Example1: Test the continuity of the following function at x=1:
 x 2 x 1
f ( x) =  x
 2 x 1
1
Sol.: f (1) =
2
x 1
lim− f ( x) = lim− x 2 = (1)2 = 1 , lim+ f ( x) = lim− =
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1 2 2
lim f ( x ) is not found (the left-hand and right-hand limits do not equal).
x→1
So the function is discontinuous at x=1.
Algebraic properties of continuous functions:

Theorem 1: If the functions f and g are continuous at c then:
a) f + g , f − g and f * g are continuous at x=c.
f
b) is continuous if g (c)  0 and is discontinuous x=c if g (c) = 0 .
g
Theorem 2: If f is continuous at c and g is continuous at f(c) then the composite

go f is continuous at c.
Theorem 3: Polynomials are continuous at every point.

[ao xn + a1xn−1 + a2 xn−2 + ]
Examples of continuous functions:

1
1. The function y = is continuous at every value of x except x=0.
x
2. The greatest integer function y=[x] is discontinuous at every integer.
3. The sine and cosine functions are continuous at every value of x.
4. Polynomials are continuous at every value of x.
For polynomials: lim f ( x ) = f (c )
x→c
5. Rational functions are continuous wherever they are defined.

6. The function y=|x| is continuous at every value of x.

Chapter Two
Homework:
1. Test the continuity of the following functions at given points?
x2 − 1 -1 ≤ x < 0
2x 0≤x<1
(a) f(x)= 1 x=1
-2x+4 1<x<2
0 2≤x≤3
at x = -1, x = 0, x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3.
x2 − 4
(b) f ( x) = at x = 2 and x = -3.
( x + 3)( x − 2)
x 3 − 27
(c) x2 − 9
at x = 3 and x = -3
x2 + x − 2
(d) f ( x) = at x = 1
( x − 1)2
2. Which the following statements are true or false of the function graphed here.
(a) lim f ( x) = 1 (b) lim f ( x ) does not exist
x→−1+ x→ 2
(c) lim f ( x) = 2 (d) lim f ( x) = 2

x →2 x→1−
(e) lim f ( x) = 1 (f) lim f ( x ) does not exist

x→−1+ x→1
(g) lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) (h) lim f ( x) = 1

x→0− x→0+ x→−1−
(i) lim f ( x) does not exist (j) lim f ( x ) exists at every c in (-1,1)
x→3+ x→c
(k) lim
x→c
f ( x ) exists at every c in (1,3)

Chapter Three
DERIVATIVES
Derivatives: are the functions which are used to measure rates at which things
change. We define derivatives as limiting values of average change, just we
define slope of curves as limiting values of slopes of
secants.
If y = f(x)
 y = f ( x + x) − f ( x)
y f ( x + x) − f ( x)
So, slope of secant PQ = =
x x
As Q→P then slope of secant PQ will equal to slope of
tangent of the curve f(x) at P and x→0
y f ( x + x) − f ( x)
 lim slope of secant PQ = = lim = slope of tangent of the
Q→P x x →0 x
curve f(x) at P.
And this is called the definition of derivative of the function f(x) and this
dy d
denoted by y` , , f (x) , Dx f (x ) and f`(x).
dx dx
dy f ( x + x) − f ( x)
 f `( x) = = lim
dx x→0 x
We consider that the derivative is found if the limit exists and finite at a
certain point.
Example1: Find the derivative of the function f ( x) = x2 using the definition of
derivative.
dy f ( x + x) − f ( x) ( x + x) 2 − x 2
Sol.: = f `( x) = lim = lim
dx x → 0 x x → 0 x
x 2 + 2 x.x + x 2 − x 2 x(2 x + x)

= lim = lim = lim (2 x + x) = 2 x
x →0 x x → 0 x x →0
Example2: Find the derivative of the function f ( x) = x using the definition of

derivative.
Mathematics- Derivatives (53)

Chapter Three
dy f ( x + x) − f ( x) x + x − x x + x + x
Sol.: = f `( x) = lim = lim *
dx x → 0 x x → 0 x x + x + x
x + x − x x 1
= lim = lim == lim
x( x + x + x )
x→0 x →0 x( x + x + x ) x →0 ( x + x + x )
1 1
= =
( x + x) 2 x
Homework:
1. Using the definition of derivative, find the derivative of the following
functions:
x2 1
(a) y = x x − 2 2
(b) y = (c) y =
( x − 1) 2 2 x
2. Using the definition of derivative, prove the following:

1
(a) f `( x) = 3
if f ( x) = 3 x
3 x
(b) y`= sec 2 x if y = tan x

Laws of Derivatives:
d
1. c=0 where c is constant.
dx
d n
2. x = n.x n−1
dx
3. If U and V are two functions of x then:
d dU
(a) (c *U ) = c * where c is constant.
dx dx
d dU dV
(b) (U  V ) = 
dx dx dx
d dV dU
(c) (U *V ) = U +V
dx dx dx
d dU
(d) (U n ) = nU n−1 *
dx dx
dU dV
V −U
d U dx dx
(e) ( ) = 2
dx V V

Chapter Three
dy
Example1: If y = x3 + 7 x 2 − 5 x + 4 , find ?
dx
dy d 3 d d d
Sol.: = ( x ) + (7 x 2 ) − (5 x) + (4)
dx dx dx dx dx
= 3x2 + 2 * 7 x − 5 + 0 = 3x2 + 14x − 5
Example2: Does the curve y = x 4 − 2 x 2 + 2 have any horizontal tangent? If so,

where?
y
Sol.: The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where
3
the slope dy dx is zero. To find these points,
(0,2)
we should 2
dy
1. Calculate dy dx : = 4 x3 − 2(2 x) = 4 x3 − 4 x
dx 1
(-1,1) (1,1)
dy
2. Put =0  4 x3 − 4 x = 0
dx 0 x
-2 -1 0 1 2
dy
3. Solve the equation = 0 for x.:
dx -1
4 x3 − 4 x = 0  4 x( x 2 − 1) = 0
either 4x = 0  x=0
or x2 −1 = 0  x = 1
So the curve has horizontal tangents at x=0, x=-1 and x=1
The corresponding points on the curve (calculated from the equation
y = x 4 − 2 x 2 + 2 ) are (0,2), (-1,1) and (1,1).

Chapter Three
When does a Function not Have a Derivative at a Point?
A function has a derivative at a point xo if the slopes of the secant lines through
P(xo,f(xo)) and a nearby point Q on the graph approach a limit as Q approaches P.
Whenever the secants fail to take up a limiting position or become vertical as Q

approaches P, the derivative does not exist. Thus differentiability is a
“smoothness” condition on the graph of ƒ. A function whose graph is otherwise
smooth will fail to have a derivative at a point for several reasons, such as at
points where the graph has
1. a corner, where the one-sided 2. a cusp, where the slope of PQ
derivatives differ. approaches ∞ from one side and -∞
from the other.
3. a vertical tangent, where the

slope of PQ approaches ∞ from 4. a discontinuity.
both sides or approaches - ∞
from both sides (here, -∞ ).

Chapter Three
Example 1: Show that the function y=| x | is differentiable on (-∞,0) and (0, ∞) but
has no derivative at x = 0.
Sol. To the right of the origin (x > 0),
d
( x ) = d (x ) = 1
dx dx
To the left of the origin (x < 0),

d
( x ) = d (− x ) = −1
dx dx
There can be no derivative at the origin because the one-sided derivatives differ
there:
Or another solution: Right-hand derivative of | x | at zero
dy f ( x + x) − f ( x) x + x − x
= lim + == lim +
dx x→0 x x→0 x
dy ( x + x) − ( x)
= lim + (|x|=+x when x ≥ 0)
dx x →0 x
dy x
= lim + = lim 1 = 1
dx x→0 x x→0+
And left-hand derivative of | x | at zero
dy f ( x + x) − f ( x) x + x − x
= lim − = lim −
dx x→0 x x→0 x
dy − ( x + x) − (− x)
= lim − (|x|=-x when x < 0)
dx x →0 x
dy − x − x + x − x
= lim − = lim − = −1
dx x →0 x x →0 x
The function y=|x| is not differentiable at the origin where the graph has a
“corner”.
Example 2: Show that the function y = x is not differentiable at x = 0.
Sol. We apply the definition to examine if the derivative exists at x = 0.
dy f ( x + x) − f ( x) x + x − x
= lim + = lim +
dx x→0 x x→0 x
dy x + x − x x + x + x
= lim + *
dx x→0 x x + x + x

Chapter Three
dy x + x − x x
= lim + = lim +
dx x→0 x( x + x + x ) x→0 x( x + x + x )
dy 1 1 1
= lim + = =
dx x →0 x + x + x x+0 + x 2 x
And at x = 0
dy 1
= =
dx 2 0
Since the (right-hand) limit is not finite, there is no derivative at x = 0. Since the
slopes of the secant lines joining the origin to the points ( x, x ) on a graph of
y = x approach ∞ the graph has a vertical tangent at the origin.
Second and Higher Order Derivative:

dy
The derivative: y`= is the first derivative of y with respect to x.
dx
The first derivative may also be a differentiable function of x. If so its

derivative:
d dy d2y
y``= ( )= 2 is the second derivative of y with respect to x.
dx dx dx
If y`` is also a differentiable function of x, its derivative:

d d d2y d3y
y``` = ( y``) = ( 2 ) = 3 is the third derivative of y with respect to x.
dx dx dx dx
The names continue as you imagine with

d n −1 d d n −1 y dny
yn = ( y ) = ( n −1 ) = n is the nth derivative of y with respect to x for
dx dx dx dx
any positive integer n.

Example: The first four derivatives of y = x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 are:
First derivative: y`= 3x2 − 6x ,
Second derivative: y" = 6x − 6 ,
Third derivative: y ' ' ' = 6
and Fourth derivative: y' ' ' ' = 0
The function has derivatives of all orders, but the fifth and subsequent order
derivatives are all zero.

Chapter Three
dy d2y
Homework: Find (y` or ) and (y`` or 2 ) for the following functions:
dx dx
x2
1. y = x x 2 − 2 2. y = 3. y = ( x 2 + 1)( x3 + 3)
( x − 1) 2
 2x −1
3
4. y = ( x + 3x + 1)
2 5
5. y = ( x + 1) ( x − 1)
2 3 3 2
6. y =  
 x+7 
Implicit Differentiation:
dy
In some cases, it is difficult to solve y=f(x), so to find for such cases,
dx
implicit differentiation will be use.
dy
Examples: Find of the following:
dx
1. x 2 + y 2 = 1
dy dy dy − 2 x dy − x
Sol.: 2 x + 2 y * =0  2y * = −2 x  =  =
dx dx dx 2y dx y
2. 2 y = x 2 + 3xy 2
dy dy dy dy
Sol.: 2 = 2 x + 3x( 2 y ) + 3 y 2 2 − 6 xy = 2x + 3 y2 
dx dx dx dx
dy dy 2 x + 3 y 2
(2 − 6 xy) = 2 x + 3 y 2  =
dx dx 2 − 6 xy
Tangent and Normal Lines:

Example: Find the tangent and normal to the curve x 2 − xy + y 2 = 7 at the point
(-1,2).
dy
Sol.: We first use the implicit differentiation to find .
dx
x 2 − xy + y 2 = 7
dy dy dy
2x − (x + y) + 2 y =0  (2 y − x) = y − 2 x
dx dx dx
dy y − 2 x
 =
dx 2 y − x
We then evaluate the derivative (slope of the curve) at x=-1 and y=2 to
obtain:

Chapter Three
dy y − 2x 2 − 2(−1) 2+2 4
= = = =
dx ( −1, 2) 2 y − x 2(2) − (−1) 4 + 1 5
So the tangent to the curve at the point (-1, 2) is:

4
y − y1 = m( x − x1 )  y − 2 = ( x − (−1))
5
4 4 4 14
 y= x+ +2  y = x+
5 5 5 5
And the normal to the curve at the point (-1, 2) is (slope of normal is
(-1/m)):
5
y − y1 = m( x − x1 )  y − 2 = − ( x − (−1))
4
5 5 5 3
 y =− x− +2  y =− x+
4 4 4 4
d2y
Example: Find 2
if 2 x3 − 3 y 2 = 7 .
dx
dy
Sol.: to find :
dx
dy
2 x3 − 3 y 2 = 7  6x2 − 6 y =0
dx
dy dy 6 x 2 x 2
 6y = 6x2  = = = y` where y ≠ 0
dx dx 6 y y
d2y
We now apply the Quotient Rule to find or (y").
dx2
2
dy 2 x
2 y (2 x) − x ( ) 2 xy − x ( )
2
d dy d x dx = y
So y``= ( ) = ( ) = 2 2
dx dx dx y y y
2 xy2 − x 4
=
y3
Homework:
1. If x 2 y − xy 2 + x 2 + y 2 = 0 find y`.
2. If x 2 − xy + y 2 = 3 find y` and y".
3. If x 3 y − xy 3 = 2 find y` and y" at x=1.

Chapter Three
The Chain Rule:
dy du
If y = f (u ) ; u = g (x) , and the derivatives and both exist then the
du dx
composite function defined by f ( g ( x)) has a derivative given by:
dy dy du
= *
dx du dx
1 dy
Example 1: If y = u 2 + 1 ; u= + x 2 , find .
x dx
dy dy du
Sol.: = *
dx du dx
dy 2u u du 1
= = ; = − 2 + 2x
du 2 u 2 + 1 u2 +1 dx x
1
( + x2 )
dy u 1 x 1
 = * (2 x − 2 ) = * (2 x − 2 )
dx u2 +1 x 1
( + x2 )2 + 1
x
x
Another solution:
1
Find you = y (u ( x)) = ( + x 2 ) 2 + 1
x
1 1 1 1
2( + x 2 ) * (− 2 + 2 x) ( + x 2 ) * (2 x − 2 )
dy
 = x x = x x
dx 1 1
2 ( + x 2 )2 + 1 ( + x2 )2 + 1
x x
dy
Example 2: If y = (3x 2 − 7 x + 1)5 , use the chain rule to find .
dx
Sol.: We may express y as a composite function of x by letting:
y = u 5 and u = 3x 2 − 7 x + 1
dy dy du
So, = * = 5u 4 * (6 x − 7) = 5(3x 2 −7 x + 1) 4 (6 x − 7)
dx du dx
dy
Homework: Find at x = -1 if y = u 3 + 5u − 4 and u = x2 + x .
dx

Chapter Three
Derivative of Parametric Equations:
dy dx
If y = f (t ) and x = g (t ) , and the derivatives and both exist, then:
dt dt
dy dy dt
= y`=
dx dx dt
d2y d d dy ` dy ` dt
and 2
= ( y) = =
dx dx dx dx dx dt
dy
Example 1: Find , if y = t 2 − 1 and x = 2t + 3 .
dx
dy dy dt
Sol.: =
dx dx dt
dy dx dy 2t x −3
So = 2t and =2 ➔  = =t =
dt dt dx 2 2
Another solution:
x−3
From x = 2t + 3 find t =
2
x −3
2
Then: y =   −1
 2 
dy  x −3 1 x −3
 = 2 * =
dx  2  2 2
d2y
Example 2: Find 2
, if x = t − t 2 and y = t − t 3 .
dx
dx dy
Sol.: = 1− 2t and = 1 − 3t 2
dt dt
dy dy dt 1 − 3t 2
 = y`= =
dx dx dt 1 − 2t
d 2 y dy` dt
And =
dx2 dx dt
dy` (1 − 2t )( −6t ) − (1 − 3t 2 )( −2) 6t 2 + 6t + 2

= =
dt (1 − 2t ) 2 (1 − 2t ) 2
d 2 y dy` dt 6t 2 + 6t + 2
 2 = =
dx dx dt (1 − 2t )3

Chapter Three
Homework:
dr
1. Find if r = s + 1 and s = 16t 2 − 20t .
dt
d2y
2. Find 2
if y = x2 + 3x − 7 and x = 2t + 1 .
dt
dy d2y t t2
3. Find and 2 if x = and y = .
dx dx 1+ t 1+ t
Derivative of Trigonometric Functions:

1. The derivative of y = sin x is the limit:
dy f ( x + x) − f ( x) sin( x + x) − sin x
= lim = lim
dx x→0 x x→0 x
sin x cos x + cos x sin x − sin x sin x(cos x − 1) cos x sin x
= lim = lim + lim
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x
(cos x − 1) sin x
= sin x lim + cos x lim = sin x(0) + cos x(1) = cos x
x→0 x x→0 x
d
 sin x = cos x
dx
2. The derivative of y = cos x is the limit:
dy f ( x + x) − f ( x) cos( x + x) − cos x
= lim = lim
dx x →0 x x → 0 x
cos x cos x − sin x sin x − cos x cos x(cos x − 1) sin x sin x
= lim = lim − lim
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x
(cos x − 1) sin x
= cos x lim − sin x lim = cos x(0) − sin x(1) = − sin x
x→0 x x→0 x
d
 cos x = − sin x
dx
dy
Example: Find if y = sec x
dx
1
Sol.: y = sec x =
cos x
dy cos x(0) − (− sin x) sin x 1 sin x
 = 2
= 2
= . = sec x. tan x
dx cos x cos x cos x cos x
d
 sec x = sec x. tan x
dx

Chapter Three
In general: u is function of x
d du d du
1. sin u = cos u * 2. cos u = − sin u *
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
3. tan u = sec2 u * 4. cot u = − csc 2 u *
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
5. sec u = sec u. tan u * 6. csc u = − csc u. cot u *
dx dx dx dx
dy
Example: Find of the following functions:
dx
1. y = x 2 − sin x
dy
Sol.: = 2 x − cos x
dx
2. y = x 2 sin x
dy
Sol.: = x 2 cos + 2 x sin x
dx
sin x
3. y =
x
dy x cos x − sin x
Sol.: =
dx x2
4. y = sin x cos x
dy
Sol.: = sin x.(− sin x) + cos x. cos x = − sin 2 x + cos 2 x = cos 2 x − sin 2 x = cos 2 x
dx
sin 2 x
or y = sin x cos x =
2
dy cos 2 x
 = * 2 = cos 2 x
dx 2
cos x
5. y =
1 − sin x
dy (1 − sin x)(− sin x) − cos x(− cos x) − sin x + sin 2 x + cos 2 x

Sol.: = =
dx (1 − sin x) 2 (1 − sin x) 2
− sin x + 1 1 − sin x 1
= = =
(1 − sin x) 2
(1 − sin x) 2
1 − sin x

Chapter Three
6. y = cos 2 3x
dy
Sol.: = 2 cos 3x * (− sin 3x) * 3 = −3(2 cos 3x sin 3x) = −3 sin 6 x
dx
7. y = sin( 1 + tan 2x)
dy
Sol.: = cos(1 + tan 2 x) sec 2 2 x * 2 = 2 sec 2 2 x cos(1 + tan 2 x)
dx
1
8. y = tan( )
x
dy 1 1 1 1
Sol.: = sec2 ( ) * (− 2 ) = − 2 sec2 ( )
dx x x x x
9. xy + sin y = 5x
Sol.: xy`+ y + cos y * y`= 5  y`( x + cos y) = 5 − y
5− y
 y`=
x + cos y
10. y = sec 2 5 x
dy
Sol.: = 2 sec 5x. sec 5x. tan 5x * 5 = 10 sec2 5x. tan 5x
dx
11. x = sin y − y
dx 1 2 y cos y − 1
Sol.: = cos y − =
dy 2 y 2 y
dy dx 2 y
 =1 ( ) =
dx dy 2 y cos y − 1
or by implicit differentiation:
1 2 y cos y. y`− y`
1 = cos y. y`− y`  1=
2 y 2 y
y`( 2 y cos y − 1) 2 y
 1=  y`=
2 y 2 y cos y − 1
12. y = 1+ cos 2x
−1
dy 1 − sin 2 x
Sol.: = (1 + cos 2 x) 2 * (− sin 2 x) * 2 =
dx 2 1 + cos 2 x

Chapter Three
13. y = x sin x + cos x
dy
Sol.: = x cos x + sin x − sin x = x cos x
dx
1 + cos 2 x
3. y =
2
1 + cos 2 x  cos x if cos x  0

Sol.: y = = cos2 x = cos x = 
2 − cos x if cos x  0
dy − sin x if cos x  0
 =
dx  sin x if cos x  0
Example: If y = sec x , prove that y``+ y = 2 y 3 .

Sol.: y = sec x
y`= sec x. tan x
y``= sec x. sec 2 x + tan x. sec x. tan x
= sec3 x + sec x. tan 2 x
= sec3 x + sec x.(sec 2 x − 1)
= sec3 x + sec3 x − sec x

= 2 sec3 x − sec x
= 2 y3 − y
 y``+ y = 2 y 3 o.k.
Homework:
1. If y = tan x , prove that y``` = 2( y 2 + 1)(3 y 2 + 1) .

2. If x = sec t and y = tan t , evaluate at t = of the following:
4
dy d2y
(a) (b) 2
dx dx
3. Find y` for y = cos(sin 2 x)

dy
4. If x = y 1 − y 2 , find .
dx

Chapter Three
dy
5. If y = x 2 − 4x and x = 2t 2 + 1 ; find when t = 2 .
dt
6. Find y` and y`` for y = sin( x + y) .
7. Find y` for sin x + sin y = 1 .
8. Find y` for x cos y = sin( x + y) .

Chapter Four
APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
1. Analysis of Functions: Increase, Decrease and Concavity:

a. Increase, Decrease and Relative Extrema:
DEFINITION: Let f be a function defined on an interval I and let x1 and x2
be any two points in I.
1. If f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) whenever x1  x2 , then f is said to be increasing on I.
2. If f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) whenever x1  x2 , then f is said to be decreasing on I.
3. If f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) for all x1 and x2, then f is said to be constant on I.
y y y
increasing decreasing
constant
f(x1) f(x2) f(x1) f(x2)

f(x1) f(x2)
x x
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
f(x1) < f(x2) if x1 < x2 f(x1) > f(x2) if x1 < x2 f(x1) = f(x2) if for all x1 and x2
Graph has +ve slope Graph has -ve slope Graph has zero slope
(1) (2) (3)
Theorem 1: Suppose that f is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b).

1. If f `(x) > 0 at each point x  (a, b) , then f is increasing on [a,b].
2. If f `(x) < 0 at each point x  (a, b) , then f is decreasing on [a,b].
3. If f `(x) = 0 at each point x  (a, b) , then f is constant on [a,b].
Note: A function f(x) has critical point like x=c if it is continues there and f`(c) =0
or f`(x) is not found.
Theorem 2: (First Derivative Test for Local Extrema)
Suppose that c is a critical point of a continuous function f, and that f is
differentiable at every point in some interval containing c except possibly
at c itself. Moving across c from left to right,
1. if f ` changes from negative to positive at c, then f has local minimum at c;
2. if f ` changes from positive to negative at c, then f has local maximum at c;
3. if f ` does not change sign at c (that is, f ` is positive on both sides of c or f `
is negative on both sides of c ), then f has no local extremum at c;
Mathematics- Applications of Derivatives (68)
Chapter Four
a ------ c ++++ b a ++++ c -------- b

Sign of f` Sign of f`
Local minimum Local maximum

(1) (2)
a ------ c ------ b a ++++ c ++++ b

Sign of f` Sign of f`
f has no local extremum

(3)
Theorem 3: (Second Derivative Test for Local Extrema)

Suppose f`` is continuous on an open interval that contains c;
1. If f `` (c) > 0, then f has local minimum at x = c.
2. If f `` (c) < 0, then f has local maximum at x = c.
3. If f `` (c) = 0, then the test fails. The function f may have a local
maximum, a local minimum, or neither.
Example 1: Find the intervals on which the following functions are increasing
and the intervals on which decreasing, and also locate the maximum
and the minimum.
(a) f ( x) = x 2 − 4 x + 3
------ 2
Sol.: f `( x) = 2x − 4 = 2( x − 2) Sign of f` ++++
decrease increase
Put f `=0  2( x − 2) = 0  x=2 Local minimum
extrimum point (critical point)
Since f is continuous at x = 2
 f is decreasing on (-∞,2].
And f is increasing on [2, ∞).

f (2) = 2 2 − 4 * 2 + 3 = −1
 (2,-1) is minimum point.

Or by second derivative test:
f ``( x) = 2  0 So f has minimum point at x = 2
(b) f ( x) = x3
Sol.: f `( x) = 3x 2
Put f `=0  3x 2 = 0  x = 0 extremum point (critical point)

Chapter Four
Since f is continuous at x = 0 0
Sign of f` ++++ ++++
 f is increasing on (-∞,0]. increase increase
f has no local extremum
And f is increasing on [0, ∞).
So f is increasing over entire interval (-∞,∞) thus f has no local extremum at
x=0
Or by second derivative test:
f ``( x) = 6 x  f ``(0) = 6(0) = 0  no indication of critical point.
(c) f ( x) = 3x 4 + 4 x3 − 12 x 2 + 2
0
Sol.: f `( x) = 12 x3 + 12 x 2 − 24 x Sign of x -∞ ------------------ ++++++ +∞
-2
Put f `=0 Sign of (x+2)-∞ ------- +++++++++++++ +∞
+1
Sign of (x-1) -∞ ------------------------- +++ +∞
 12x3 + 12x2 − 24x = 0
-2
-∞ --------- ++++ 0------ +1++++ +∞
12x( x 2 + x − 2) = 0 Sign of f`
12x( x + 2)( x −1) = 0 decrease

min.
increase decrease
max.
increase
min.
at x=-2 at x=-0 at x=1
either 12 x = 0  x=0
or x + 2 = 0  x = −2
or x −1 = 0  x = 1
since the function is continuous at x = −2 , x = 0 and x = 1 then,
f is decreasing on (-∞,-2] and [0,1].
and f is increasing on [-2,0] and (1, ∞).
at x = −2  f (−2) = 3(−2) 4 + 4(−2)3 − 12 (−2) 2 + 2 = −30
(-2,-30) is relative min.

at x = 0  f (0) = 3(0) 4 + 4(0)3 − 12 (0) 2 + 2 = 2
(0,2) is relative max.

at x = 1  f (1) = 3(1) 4 + 4(1)3 − 12(1) 2 + 2 = −3
(1,-3) is relative min.
or by second derivative test
f ``( x) = 36 x 2 + 24 x − 24
f ``( −2) = 36 (−2) 2 + 24 (−2) − 24 = 72  0 so the function has min. point at x = −2
.
Chapter Four
f ``( 0) = 36 (0) 2 + 24 (0) − 24 = −24  0 so the function has max. point at x = 0 .

f ``( 1) = 36 (1) 2 + 24 (1) − 24 = 36  0 so the function has min. point at x = 1.
(d) f ( x) = 3x 5 3 − 15 x 2 3
2
5 2 Sign of 5(x-2) -∞ ------------------ ++++++ +∞
Sol.: f `( x) = 3 * x2 3 − 15 * x−1 3 0
3 3 Sign of(x1/3) -∞ ------- +++++++++++++ +∞
0 2
= 5x2 3 −10x−1 3 Sign of f` -∞ ++++++ ---------- +++++++ +∞
5( x − 2)
= increase decrease min. increase
x1 3 max.
at x=-0
at x=2
5( x − 2)
Put f `=0  =0
x1 3
either x = 2
or x0
since the function is continuous at x = 0 and x = 2 then,
f is increasing on (-∞,0] and [2,∞).
and f is decreasing on [0,2].
at x = 0  f (0) = 3(0)5 3 − 15 (0) 2 3 = 0
(0,0) is relative max.

at x = 2  f (2) = 3(2)5 3 − 15(2) 2 3 = −14.287
(2,-14.287) is relative min.

or by second derivative test
10 −1 3 10 −4 3 10 10 10  x − 1 
f ``( x) = x − x = 13 − 43 =  43 
3 3 3x 3x 3x 
at x = 0 f``(x) is not found, so this test is failed.

10  2 − 1 
at x = 2 f ``(2) =   = 0.396  0 so the function has min. point at x = 2 .
3  24 3 
b. Concavity and Inflection Points (I.P.):

DEFINITION: Concave up, Concave down
The graph of a differentiable function y=f(x) is:
• Concave up in an open interval I if f` is increasing in I.
• Concave down in an open interval I if f` is decreasing in I.

Chapter Four
Theorem 1: The second derivative test for concavity

Let y=f(x) be twice-differentiable on an interval I.
1. If f `` > 0 on I, the graph of f over I is concave up.
2. If f `` < 0 on I, the graph of f over I is concave down.
DEFINITION: Point of Inflection

A point P on a curve y=f(x) is called an inflection point (I.P.) if f is
continuous there and the curve changes from concave upward to concave
downward or from concave downward to concave upward at P.
Theorem 2: Inflection points (I.P.)
Let y=f(x) be continuous and twice-differentiable at x=c then, if f ``(c)=0, the
function f has inflection point (I.P.) at x=c.
Examples: Find the intervals on which the following functions are concave up
and the intervals on which are concave down, then, if any, locate the
inflection points.
(a) f ( x) = x 2 − 4 x + 3
Sol.: f `( x) = 2x − 4
f ``( x) = 2  0
Since f ``( x)  0 for all x, the function f is concave up on the interval (-∞,∞)
also f ``( x)  0 for all x, the function f dose not have I.P.
(b) f ( x) = x3
Sol.: f `( x) = 3x 2
I.P.
f ``( x) = 6 x ------ 0 ++++
Sign of f``
Put f ``( x) = 0  6 x = 0  x = 0  y = 0 = 03
Concave down Concave up
So, f is concave down on (-∞,0),

and f is concave up on (0,∞).
(0,0) is the inflection point.

Chapter Four
I.P.
(c) f ( x) = sin x on [0,2] 0 ------  ++++ 2
Sign of f``
Concave down Concave up
Sol.: f `( x) = cos x
f ``( x) = − sin x
Put f ``( x) = 0  − sin x = 0  x =

 y = sin  = 0
So, f is concave down on (0, ),

and f is concave up on ( ,2).
(,0) is the inflection point.
(d) f ( x) = 3x + 4 x − 12 x + 2
4 3 2
Sol.: f ' ( x) = 12 x + 12 x − 24 x
3 2
f " ( x) = 36 x 2 + 24 x − 24
I.P. I.P.
Put f ``( x) = 0  36x2 + 24x − 24 = 0 -1.22 ------0.55
Sign of f`` ++++ ++++
 3x2 + 2x − 2 = 0 Concave up Concave down Concave up
− B  B 2 − 4 AC
x=
2A
Where A = 3 , B = 2 , C = −2
− 2  22 − 4 * 3 * (−2) − 1  7
x = =
2*3 3
−1 − 7
either x = = −1.22  y = −16.36
3
−1 + 7
or x= = 0.55  y = −0.68
3
So, f is concave up on intervals (-∞,-1.22) and (0.55,∞)
and f is concave up on interval (-1.22,0.55).
It has I.P. at points (-1.22,-16.36) and (0.55,-0.68)

Chapter Four
x3 x 2
Example: If y = + − 6 x + 8 find:
3 2
(a) Critical points.

(b) The intervals in which the function increase and decrease.
(c) Maximum and minimum values of (y).
(d) The intervals in which the function concave up and concave down.
(e) The inflection points.
Sol.: (a) Critical points:
x3 x 2
y= + − 6x + 8
3 2
3x 2 2 x
y`= + − 6 = x2 + x − 6
3 2
Put y`= 0  x2 + x − 6 = 0  ( x + 3)( x − 2) = 0

43
either x + 3 = 0  x = −3  y=
2
2
or x−2 = 0  x=2  y=
3
43 2
The critical points are (-3, ), (-3, ).
2 3
(b) The intervals in which the function increase and decrease.
-3 +++++++++++++
Sign of(x+3) -∞ ------- +∞
• The function increases on 2
Sign of (x-2) -∞ ------------------ ++++++ +∞
intervals: (-∞,-3]and[2,∞) -3 2 +++++++
Sign of f` -∞ ++++++ ---------- +∞
• The function decrease on increase
decrease
min. increase
max. at x=2
interval: [-3,2] at x=--3
(c) Maximum and minimum values of (y).

• The function has max. value of (y) at x=-3  y=43/2
• The function has min. value of (y) at x=2  y=2/3.
or by second derivative test.

y`= x 2 + x − 6  y``( x) = 2 x + 1
y``(−3) = 2(−3) + 1 = −5  0  there is max. value at x=-3.

Chapter Four
y``(2) = 2(2) + 1 = 5  0  there is min. value at x=-2.
(d) The intervals in which the function concave up and concave down.
y``= 2 x + 1 I.P.
Put y``= 0  2x +1 = 0 -∞ ------ −++++ ∞
Sign of f``
1 133 Concave down
Concave up
 x=−  y=
2 12
1 133
The inflection points is (− , ).
2 12
Example: If y = 2 + x 2 3 , find the critical points and recognize them.

2 2
Sol.: y`= x −1 3 = 3
➔ The derivative does not exit at x=0.
3 3 x
Note: ( x = 0  D f ` and x = 0  D f )
So there is critical point at x=0.

To recognizing the critical point, the first derivative -∞ ------ 0 ++++ ∞
Sign of f`
test must be used since the second derivative test is decrease increase
Local minimum
failed because that y" dose not exit at x=0 (where
 1 2 −2
y``=  −  x −4 3 = 3 ).
 3 3 9 x4
f has min point at x = 0
Homework:
1. Find the max., min., inflection points and the intervals on which the
functions increase, decrease, concave up and concave down.
(a) y = 4x3 + 6x2 − 6x − 4 (b) y = x3 − 8
(c) y = 3 x + ( x − 2) 2 5 (d) y = ( x − 2) 2 3
2. Find the intervals on which f are:
(i) Increasing and decreasing.
(ii) Concave up and concave down.
and the x-coordinate of all critical and inflection points.
(a) y = x2 − 5x + 6 (b) y = ( x + 1)3 (c) y = x4 − 8x2 + 16
x2 x
(d) y = 3x 4 − 4 x 3 (e) y = (f) y =
x2 + 2 x +2
2
(g) y = 3 x + 2 (h) y = x1 3 ( x + 2) (i) y = x 4 3 − x1 3

(j) y = cos x ; [0,2] (k) y = sin 2 2 x ; [0,]
Chapter Four
(l) y = 2x + cot x ; [0,] (m) y = sin x cos x ; [0,]

(n) y = cos 2 x − 2 sin x ; [0,2]
1
3. Show that 3
x + 1  1 + x if x > 0.
3
1
Hint: Show that the function f ( x) = 1 + x − 3 x + 1 is increasing on [0,∞).
3

4. Show that x  tan x if 0  x  .
2

Hint: Show that the function f ( x) = tan x − x is increasing on [0, ].
2
c. Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes:

DEFINITION:
• A line y=b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of the function y=f(x) if:
either xlim f ( x) = b or lim f ( x) = b
→+ x→−
• A line x=a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function y=f(x) if:
either lim f ( x) =   or lim f ( x) =  
x →a − x →a +
Examples: Find the asymptotes of the following curves:

1
1. y =
x −1
x=1
Sol.: (a) horizontal asymptotes:
1 1x 1x 0
lim f ( x) = lim = lim = lim = =0
x→ x→ x − 1 x→ x x − 1 x x→ 1 − 1 x 1− 0
1 1x 1x 0 y=0
x→− x→− x − 1 x→− x x − 1 x x→− 1 − 1 x 1− 0
 y = 0 (x-axis) is horizontal asymptote.
(b) vertical asymptotes:

To find a, put the denominator equal zero,
x −1 = 0  x = 1
a =1
1 1 1
lim− f ( x) = lim− = − = − x+2 x+3
x→a x→1 x −1 1 −1
1 1  x2
lim+ f ( x) = lim+ = + = +
x→a x→1 x −1 1 −1 1
Chapter Four
 x = 1 is vertical asymptote.
x+3 1
2. y = =1+
x+2 x+2
x+3 x x+3 x 1+ 3 x 1+ 0
x→ x→ x + 2 x→ x x + 2 x x→ 1 + 2 x 1+ 0
x+3 x x+3 x 1+ 3 x 1+ 0
x→− x→− x + 2 x→− x x + 2 x x→− 1 + 2 x 1+ 0
 y = 1 is horizontal asymptote.

x + 2 = 0  x = −2
a = −2
x+3 −2+3
lim− f ( x) = lim − = = −
x→a x→−2 x + 2 − 2− + 2
x+3 −2+3
lim+ f ( x) = lim + = = +
x→a x→−2 x + 2 − 2+ + 2
 x = −2 is vertical asymptote.
−8
3. y =
x −4
2

−8 − 8 x2 − 8 x2 0
lim f ( x) = lim 2 = lim 2 2 = lim = =0
x → x → x − 4 x → x x −4 x 2 x →  1− 4 x 1− 0
2
−8 − 8 x2 − 8 x2 0
x → − x → − x − 4
2 x → − x 2
x −4 x
2 2 x → − 1 − 4 x 2
1− 0
 y = 0 is horizontal asymptote.

x2 − 4 = 0  x = 2
a = 2
−8 −8
When a = −2 lim f ( x) = lim = − 2
= −
x→−2− x→−2− x − 4 (−2 ) − 4
2

Chapter Four
−8 −8
lim + f ( x) = lim + = + 2
= +
x→−2 x→−2 x − 4 (−2 ) − 4
2
−8 −8
When a = 2 lim f ( x) = lim− = − 2 = +
x→2− x→2 x − 4 (2 ) − 4
2
−8 −8
lim+ f ( x) = lim+ = + 2 = −
x →2 x →2 x − 4 (2 ) − 4
2
 x = −2 and x = 2 are vertical asymptotes.
d. Oblique Asymptotes:
If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is one greater than
the degree of denominator, the graph has an oblique asymptote, that is, an
asymptote that is neither vertical nor horizontal.
Example: Find the asymptotes of the curve:
x2 − 3
y=
2x − 4
Sol.: To find asymptotes, oblique and otherwise, we divide
(2x-4) into (x2-3):
x
+1
x2 − 3 x 1 2
y = = +1+ 2x − 4 x2 − 3
2x − 4 2 2x − 4
 x2  2x
linear reminder
2x − 3
(a) Horizontal asymptotes:
 2x  4
1
x −3
2
x x −3 x x −3 x −0
2
lim f ( x) = lim = lim = = =

x→ x→
2 x − 4 x→ 2 x x − 4 x 2 − 4 x + 2 − 0
x2 − 3 x2 x − 3 x x − 3 x −  − 0
lim f ( x) = xlim = xlim = = = −
x → − → −
2 x − 4 →− 2 x x − 4 x 2 − 4 x + 2 − 0
So there is no horizontal asymptote.

(b) Vertical asymptotes:
2x − 4 = 0  x=2
a = 2

Chapter Four
x2 − 3 22 − 3
lim− f ( x) = lim− = = −
x →2 x →2 2 x − 4 2 * (2 − ) − 4
x2 − 3 22 − 3
lim+ f ( x) = lim+ = =
x →2 x →2 2 x − 4 2 * (2+ ) − 4
 x = 2 is vertical asymptote.
(c) Oblique asymptote:
As x→±∞, the reminder approaches zero and (the linear part is dominant)
x
thus f ( x)  + 1.
2
x
So, the line y = + 1 is an oblique asymptote of the curve.
2
And as x→2, the reminder become large (the reminder part is dominant)
1
thus f ( x) 
2x − 4
So, the line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote of the curve.
Note: To find the oblique asymptote, do the following:
1. By long division, divide the equation of curve into two parts (linear part
and reminder part)
2. Put y equal the linear part, so the resulted equation represent equation of
inclined line and this line is the oblique asymptote of the curve.
Strategy for Graphing y=f(x):
1. Identify the domain of f.
2. Identify any symmetry the curve may have.
3. Find y` then find the critical points of f, and identify where the curve is
increasing and where it is decreasing.
4. Find y`` then find the points of inflection, if any occur, and determine the
concavity of the curve.
5. Identify any asymptotes.
6. Plot key points, such as intercepts and the points found in steps 3 and 4,
and sketch the curve.

Chapter Four
x2 + 1
Example: Sketch the graph of y = f ( x) = .
x
Sol.: 1. Domain and Range of f.

-Domain: x  0  Df = (-∞,∞)\{0}
-Range: (put the function as x=f(y)).
x2 + 1
y=  xy = x + 1
2
 x − xy + 1 = 0
2
A = 1, B = − y and C = 1
− B  B 2 − 4 AC
x=
2A
− (− y )  (− y ) 2 − 4(1)(1)
=
2(1)
+2
y  y2 − 4 Sign of (y-2) -∞ ----------------------- ++++++ +∞
=
2
Sign of (y+2) -∞ ---------- -2+++++++++++++ +∞
 y − 4  0  ( y − 2)( y + 2)  0
2
-2 0 +2
 R f = (−,−2] [2, ) Sign of (y-2) (y+2) -∞ +++++++ ------------ +++++++ +∞
2. Symmetry:
(− x) 2 + 1 x2 + 1
f (− x) = =−  f ( x)
(− x) x
x
x2 + 1
− f ( x ) = −( ) = f (− x) x x2 +1
x
So the curve has symmetry about the origin.  x2
3. First derivative test: 1
x2 + 1 1
y= = x+
x x +1
-∞ ----------------------- ++++++ +∞
1 x2 − 1 Sign of (x-1)
y`= 1 − 2 = 2 -1
x x -∞ ---------- +++++++++++++ +∞
Sign of (x+1)
0 +1
x2 −1 - ∞ +++++++ -1------------ +++++++ +∞
Put y`=0  =0  Sign of y``
x2 rise fall fall rise
( x − 1)( x + 1)
=0
x2 max. at x=-1 min. at x=1

Chapter Four
 either x = 1  y= 2
or x = -1  y= -2
but x≠0
So the curve rises on (-∞,-1] and [1, ∞)

and it falls on [-1,0) and (0,1]
and has relative max. at point (-1,-2)
and has relative min. at point (1,2)
4. Second derivative test:
-∞ - - - -  + + + ∞
2 Sign of y"
y``=  y`` 0 Concave down Concave up
x3
There is no inflection point because it is not defined at x=0.
The curve is concave up on (0, ∞), and it is concave down on (-∞, 0)
5. Asymptotes:
• Horizontal asymptotes:
x2 + 1 x2 x + 1 x x +1 x −  + 0
lim f ( x) = xlim
x →− →−
= xlim
→−
= lim
x →−
= = −
x x x 1 1
x2 + 1 x2 x + 1 x x +1 x  + 0
lim
x →
f ( x) = lim
x →
= lim
x →
= lim
x →
= =
x x x 1 1
So there is no horizontal asymptote.

• Vertical asymptotes:
To find a put the denominator equal zero.
x=0  a=0 y= 1/x y= x
x2 + 1 0 + 1
lim− f ( x) = lim− = − = − y= x+1/x
x →a x→0 x 0
x2 + 1 0 + 1
lim+ f ( x) = lim+ = + = + (1,2) min
x →a x→0 x 0
x = 0 (y-axis) is vertical asymptote

• Oblique asymptotes: because of that the (-1,-2) min
function is a rational function with nominator

is one greater than the denominator.  y = x is
an oblique asymptote
Chapter Four
Homework:
1. Find asymptotes of the following curves then graph them.
1 x−4 x2 + 4
(a) y = (b) y = (c) y =
x−2 x −5 2x
x2 − 4 − x2 + 2x − 4 x −1
(d) y = (e) y = (f) y =
x −1 x −1 x ( x − 2)
2
8 4x x2 + x − 6
(g) y = (h) y = (i) y =
x +4
2
x +4
2
x −1
x2 x2 − x + 1
(j) y = (k) y =
x2 −1 x −1
2. Graph the following functions:
x2 − 2x + 2
(a) y = 9 x − x 2 (b) y = x 3 − 3x 2 + 3 (c) y =
x−2
− x2 x2 x2 −1
(d) y = (e) y = 2 (f) y =
x +1 x −1 x
8
(g) y = x1 3 (h) y = (i) y = 4 − x2
4 − x2
(j) y = tan x + sin x 0  x  2 (k) y = sin x − 2  x  2
(l) y = sin x − 2  x  2
Note: When the function contains an absolute value, the function can be
graphed as two parts.
2. Related Rates of Changes:
Related Rate Problems Strategy:
1. Draw a picture and name the variables and constant. Use t for time.
Assume all variables are differentiable functions of t.
2. Write down the numerical information (in terms of symbols you have
chosen).
3. Write down what you are asked to find (usually a rate, expressed as a
derivative).

Chapter Four
4. Write an equation that relates the variables. You may have to combine two
or more equations to get single equation that relates the variable whose rate
you want to the variables whose rates you know.
5. Differentiate with respect to t. Then express the rate you want in terms of
the rate and variables whose values you know.
6. Evaluate. Use known values to find the unknown rate.
Example 1: How rapidly will the fluid level inside a vertical cylindrical tank if
we pump the fluid out at the rate of 3000 L/min.?
Sol.: Step 1: Draw a picture and name the variables and constant.
Assume the radius of the tank = r (constant),
height of the fluid = h (variable),
and the volume of the fluid = V (variable).
Step 2: Write down the numerical information.
dV
= −1000 L/min.
dt
Step 3: Write down what you are asked to find.
dh
=?
dt
Step 4: Write an equation that relates the variables.
V =  .r 2 .h
Step 5: Differentiate with respect to t.
dV dh
=  .r 2 . (where r is constant with respect to t)
dt dt
Step 6: Evaluate.
dh dV dt − 3000 −3
= = = m/min. (where 1m3=1000 L).
dt  .r 2
1000  .r 2
 .r 2
dh − 3 −3 −3 −3
If we assume r=1m  = = = m/min=  −95 cm/min.
dt  .r 2
 .(1) 2
 100 

Chapter Four
Example 2: A hot air balloon rising straight up from a level field is tracked by a
range finder 500 ft from liftoff point. At the moment when the range finder's
elevation angle is /4, the angle is increasing at the rate of 0.14 rad/min. How fast
is the balloon rising at that moment?
Sol.: Step 1: Draw a picture and name the
variables and constant.
 = the angle in radians the range finder
makes with the ground (variable).
y = the height in feet of the balloon
(variable).
x=500 ft
x= the distance between the liftoff point
and the range finder (constant = 500 ft)

d 
= 0.14 rad/min. when  =
dt 4
dy 
=? when  =
dt 4
y y
tan  = =  y = 500 tan  (where x is constant with
x 500
respect to t)

dy d
= 500 sec2  .
dt dt
 d dy
Step 6: Evaluate with  = and = 0.14 to find .
4 dt dt
dy 
= 500 ( 2 ) 2 * 0.14 = 140 ( sec = 2 )
dt 4
At the moment in the question, the balloon is rising at a rate of 140 ft/min.

Chapter Four
Example 3: A police cruiser, approaching a right-angled intersection from the

north is chasing a speeding car that has turned corner and now is moving east.
When the cruiser is 0.6 mi north of intersection and the car 0.8 mi to the east, the
police determine with radar that the distance between them and the car is
increasing 20 mph. If the cruiser is moving at 60 mph at the instant of
measurement, what is the speed of the car?
Sol.: Step 1: Draw a picture and name the
variables and constant.
Cruiser
x = position of car at time t.
y = position of cruiser at time t.
s = distance between car and cruiser at
time t.
Step 2: Write down the numerical Car
information.
dy ds
x = 0.8 mi, y = 0.6 mi, = −60 mph and = 20 mph
dt dt
dx
=?
dt
s2 = x2 + y2  x2 = s2 − y2

dx ds dy
2x = 2s − 2 y 
dt dt dt
dx 1  ds dy  1  ds dy 
=  s − y  =  x2 + y2 −y 
dt x  dt dt  x  dt dt 
dy ds
Step 6: Evaluate with x = 0.8 mi, y = 0.6 mi, = −60 mph and = 20 mph to
dt dt
find
dx
dt
.
dx 1  2
=  x + y2
dt x 
ds
dt
dy  1
−y =
dt  0.8
( (0.8) 2
)
+ (0.6) 2 * 20 − 0.6(−60) = 70
At the moment in the question, the car's speed is 70 mph.

Chapter Four
Example 4: Water runs into a conical tank at the rate of 9 ft3/min. The tank
stands point down and has a height of 10 ft and a base radius of 5 ft. How fast is
the water level rising when the water is 6 ft deep?
Sol.: Step 1: Draw a picture and name the variables and constant.
V = volume (ft3) of the water in the tank at time t (min).
x = radius (ft) of the surface of the water at time t.
y = depth (ft) of the surface of the water at time t.

dV
y = 6 ft and = 9 ft3/min.
dt
dy
=?
dt
 2 
V= r h = x2 y
3 3
This equation involves x as well as V and y. Because no information is

given about x and dx/dt at the time in the question, we need to eliminate x.
the similar triangle give us away to express x in term of y.
x 5 y
=  x=
y 10 2
Therefore,
  y 
V= x2 y = ( )2 y = y3
3 3 2 12
dV  dy  2 dy
= *3y2 = y 
dt 12 dt 4 dt
dV dy
Step 6: Evaluate with y = 6 ft and = 9 ft3/min to find .
dt dt

9= (6)2 dy 
dy 1
=  0.32
4 dt dt 
At the moment in the question, the water level is rising at about 0.32 ft/min.

Chapter Four
Homework:
1. When a circular plate of metal is heated in an oven its radius increases at
a rate of 0.01 cm/min. At what rate is the plate's area increasing when its
radius is 50 cm.
2. The length (l) of rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 2 cm/sec while the
width (w) is increasing at the rate of 2 cm/sec. When l=12 cm and w=5 cm,
find the rate of change of:
(a) the area (b) the perimeter
(c) the length of the diagonal of the rectangle.
3. The commercial jets at 40 000 ft are flying at 520 mph along straight-line
courses that cross at right angles. How fast is the distance between the
planes closing when plane A is 5 mi from the intersection point and plane
B is 12 mi from the intersection point.
4. A 13-ft ladder is leaning against a house when its base is 12 ft from the
house, the base is moving at the rate of 5 ft/sec.
(a) How fast is the top of the ladder sliding
down the wall then?
(b) How fast is the area of the triangle formed
by the ladder, wall and the ground changing
then?
(c) At what rate is the angle  between the
ladder and the ground changing then?
5. Sand falls from a conveyer belt at the rate of 10 ft3/min onto a conical pile.
The radius of the base is always equal to half the pile's height. How fast is
the height growing when the pile is 5 ft high?
6. Suppose that a drop of mist is a perfect sphere and
that, through condensation, the drop picks up
moisture at a rate proportional to its surface area.
Show that under these circumstances the drop's
radius increases at a constant rate.
Chapter Four
7. A balloon is rising vertically above a level, straight road at a constant rate

of 1 ft/sec. Just when the balloon is 65 ft above the ground, a bicycle passes
under it, going 17 ft/sec. How fast is the distance between the bicycle and
balloon increasing 3 sec later?
8. A spherical balloon is inflated with helium 0f 100 ft3/min. How fast is the
balloon's radius increasing at the instant the radius is 5 ft? How fast is the
surface area increasing?
9. A man 6 ft tall walks at the rate of 5 ft/sec towards a streetlight that is 16 ft
above the ground. At what rate is the tip of his shadow moving? At what
rate is the length of his shadow when he is 10 ft from the base of the light?

Chapter Four
3. Optimization:
To optimize something means to make it as useful or effective as
possible. In the mathematical models in which we use differentiable functions to
describe things that interest us, this usually means finding where some function
has its greatest or smallest value. What is the size of the most profitable
production run? What is the best shape for an oil can? What is the stiffest beam
we can cut from a 12-in. log?
In this section we show where such functions come from and how to find
their extreme values.
Critical Points and Endpoints:
Our basic tool is the observation we made in previous section about local
maxima and minima. There we discovered that the extreme values of any
function f whatever can occur only at:
1. Interior points where f `=0, named critical points.
2. Interior points where f ` does not exist,
3. Endpoints of the function's domain.
Strategy for Solving Max-Min Problems
1. Draw a picture. Label the parts are important in the problem.
2. Write an equation. Write an equation for the quantity whose maximum or
minimum value you want. If you can, express the quantities as a function
of single variable, say y=f(x). This may require some algebra and use of
information from the statement of the problem. Note the domain in which
the values of x are to be found.
3. Test the critical points and end points. The extreme value of f will be
found among the values f takes on at the endpoints of the domain and at
the points where f` is zero or fails to exist. List the values of f at these
points. If f has an absolute maximum or minimum on its domain, it will
appear on the list. You may have to examine the sign pattern of f ` or the
sign of f `` to decide whether a given value represents a maximum, a
minimum, or neither.
Chapter Four
Example 1: Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of y = x2 3 on the

interval -2 ≤ x ≤ 3.
Sol.: We evaluate the function at the critical points and endpoints and take the
largest and smallest of these values.
y = x2 3
2 −1 3 2
y`= x = 3
3 3 x
has no zeroes but is undefined at x=0. The values of the function at this one
critical point and the endpoints are: y
absolute maximum;
Critical points value: f(0) = 0 also a local minimum
2
local maximum
2/3 1/3
Endpoint values: f(-2) = (-2) =4 ,
1
f(3) = (3)2/3 = 91/3
We conclude that the function's maximum -3 -2 -1
0
0 1 2 3
x
absolute minimum;
also a local minimum
value is 91/3, taken on at x=3. -1
The minimum value is 0, taken on at x=0

-2
Example 2: Find two positive numbers whose sum is 20 and whose product is
as large as possible.
Sol.: assume the first number is x
So, the second number is 20-x.
 f ( x) = x(20 − x) ; 0  x  20 ( Positive) y
max.
= 20x − x2
100
y=x(20-x)
Critical points can be found from first derivative:

f `( x) = 20 − 2x 50
20
Put f `(x) = 0  20 − 2 x = 0  x = = 10
2 0
0 10 20
x
- Critical point value:

f (10) = 10(20 −10) = 10 *10 = 100 -50
- Endpoints values: f (0) = 0(20 − 0) = 0 ;

f (20) = 20(20 − 20) = 0
Chapter Four
We conclude that the max. value is f (10) = 100

So the first number is 10
and the second number is 20-10=10
Example 3: A rectangle is to be inscribed in a semicircle of radius 2. What is the
largest area that the rectangle can have and what are the dimensions?
Sol.: Step 1: Draw a picture:
 the length of rectangle = 2x;
and the height = y.
Step 2: Write an equation:
Area = A( x) = 2x. y ; where y = r 2 − x 2
= 4 − x2
 A( x) = 2 x 4 − x 2 ; 0 xr
positive
0 x2
Step 3: Test the critical points and end points:
dA 1
= 2 x(4 − x 2 ) −1 2  (−2 x) + 2 4 − x 2
dx 2
− 2x2
= + 2 4 − x2
4− x 2
− 2 x 2 + 2(4 − x 2 ) − 2x2 + 8 − 2x2 8 − 4x2

= = =
4 − x2 4 − x2 4 − x2
dA 8 − 4x2 8
• Put =0  = 0  8 − 4x2 = 0  x 2 = =2
dx 4− x 2
4
x =  2
We should neglect the negative root because it is out of the domain.
x = 2
dA
• And is not defined at 4 − x2 = 0  4 − x2 = 0
dx
 x = 2
We also should neglect the negative root
 x = 2 (it is also end point)
Chapter Four
- Critical point value: A( 2 ) = 2 2 4 − ( 2 )2 = 2 2 2 = 4
- Endpoints values: A(0) = 2 * 0 4 − (0) 2 = 0 ;
A(2) = 2 * 2 4 − (2) 2 = 0
 The max. area is 4 square units when the rectangle has

Length = 2x = 2 2 unit length;
and height = 4 − ( 2 ) 2 = 4 − 2 = 2 unit length.
Example 4: An open-top-box is to be made by cutting small congruent squares
from the corners of a 12-in-by 12-in sheet of tin and bending up the
sides. How large should the squares cut from the corners be to make
the box hold as much as possible?
Sol.: Step 1: Draw a picture:
Step 2: Write an equation:
V ( x) = x(12 − 2 x) 2
12
= 144x − 48x2 + 4x3 ; 0 x
positive
2
0 x6
Step 3: Test the critical points and end points:
dV
= 144 − 96 x + 12 x 2
dx
= 12 (12 − 8 x + x 2 ) = 12 (2 − x)(6 − x)
dV
Put = 0  12(2 − x)(6 − x) = 0
dx
either x = 2 or x = 6 (endpoint)
- Critical point value:
V (2) = 2(12 − 2 * 2)2 = 128 in3
- Endpoints values: V (0) = 0(12 − 2 * 0) 2 = 0 ;

V (6) = 2(12 − 2 * 6) 2 = 0
 The max. volume is 128 in3. The cut out squares should be 2 in on a
side.
Chapter Four
Example 5: You have been asked to design a 1-liter can shaped like a right
circular cylinder. What dimensions will use the least material?
Solution: Volume of can: If r and h are measured in
centimeters, then the volume of the can in cubic centimeters is
r 2h = 1000. 1 liter = 1000 cm3
Surface area of can: A = 2r 2 + 2rh
Circular Circular
ends wall
How can we interpret the phrase “least material”? First, it is

customary to ignore the thickness of the material and the waste in
manufacturing. Then we ask for dimensions r and h that make the total surface
area as small as possible while satisfying the constraint r 2h = 1000.
To express the surface area as a function of one variable, we solve for one
of the variables in r 2h = 1000 and substitute that expression into the surface
area formula. Solving for h is easier:
1000
h=
r 2
Thus
A = 2r 2 + 2rh
 1000 
= 2r 2 + 2r  2 
 r 
2000
= 2r 2 +
r
Our goal is to find a value of r > 0
that minimizes the value of A. Figure below suggests that such a value exists.
Notice from the graph that for small r (a tall thin container, like a piece of pipe),
the term 2000/r dominates and A is large. For large r (a short wide container, like
a pizza pan), the term 2r2 dominates and A again is large.
Since A is differentiable on r > 0, an interval with no endpoints, it can have a
minimum value only where its first derivative is zero.

Chapter Four
dA 2000
= 4r − 2
dr r
2000
0 = 4r − (set dA/dr=0)
r2
4r 3 = 2000 (Multibly by r2)
500
r=3  5.24 cm

The second derivative:
d2A 4000
2
= 4 + 3
dr r
is positive throughout the domain of A. The graph is therefore everywhere
500
concave up and the value of A at r = 3 an absolute minimum.

The corresponding value of h (after a little algebra) is
1000 3 500
h= =2 = 2r.
r 2 
The 1-L can that uses the least material has height equal to the diameter, here
with r = 5.24 cm and h = 10.48 cm.
Example 6: A drilling rig 12 mi offshore is to be connected by pipe to a refinery

onshore, 20 mi straight down the coast from the rig. If underwater pipe costs
$500,000 per mile and land based pipe costs $300,000 per mile, what combination
of the two will give the least expensive connection?
Solution: We try a few possibilities to get a feel for the problem:
(a) Smallest amount of underwater
pipe
12
20
Underwater pipe is more expensive, so we use as little as we can. We run

straight to shore 12 mi and use land pipe for 20 mi to the refinery.
Dollar cost = 12(500,000) + 20(300,000)
= 12,000,000

Chapter Four
(b) All pipe underwater (most direct route)
We go straight to the refinery underwater.

Dollar cost = 500( 144 + 400)
 11,661,900
This is less expensive than plan (a).
Now we introduce the length x of underwater pipe and the length y of land-
based pipe as variables. The right angle opposite the rig is the key to
expressing the relationship between x and y, for the Pythagorean theorem
gives
x 2 = 12 2 + (20 − y ) 2
x = 144 + (20 − y ) 2
Only the positive root has meaning in this model.
The dollar cost of the pipeline is
c = 500,000x + 300,000y
To express c as a function of a single variable, we can substitute for x,
c( y) = 500 ,000 144 + (20 − y ) 2 + 300 , y
Our goal now is to find the minimum value of c(y) on the interval 0  y  20 .
The first derivative of c(y) with respect to y according to the Chain Rule is
1 2(20 − y)(−1)
c`( y) = 500,000. . + 300,000
2 144 + (20 − y) 2

Chapter Four
20 − y
= −500 ,000 . + 300 ,000
144 + (20 − y ) 2
Setting c` equal to zero gives
500 ,000 (20 − y) = 300 ,000 144 + (20 − y) 2
5
(20 − y) = 144 + (20 − y) 2
3
25
(20 − y ) 2 = 144 + (20 − y ) 2
9
16
(20 − y) 2 = 144
9
3
(20 − y) =  .12 = 9
4
y = 20  9
y = 11 or y = 29
Only y = 11 lies in the interval of interest. The values of c at this one critical
point and at the endpoints are
c(11) = 10,800,000
c(0) = 11,661,900
c(20) = 12,000,000
The least expensive connection costs $10,800,000, and we achieve it by running
the line underwater to the point on shore 11 mi from the refinery.
Example 7: Suppose a manufacturer can sell x-items a week for a revenue of r(x)
= 200 x-0.01x2 cents, and it costs c(x)=50x+20000 cents to make x-items.
Is there a most profitable number of items to make each week? If so,

what is it?
Sol.: profit = revenue – cost
p(x) = r(x) - c(x)
= (200 x-0.01x2) – (50x+20000)
=200 x-0.01x2-50x-20000
=150 x-0.01x2-20000
dp
To find the critical point put =0
dx
dp 150
 = 150 − 0.02 x = 0  x= = 7500 items
dx 0.02

Chapter Four
2
and d p2 = −0.02  0 for all values of x.
dx
The graph is concave down, so the critical point x=7500 is the location of
an absolute max.
To answer the question, then, there is a production level for max. profit,
and that level is x=7500 item per week.
Home work:
1. The sum of two non-negative numbers is 20. Find the numbers:
(a) If the sum of their squares is to be as large as possible.
(b) If one number plus to square root of the other is to be as large as possible.
2. What is the largest possible area of a right triangle whose hypotenuse is 5
cm long?
3. What is the smallest perimeter possible for a rectangle whose area is 16

in2?
4. You are planning to close off a corner of the first quadrant with a line
segment 20 units long running from (a,0) to (0,b). Show that the area of the
triangle enclosed by the segment is largest when a=b.
5. A rectangle plot of farmland will be bounded on one side by a river and
on the other three sides by a single-strand electric fence. With 800 m of
wire at your disposal, what is the largest area you can enclose?
6. A 216-m2 rectangular pea patch is to be enclosed by a fence and divided
into two equal parts by another fence parallel to one of the sides. What
dimensions for the outer rectangle will require the smallest total length of
fence? How much fence will be needed?

Chapter Four
4. Rolle’s Theorem
If y=f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable on the
open interval (a,b) and also f(a) = f(b) and may be equal zero, then there is at least
one number c in (a,b) at which
f `(c)=0.
Example: Does Rolle's Theorem be applicable on the following functions. If so,

find the value or values of c.
1. y = 2x − x2 ; [0, 2]
Sol.: 1. The function is continuous on [0, 2].

2. y`= 2 − 2 x is differentiable on (0,2).
3. f (0) = 2 * 0 − 0 2 = 0 and f (2) = 2 * 2 − 2 2 = 0 o.k.
 Rolle's Theorem is applicable on this function on [0, 2].
To find the value of c: Put y`=0
2
 2 − 2 x = 0  2x = 2  x = =1
2
c = 1
x3
2. y = − 3x; [-3, 3]
3
Sol.: 1. The function is continuous on [-3, 3].
2. y`= x 2 − 3 is differentiable on (-3, 3).
(−3) 3 − 27 (3) 3 27
3. f (−3) = − 3(−3) = + 9 = 0 and f (3) = − 3(3) = − 9 = 0 o.k.
3 3 3 3
 Rolle's Theorem is applicable on this function on [-3, 3].
To find the values of c: Put y`=0
Chapter Four
 x2 − 3 = 0  x2 = 3  x =  3
c1 = − 3 and c2 = 3 .
Homework: Show if that the Rolle's Theorem is applicable on the following

functions.
1. f ( x) = sin x ; [0,  ] 2. f ( x) = 1 − x ; [−3, 3]
x2 − 1 x2 1
3. f ( x) = ; [−2, 3] 4. f ( x) = − ; [−2, 2]
x 3 x
5. f ( x) = x 3 − 1 ; [−1,1] 6. f ( x) = x 2 − 4 x + 3 ; [1, 3]
Finding Solution of Equations: (b,f(b))
Corollary1: Suppose that:

1. f is continuous on [a,b], and differentiable on
(a,b). a
2. f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs. b
3. f `≠0 between a and b.

(a,f(a))
Then f has exactly one zero between a and b.
Example1: Show that the equation x3 + 3x + 1 = 0 has

exactly one real solution on the interval [-1,1].
Sol.: Let y = f ( x) = x3 + 3x + 1
Then the derivative f `( x) = 3x 2 + 3 , so
1. f is continuous on [-1,1], and differentiable on
(-1,1).
2. f (a) = f (−1) = (−1)3 + 3(−1) + 1 = −3  0 (negative)

f (b) = f (1) = (1) 3 + 3(1) + 1 = 5  0 (positive)
Thus f(-1) and f(1) have opposite signs.
3. f `( x) = 3x 2 + 3 is never zero (because it is the sum of two positive
numbers).

Chapter Four
So corollary1 is applicable on this function, so the above equation has

exactly one real solution on (-1, 1).
Example 2: Show that the equation x 4 + 3x + 1 = 0 has exactly one real root
between a=-2 and b=-1.
Sol.: Let y = f ( x) = x 4 + 3x + 1
Then the derivative f `( x) = 4 x 3 + 3 , so
3. f is continuous on [-2,-1], and differentiable on (-2,-1).
4. f (a) = f (−2) = (−2) 4 + 3(−2) + 1 = 11  0 (positive)
f (b) = f (−1) = (−1) 4 + 3(−1) + 1 = −1  0 (negative)
Thus f(-2) and f(-1) have opposite signs.

−3 −3
3. when f `( x) = 4 x 3 + 3 = 0  x 3 =  x=3  −0.91  (−2,−1)
4 4
Thus f`(x) ≠0 on (-1,-2)
So corollary1 is applicable on this function so the above equation has
exactly one real root on (-2,-1).
Homework: Show that the following equations have only one real root on the
corresponding intervals.
1. x3 + 2x + 2 = 0 ; [-1, 1] 2. − x3 − 3x + 1 = 0 ; [0, 1]
2
3. x − = 0 ; [1, 3] 4. 2x − cos x = 0 ; [- ]
x

Chapter Four
5. The Mean Value Theorem (M. V. T.):

Suppose y=f(x) is continuous on the closed
interval [a,b] and differentiable on the open interval
(a,b), Then there is at least one point c in (a,b) at which
f (b) − f (a)
= f `( c)
b−a
Examples: Does the M. V. T. be applicable on the following functions. If so find

the value or values of c.
1. f ( x) = x − 2 sin x ; 0  x  2
Sol.: 1. f ( x) = x − 2 sin x is continuous on [0, 2].

2. f `( x) = 1 − 2 cos x is differentiable on (0, 2).
 The M. V. T. is applicable on [0, 2].
To find c:
f (b) − f (a)
f `( c) =
b−a
where f (b) = f (2 ) = 2 − 2 sin 2 = 2 − 0 = 2
f (a) = f (0) = 0 − 2 sin 0 = 0 − 0 = 0
and f `(c) = 1 − 2 cos c , thus:

2 − 0
1 − 2 cos c =  1 − 2 cos c = 1  2 cos c = 0  cos c = 0
2 − 0
n
c =  ; n = 1, 3, 5..
2
 3
c1 = and c2 = on the interval [0, 2].
2 2
2. f ( x) = x 2 3 ; [-8, 8]
Sol.: 1. f ( x) = x 2 3 = 3 x 2 is continuous on [-8, 8].

2 2
2. f `( x) = x −1 3 = 3
is not differentiable x = 0  (−8,8) .
3 3 x
 The M. V. T. is not applicable on [-8, 8].

3. f ( x) = x 2 3 ; [0, 8]

Chapter Four
Sol.: 1. f ( x) = x 2 3 = 3 x 2 is continuous on [0, 8].

2 2
2. f `( x) = x −1 3 = 3
is not differentiable x = 0  (0,8)
3 3 x
So it is differentiable on (0,8)
 The M. V. T. is applicable on [0, 8].
To find c:
f (b) − f (a)
f `( c) =
b−a
where f (a) = f (0) = 02 3 = 0
f (b) = f (8) = 82 3 = 4
2
and f `(c) = 3
, thus:
3 c
3
2 4−0 2 1 4 4 64
=  3 =  3
c=  c=  = = 2.3704
33 c 8−0 3 c 2 3 3 27
Note: If f`(x) is continuous on [a,b], the Max.-Min. Theorem for continuous

functions tells us that f` has absolute maximum value (max.f`) and absolute
minimum value (min.f`) on the interval, the equation:
f (b) − f (a)
f `( c) =
b−a
gives us the inequality:
f (b) − f (a)
f `  max . f `
b−a
min .
1
Example: Estimate f(1) if f `( x) = and f(0)=2.
5 − x2
Sol.: a=0  f(a)=f(0)=2
b=1  f(b)=f(1)=?
f (b) − f (a)
f `  max . f `
b−a
min .
1 f (1) − 2 1
 
5−0 2
1− 0 5 − 12
1 1
 f (1) − 2 
5 4
Chapter Four
0.2 + 2  f (1)  0.25 + 2

2.2  f (1)  2.25
6. L'Hopital's Rule:
Suppose that f(a) = g(a) = 0, and f'(a) and g'(a) exist, and that g'(a)  0, then:
f ( x) f ' ( x) f ' (a)
lim = lim =
x→a g ( x) x → a g ' ( x) g ' (a)
Examples: Evaluate the following:

3x − sin x 3(0) − sin 0 0
1. lim = = indeterminate quantity
x →0 x 0 0
3 − cos x
= lim = 3 − cos 0 = 3 − 1 = 2
x →0 1
x − sin x 0
2. lim =
x →0 x3 0
1 − cos x 0 0
= lim 2
= (still , then apply the rule again)
x →0 3x 0 0
− (− sin x) 0 0
= lim = (still , then apply the rule again)
x →0 6x 0 0
cos x 1
= lim = (A different result ➔ then stop)
x →0 6 6
x
1 + x −1 −
3. lim 2 = 0 (indeterminate quantity)
x →0 x2 0
1 −1 1
(1 + x) 2 − 0 −
= lim 2 2 = 0 (still 0 , then apply the rule again)
x →0 2x 0 0
1 −3 1 −3
− (1 + x) 2 − 0 − (1 + 0) 2 − 0 − 1
= lim 4 = 4 =
x →0 2 2 8
1 − cos x 0
4. lim = (indeterminate quantity)
x →0 x + x2 0
sin x 0
= lim = = 0 (If we continue to differentiate in an attempt to apply
x →0 1 + 2x 1
L'Hopital's rule once more, we get:)
1 − cos x sin x cos x 1
= lim = lim = lim = (which is wrong)
x →0 x+ x 2 x → 0 1 + 2x x → 0 2 2
Chapter Four
Note: If we reach a point where one of the derivatives is zero and the other is
not, then the limit in question is either zero, or infinity as in the next example:
sin x 0
5. lim 2
=
x →0 + x 0
cos x 1
= lim = = +
x →0 + 2x 0

Note: the form of and  x 0 ➔ L'Hopital's rule applies to the indeterminate

 0
form as well as , if f(x) and g(x) both approaches infinity as x approaches a,
 0
then:
f ( x) f ' ( a )
lim = in the notation x → a (a may be either finite or infinite)
x →a g ( x) g ' ( a )
tan x 
6. lim =
x→
 −
1 + tan x 
2
sec2 x
= lim =1
x→
− sec2 x
2
0 
Note: The form 0   can sometimes be handled by using algebra to get or
0 
instead.
 1 1
7. lim  −  =  − 
x →0 sin x
 x
x − sin x 0
= lim =
x →0 x sin x 0
1 − cos x sin x sin x 0

= lim = lim = lim = =0
x →0 x cos x + sin x x →0 − x sin x + cos x + cos x x →0 2 cos x − x sin x 2
8. lim (1 − tan x) sec 2 x = 0  

x→
4
(1 − tan x) 0
= lim =
x→ cos 2 x 0
4
= lim
− sec2 x − 2
=
2
= =1
( )
2
x → − 2 sin 2 x − 2(1) 2
4

Chapter Four
9. lim
x →0
(csc x − cot x ) =  − 
 1 cos x   1 − cos x  0
= lim  −  = lim  =
x →0
 sin x sin x  x →0  sin x  0
 sin x  0
= lim  = =0

x →0 cos x
 1
 1 1
10. lim  − 2  =−
 sin x x 
x →0 2
 x 2 − sin 2 x  0
= lim  2 2  =
x →0
 x sin x  0
Hint: If we use L'Hopital's rule the problem will be complicated more

 x 2 − sin 2 x  1 x2  x 2 − sin 2 x  x2
= lim     = lim
 sin 2 x x 2 x →0    lim
 x →0 sin 2 x =1
x →0
 x2   x4 
 x 2 − sin 2 x  0
= lim  4
 =  Use L'Hopital's rule
x →0
 x  0
 2 x − 2 cos x sin x   2 x − sin 2 x  0

= lim   = lim   = (use L'Hopital's rule again)
    0
3
x →0 4x x → 0 4x3
 2 − 2 cos 2 x   − 2(−2 sin 2 x)   4 sin 2 x 

= lim   = lim   = lim  
 12x  x →0   x →0  24x 
x →0 2
24x
 8 cos 2 x  8 1
= lim  = =
x →0
 24  24 3
x − 2 x2 
11. lim =
x → 3x 2 + 5 x 
1 − 4x −4 −4 −2
= lim = lim = =
x → 6x + 5 x →  6 6 3
3x 2 − x + 5 6x −1 6 3
12. lim = lim = lim =
x → 5 x + 6 x − 3
2 x → 10 x + 6 x → 10 5
Homework:
1. Find the limit of the following:
x3 − 1 5 x 2 − 3x
a. lim b. lim
x →1 4 x3 − x − 3 x → 7 x 2 + 1
6x + 5 sin t 2
c. lim d. lim
x → 3x − 8 t →0 t
Chapter Four
2x −  sin 5x
e. lim f. lim
x→ cos x x →0 x
2
 10(sin x − x )
g. lim  − x  tan x h. lim
x→
2
2  x →0 x3
x(1 − cos x )  1 1
i. lim j. lim  − 
x →0 x − sin x x →0
 sin x x 
1 1 
k. lim  − 
x →0  x
 x

Chapter Five
INTEGRATION
Integration process is the reverse of differentiation process.

1. Indefinite Integrals:
d
If F ( x) = f ( x) or F `( x) = f ( x) then dF ( x) = f ( x).dx
dx
Note: If f(x) is any function then F(x) is called the antiderivative of f(x).
  dF ( x) =  f ( x).dx
But since: d ( F ( x) + C) = dF ( x) = f ( x).dx
Hence:  f ( x).dx =  d ( F ( x) + C )
  f ( x).dx = F ( x) + C
Where C: is called constant of integration,
and  f ( x).dx : is indefinite integral of the function f(x) with respect to x.
Rules for indefinite integrals:
1.  dF ( x) .dx = F ( x) + C
dx
d
dx 
2. f ( x).dx = f ( x)
x n+1
3.  x n .dx = + C where n ≠ -1
n +1
4.  k . f ( x).dx =k  f (k ).dx where k is constant (Does not work if k varies with x)
5.  [ f ( x)  g ( x)].dx =  f ( x).dx   g ( x).dx
6.  sin x.dx = − cos x + C or  sin u.du = − cos u + C where u is function of x.
7.  cos x.dx = sin x + C or  cos u.du = sin u + C

8.  sec2 x.dx = tan x + C or  sec
2
u.du = tan u + C
9.  csc2 x.dx = − cot x + C or  csc

2
u.du = − cot u + C
10.  sec x tan x.dx = sec x + C or  sec u tan u.du = sec u + C
Mathematics- Integration (107)

Chapter Five
11.  csc x cot x.dx = − csc x + C or  csc u cot u.du = − csc u + C

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.
x6
1.  x5 .dx = +C
6
2.  sin 2 x.dx
Sol.: let u=2x  du=2dx  dx=du/2

du 1 − cos 2 x
 sin 2 x.dx =  sin u. 2 = (− cos u ) + C =
2 2
+C
x
3.  cos .dx
2
x dx
Sol.: let u=  du =  dx = 2du
2 2
x x
 cos 2 .dx =  cos u.(2du) = 2 cos u.du = 2 sin u + C = 2 sin 2 + C
4.  ( x + 5) 5 .dx
Sol.: let u = x+5  du = dx
u6 ( x + 5)6
 u .du = 6 + C = 6 + C
5
5.  4 x − 1.dx
du
Sol.: let u = 4x − 1  du = 4dx  dx =
4
du 1 u 3 2 2 32 1 32 1
 u . 4 = 4 3 2 + C = 12 u + C = 6 u + C = 6 (4 x − 1) + C
12 32
6.  cos(7 x + 5).dx
du
Sol.: let u = 7x + 5  du = 7dx  dx =
7
du 1 1
 cos u. 7 = sin u + C = sin( 7 x + 5) + C
7 7
7.  x 2 sin x 3 .dx
du
Sol.: let u = x 3  du = 3x 2dx  x 2dx =
3

Chapter Five
du − cos u − cos x3
 sin u. 3
=
3
+C =
3
+C
1
8.  cos 2
2x
.dx
1
Sol.:  cos 2
2x
.dx =  sec2 2 x.dx
du
let u = 2x  du = 2dx  dx =
2
du 1 1
 sec = tan u + C = tan 2 x + C
2
u.
2 2 2
9.  ( x 2 + 2 x − 3) 2 ( x + 1).dx
du
Sol.: let u = x2 + 2x − 3  du = (2x + 2)dx = 2( x + 1)dx  ( x + 1)dx =
2
du 1 u 3 u3 ( x 2 + 2 x − 3)3
u . = * +C = +C = +C
2
2 2 3 6 6
10.  sin 4 x cos x.dx
Sol.: let u = sin x  du = cos x.dx
u5 sin 5 x
 u .du = +C = +C
4
5 5
2 zdz
11.  3
z2 +1
Sol.: let u = z 2 +1  du = 2 zdz
du u2 3 3 3
 u1 3 
−1 3
= u .du = + C = u 2 3 + C = ( z 2 + 1) 2 3 + C
23 2 2
Another solution:
let u = 3 z 2 + 1  u3 = z 2 + 1  3u 2du = 2zdz
2 zdz 3u 2 du 3u 2 3
 3
z +1
2
=
u
=  3u.du =
2
+ C = ( z 2 + 1) 2 3 + C
2
12.  tan x sec2 x.dx
u = tan x  du = sec x.dx

2
Sol.: let
u2 tan 2 x
 u.du = 2 + C = 2 + C

Chapter Five
Another solution:
let u = sec x  du = sec x tan x.dx
u2 sec 2 x
 tan x sec x.dx =  sec x(sec x tan xdx) =  u.du = +C = +C
2
2 2
13.  3x 2 x3 + 1.dx
Sol.: let u = x 3 + 1  du = 3x 2 dx
u3 2 2
 u .du =
32
+ C = ( x 3 + 1) 3 2 + C
3
Another solution:
let u 2 = x3 + 1  2udu = 3x2dx
u3 2
 u * 2udu =  2u .du = 2 + C = ( x 3 + 1)3 2 + C
2
3 3
x2 + 2x
14.  x 2 + 2 x + 1 dx 1
x + 2x +1
2
x2 + 2x
Sol.: When the degree of numerator is equal or greater than the
 x2  2x  1
degree of denominator, use long division to simplify the 0 + 0 −1
problem.
x2 + 2x  1   1 
 x 2 + 2 x + 1 dx =  1 − x 2 + 2 x + 1 dx =  1 − ( x + 1)2 dx
( x + 1) −1 x2 + x + 1
(
=  1 − ( x + 1) −2
)
dx = x −
−1
+C = x+
1
x +1
+C =
x +1
+C
(1 + x) 2
15.  x .dx
Sol.:  (1 + x) .dx =  1 + 2 x + x dx =   1 + 2 x + x dx =  (x −1 2 + 2 x1 2 + x 3 2 )dx
2 2 2
x x  x x x
x1 2 x3 2 x5 2 2 2
= + + + C = 2 x1 2 + x3 2 + x5 2 + C
12 32 52 3 5
The Integrals of sin2x and cos2x:

1 − cos 2 x 1 + cos 2 x
use the following identities: sin 2 x = cos 2 x =
2 2

Chapter Five
1 − cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x
16.  sin 2 x.dx =  dx =  dx −  dx
2 2 2
x 1  sin 2 x  x sin 2 x
= −  +C = − +C
2 2 2  2 4
1 + cos 4 x 1 cos 4 x
17.  cos 2 2 x.dx =  dx =  dx +  dx
2 2 2
x 1  sin 4 x  x sin 4 x
= +  +C = − +C
2 2 4  2 8
Solving Initial Value Problems with Indefinite Integrals

The problem of finding a function y of x when we know its derivative
dy
= f (x) and its value yo at a particular point xo is called initial value problem.
dx
dy
So, if = f (x)  dy = f ( x).dx
dx
and  dy =  f ( x).dx
 y = F ( x) + C where F(x) is the antiderivative of f(x)

In this case yo = F ( xo ) + C  C = yo − F ( xo ) and y = F ( x) + ( yo − F ( xo ) )
dy
Note: An equation like = f (x) , that has a derivative in it, is called Differential
dx
Equation (D.E.).
A more complicated differential equation might involve y as well as x:
dy
= 2xy 2 first order D.E.
dx
d 2 y dy
2
+ + 5 y3 = 3 second order D.E.
dx dx
d 3 y dy
3
+ + y5 = x2 third order D.E.
dx dx
Example 1: The velocity v(t) of a body falling from rest in a vacuum near the
surface of the earth satisfies
dv
Differential equation: = 9.8 (the acceleration is 9.8 m/sec2)
dt
Initial condition: v=0 when t=0 (the velocity is zero at start)

Chapter Five
Find v as a function of t.
Sol.: We find the general D.E. by integrating both sides of it with respect to t:
dv
a= = 9.8 (D.E.)
dt
dv
 dt dt =  9.8 dt (integral equation)
v + C1 = 9.8t + C2
v = 9.8t + C2 − C1
v = 9.8t + C (where C = C2 − C1 ) (general solution)

To find C use the boundary conditions: v=0 when t=0.
0 = 9.8 * 0 + C  C = 0
 v = 9.8t + 0  v = 9.8t
Example 2: Solve the following initial value problem for y as a function of x:
d2y
Differential equation: = 6x − 2
dx2
dy
Initial conditions (or boundary conditions): = 0 and y=10 when x=1
dx
d2y
Sol.: D. E. = 6x − 2
dx2
Integrate both sides:
d2y dy 6 x 2
 dx2 dx =  (6 x − 2)dx ➔
dx
=
2
− 2 x + C1 = 3 x 2 − 2 x + C1
dy
We apply the first initial condition to find C1 [ = 0 when x=1]
dx
0 = 3(1) 2 − 2(1) + C1  C1 = −1
dy
This completes the formula for :
dx
dy
= 3x 2 − 2 x − 1 also integrate both sides:
dx
 dxdx =  (3x )
dy 2
− 2 x − 1 dx ➔ y = x3 − x 2 − x + C2
We apply the second initial condition to find C2 [y=10 when x=1]

Chapter Five
10 = (1)3 − (1) 2 − (1) + C2  C2 = 11
This completes the formula for y as a function of x.

y = x3 − x 2 − x + 11
Example 3: Evaluate the general solution of the following differential

equations:
dy
1. = x2 y
dx
Sol.: Separate the variables:
1 dy
= x2 Integrate both sides.
y dx
1 dy
 y dx
dx =  x 2 dx
y x3 x3 x 3 C1
= + C1  2 y = + C1  y= +
12 3 3 6 2
2
 x3  C1
 y =  + C where C=
6  2
dy x +1
2. =
dx y −1
Sol.: y − 1.dy = x + 1.dx
 y − 1.dy =  x + 1.dx
( y − 1)3 2 ( x + 1)3 2
= + C1
32 32
3
( y − 1)3 2 = ( x + 1)3 2 + C1 
2

y = ( x + 1) 3 2 + C 
23
+ 1 where C=
3
2
C1
dy
3. = 1 + x + y + xy
dx
dy dy dy
Sol.: = 1 + x + y (1 + x)  = (1 + x)(1 + y)  = 1 + x. 1 + y
dx dx dx
dy dy 2
1+ y
= 1 + x .dx   1+ y 
= 1 + x .dx  2 1+ y =
3
(1 + x)3 2 + C1

Chapter Five
2 2
1 C  1  C
1 + y =  (1 + x) 3 2 + 1   y =  (1 + x) 3 2 + C  − 1 where C = 1
3 2 3  2
Homework:
I. Evaluate the following integrals:
 x 2 x3  9r 2 dr dy
1.   + .dx
 2 3
2.  1− r3
3.  2 y (1 + y )2
x.dx
4.  (1 + x ) 2 2
5.  (1 + y)1 2 dy 6.  sec2 ( x + 2)dx
8.  sec2  dx
x 8 sin t
7.  tan x sec2 x.dx
4
9.  5 − 4 cos t
dt
cos x
10.  dx 11.  3 cos 2 x sin x.dx 12.  (1 − sin 2t )3 2 cos 2t.dt
2 + sin x
sin x
13.  x
dx 14.  tan 2 x sec2 x.dx 15.  csc2 2 cot 2 .d
18 tan 2 x sec2
16.  dx 17.  1 + sin 2 ( x − 1) .sin( x − 1) cos(x − 1)dx
(2 + tan 3 x) 2
II. Solve the following initial value problems:
Differential equation Initial conditions

dy
1. =3 x y=4 when x=9
dx
dy
2. = − sin x y=0 when x=0
dx
dy 1
3. = sec x tan x y=1 when x=0
dx 2
d2y 2 dy
4. = = 1 and y=1 when x=1
dx 2 x 3 dx
d3y d2y dy
5. =6 = −8 , = 0 and y=5 when x=0
dx 3 2
d x dx
III. A particle moves along a coordinate line with acceleration (

d 2s ds
a= = 15 t − 3 t ), subject to conditions that = 4 and s=0 when t=1.
dt 2 dt

Chapter Five
ds
Find (a) the velocity ( v = ) in terms of t.
dt
(b) the position (s) in terms of t.
IV. The standard equation for free fall near the surface of every planet
1 2
s(t ) = gt + vot + so
2
Where s(t) is the body's position on the line of fall, g is the planet
(constant) acceleration of gravity, vo is the body's initial velocity and so is
the body's initial position.
Derive this equation by solving the following initial value problem:
d 2s
Differential equation: = g;
dt 2
ds
Initial conditions: = vo and s = s0 when t=0.
dt
V. Show that:
cos 2 x dx 1 − cos 3x
1.  (cos x − sin x) 2 dx = x +
2
+C 2.  1 + cos 3x = 3 sin 3x
+C
tan 6 x dt t t
3.  tan 5 x. sec2 x.dx =
6
+C 4.  t
= 2(tan + sec ) + C
2 2
1 − sin
2
VI. Evaluate the indefinite integrals:
1.  sec 2 x. tan 2 x.dx 2.  sec2 ( x 2 + 2).2 x.dx
 tan x . sec2 x.dx 4.  sin 4 x. cos x.dx

3
3.

Chapter Five
2. Definite Integrals:
Area under Curve:
The area of the region with a curved
boundary can be approximated by summing the
areas of a collection of rectangles. Using more
rectangles can increase the accuracy of
approximation.
Example 1: What is the area of the shaded

region R that lies above the x-axis,
below the graph of y=1 - x2, and
between the vertical lines x=0 and

x=1?
Sol.: 1. If we divide the region into two

rectangles (two sub-intervals each sub
b − a 1− 0 1
interval length x = = = ), and we take the height of rectangles
n 2 2
at the left-end of those sub-intervals.
1 1 3 7
 A  *1 + * = = 0.875
2 2 4 8
We get an upper estimated of the area A.
If we use four rectangles we get a better
upper estimate.
b − a 1− 0 1
 x = = =
n 4 4
1 15 3 7 25
and  A  (1 + + + ) = = 0.78125
4 16 4 16 32
which is still greater than the area A since
the rectangles all lies outside the region R.

Chapter Five
2. If we take the height of rectangles at the right-end of those sub-

intervals,
1 15 3 7 17
A ( + + + 0) = = 0.53125
4 16 4 16 32
This estimate is smaller than the area A since the rectangles all lies
inside the region R.
So, the true value of A lies somewhere between these lower and upper
sums;
0.53125  A  0.78125
3. Another estimate can be obtained by using
rectangles whose heights are the values of f
at the midpoint of their bases. This gives
an estimate that is between the lower sum
and upper sum, but is not clear whether it
overestimates or underestimates the true
area.
1 63 55 39 15 1 172
A ( + + + ) = * = 0.671875
4 64 64 64 64 4 64
If we increase the subdivisions we obtain:
Number of
Lower sum Midpoint sum Upper sum
Sub-intervals
2 0.375 0.6875 0.875
4 0.53125 0.671875 0.78125
16 0.634765625 0.6669921875 0.697285625
50 0.6566 0.6667 0.6766
100 0.66165 0.666675 0.67165
1000 0.6661665 0.66666675 0.6671665

Chapter Five
Riemann Sums:
Suppose y=f(x) is an arbitrary continuous function over closed interval
[a, b], f(x) may have negative as well as positive values.
We subdivide the interval [a, b] into subintervals not necessary of equal width
(length). To do so, we choose n-1 points {x1, x2, x3… xn-1} between a and b and
satisfying
a=xo < x1 < x2 <…< xn-1< xn =b
the set
P={x1, x2, x3… xn-1}
is called a partition of [a, b]
The partition P divides [a, b] into n closed sub intervals,
[xo, x1] , [x1, x2], …, [xn-1, xn]
The first of these subintervals is [xo, x1], the second is [x1, x2] and the kth
subintervals of P is [xk-1, xk], for k an integer between 1 and n.
The width of the first subintervals [xo, x1] is denoted x1, the width of the second
[x1, x2] is x2, and the width of the kth is xk=xk-xk-1. If all n subintervals have the
equal width, then the common width x is equal to

Chapter Five
b−a
x =
n
In each subinterval we select some point. The point chosen in the kth
subinterval is called ck. Then on each subinterval we stand a vertical rectangle
that stretches from the x-axis to touch the curve at (ck, f(ck)). These rectangles can
be above or below the x-axis, depending whether f(ck) is positive or negative, or
on it f(ck)=0.
On each subinterval we form the product f(ck). xk. This product is
positive, negative or zero, depending on the sign of f(ck).
If f(ck) > 0, the product f(ck). xk is the area of a rectangle with height f(ck)
and width xk.
If f(ck) < 0, the product f(ck). xk is a negative number, the negative of the
area of a rectangle with height f(ck) and width xk that drops from the x-axis to
the negative number of f(ck).
n
Finally we sum all of these products to get S P =  f (ck ).xk
k =1
The sum SP is called a Riemann Sum for f on the interval [a, b]. There are many
such sums, depending on the partition P we choose, and the choice of the point
ck in the subintervals.
We define the norm of a partition P, written ||P||, to be the largest of all
subinterval widths. If ||P|| is a small number, then all of the subintervals in the
partition P have a small width.
Example 1: Partitioning a Closed Interval.
The set P = {0. 0.2, 0.6, 1, 1.5, 2} is a partition of [0,2]. There are five subintervals
P: [0, 0.2], [0.2, 0.6], [0.6, 1], [1, 1.5] and [1.5, 2]

Chapter Five
The lengths of the subintervals are: x1 = 0.2 - 0 = 0.2,

x2 = 0.6 – 0.2 = 0.4
x3 = 0.4
x4 = 0.5
and x5 = 0.5
The longest subinterval length is 0.5, so the norm of the partition ||P||=0.5. In this
example there are two subintervals of this length.
Any Riemann sum associated with a partition of a closed interval [a,b]
defines rectangles that approximate the region between the graph of a
continuous function f and the x-axis. Partitions with norm approaching to zero
lead to collections of rectangles that approximate this region with increasing
accuracy.
Example 2: Find the Riemann sum for f(x) = sinx on the interval [0, 3/2]. Use
n=3.
b−a 3 2−0 1 1 3
Sol.: x = = =  x0 = a = 0 , x1 = , x2 = 1 and x3 = b =
n 3 2 2 2
1. Choice of ck: the interval midpoint

1 2+0 1 1+1 2 3 3 2 +1 5 y
c1 = = , c2 = = , c3 = =
2 4 2 4 2 4 1
f(x)=sinx
The Riemann sum:
0 x
 3 5
3 3 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
1 1
 f (c )c =  sin c
k =1
k k
k =1
k * = (sin + sin
2 2 4 4
+ sin
4
)
-1
1 2 2 2 2
= ( + − )=
2 2 2 2 4
2. Choice of ck: left-hand of subinterval y
1
1
c1 = 0 , c2 = , c3 = 1 f(x)=sinx
2
0 x
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
The Riemann sum:
3 3
1 1  -1

k =1
f (ck )ck =  sin ck * = (sin 0 + sin + sin  )
k =1 2 2 2
1 1
= (0 + 1 + 0) =
2 2

y
Chapter Five
1
3. Choice of ck: right-hand of subinterval f(x)=sinx
1 3 x
c1 = , c 2 = 1 , c3 =
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2 2
-1
The Riemann sum:
3 3
1 1  3
 f (c )c =  sin c
k =1
k k
k =1
k * = (sin + sin  + sin
2 2 2 2
)
1
= (1 + 0 − 1) = 0
2
Area Is Strictly a Special Case

If an integerable function y=f(x) is nonnegative throughout an interval [a, b],
each term f(ck)xk is the area of a rectangle reaching from the x-axis up to the
curve y=f(x). The Riemann sum
n
S P =  f (ck )xk
k =1
which is the sum of the areas of these rectangles, gives an estimate of the area
of the region between the curve and the x-axis from a to b. Since the rectangles
give an increasing good approximation of the region as we use subdivisions
with smaller and smaller subintervals, we call the limiting value
n n b
lim
x →0

k =1
f (ck )x x = lim
n →

k =1
f (ck )x x =  f ( x)dx the area under the curve.
a
Note: (remember that when n→∞  x→0)

Definition: If y=f (x) is nonnegative and integerable function over a closed
interval [a, b], then the integral of f from a to b is the area of the region between
the graph of f and the x-axis from a to b. We sometimes call this number the
area under the curve y=f(x) from a to b.
2
 4 − x 2 dx by y
Example 3: Find the value of integral
f(x)=sqrt(4-x^2)
−2 2
regarding it as the area under the graph of

1
an appropriately chosen function.
Sol.: We graph the integrand f ( x) = 4 − x 2 over the -2 -1

0
0 1 2
x
-1
Mathematics- Integration (121) -2

Chapter Five
interval of integration [-2, 2] and see that the graph is semicircle of radius
2. The area between the semicircle and the x-axis is
1 1
Area = r 2 =  (2) 2 = 2
2 2
Because the area is also the value of the integral of f from -2 to2:
2

−2
4 − x 2 dx = 2
The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If the function f is continuous on an interval [a, b], and F(x) is the
x
antiderivative of f, then the function F ( x) =  f (t )dt has a derivative at every
a
point on [a, b] and

x
dF d
dx dx a
= f (t )dt = f ( x)
Examples: Find dy dx of the following:

x
1. y =  cos t.dt
−
x
d
dx −
Sol.: cos t.dt = cos x
x
1
2. y =  .dt
0
1 + t 2
x
d 1 1
Sol.: 
dx 0 1 + t 2
.dt =
1 + x2
x2
3. y =  cos t.dt
1
x2
d d
Sol.: 
dx 1
cos t.dt = cos x 2 * ( x 2 ) = cos x 2 * 2 x = 2 x cos x 2
dx

Chapter Five
The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (The Integral Evaluation

Theorem)
If f is continuous at every point of [a, b] and F is antiderivative of f on
[a,b], then
b
 f ( x)dx = F ( x) = F (b) − F (a)

b
a
a
Rules for Definite Integrals:

a
1.  f ( x)dx = 0
a
b a
2. 
a
f ( x)dx = − f ( x)dx
b
b b
3.  k. f ( x)dx = k  f ( x)dx where k is constant
a a
b b
when k=-1, then,  (−1) f ( x)dx = −  f ( x)dx
a a
b b b
4.  [ f ( x)  g ( x)]dx =  f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
a a a
b
5. If f ( x)  0 on [a, b] then,  f ( x)dx  0
a
on [a, b]
b b
6. If f ( x)  g ( x) on [a, b] then,  f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx on [a, b]
a a
c b b
7. 
a
f ( x)dx +  f ( x)dx =  f ( x)dx
c a
where acb
Example 1: Evaluate the following integrals:


a.  cos xdx = sin x 0 = sin  − sin 0 = 0 − 0 = 0
0
2 2
x3 1 1 8
b.  x dx = 2
= (23 − 03 ) = (8 − 0) =
0
3 0 3 3 3
2
(−2)3
2
x3 (2)3
c.  (4 − x )dx = (4 x − ) = [4(2) −
2
] − [4 * (−2) − ]
−2
3 −2 3 3

Chapter Five
8 8 16 32
= 8 − + 8 − = 16 − =
3 3 3 3
Example 2: Find the area between the x-axis and the y
curve: a. y = 4 − x 2 b. y = x 2 − 4 for − 2  x  2 5
4
a. since y = 4 − x 2  0 on [-2,2], the area between the 3
2
curve and x-axis from -2 to 2: y
1
2 2 5
x3 32 0 x
Area =  (4 − x )dx = (4 x − ) =
2
square units -3 -2 -1
-1
0
4
1 2 3
−2
3 −2
3
-2 3
b. since y = x − 4  0 on [-2, 2], the area between the

2
-3 2
-4 1
curve and x-axis from -2 to 2: -5 0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
2 2
-1
Area = −  ( x 2 − 4)dx =  − ( x 2 − 4)dx
-2
−2 −2
-3
2
32
=  (4 − x 2 )dx = square units. -4
−2
3
Steps for finding area when f has both positive and negative values
1. Find the points where f=0.
2. Use the zeroes of f to partition [a, b] into
sub intervals. A1 A3
x1 x2
3. Integrate over such intervals. A2
4. Add the absolute values of the results.

x1 x2 b
So A = A1 + A2 + A3 = 
a
f ( x)dx + 
x1
f ( x)dx +  f ( x)dx
x2
Example: Find the area of the region between the x-axis and the graph of
f ( x) = x 3 − x 2 − 2 x , − 1  x  2 .
Sol.: 1. Find the zeroes of f. Since

f ( x) = x 3 − x 2 − 2 x = x( x 2 − x − 2) = x( x − 2)( x + 1)
Put x( x − 2)( x + 1) = 0  x=0 or x = 2 or

x = −1

Chapter Five
2. Use the zeroes of f to partition [a, b] into subintervals.

P={-1, 0, 2}
3. Integrate over such intervals.
0 0
x 4 x3 2 x 2
 − − = − −
3 2
( x x 2 x ) dx
−1
4 3 2 −1
 0 4 03   (−1) 4 (−1) 3  5
=  − − 0 2  −  − − (−1) 2  =
 4 3   4 3  12
2 2
x 4 x3
0 − − = − − x2
3 2
( x x 2 x ) dx
4 3 0
 2 4 23  8
=  − − 2 2  − 0 = −
 4 3  3
4. Add the absolute values of the results.

5 8 5 8 37
A = A1 + A2 = +− = + = square units.
12 3 12 3 12
Homework:
1. Evaluate the following integrals.
2  3 3 4
a.  (2 x + 5)dx b.  2 sec xdx

2
c.  csc x cot xdx
1 0  4
 4
1− u
1

d.  (r + 1) 2 dr e.  (1 + cos x)dx f.  du
−1
0
0 u
2. Find the total area of the region between the curve and the x-axis.
a. y = 2 − x ; 0 x3 b. y = 3x 2 − 3 ; −2 x 2
c. y = x 3 − 3x 2 ; 0  x  2 d. y = x3 − 4x ; −2 x 2
3. Find the derivatives of the following in two ways:

-by evaluating the integral and differentiating the results, and
- by applying the first fundamental theorem.
x sin x
d d
dx 0  3t dt
2
a. cos tdt b.
dx 0

Chapter Five
4. Find dy dx of the following:

x x
1
a. y =  1 + t 2 dt b. y =  .dt
0 0
t
x 2x
c. y =  sin t dt 2
d. y =  cos tdt
0 0
5. Suppose f and g are continuous functions and that:

2 5 5

1
f ( x) dx = −4 ,  f ( x)dx = 6 and  g ( x)dx = 8 use the properties of definite
1 1
integral to find.
5 5 2
a.  f ( x)dx b.  ( f ( x) − g ( x) )dx c.  3 f ( x)dx
2 1 1
2 1 5
d.  g ( x)dx e.  g ( x)dx f.  (4 f ( x) − g ( x))dx
2 5 1

APPLICATIONS OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL
1. Area between Curves:

The area A of the region bounded by the curves y=f(x), y=g(x) and the lines
x=a, x=b, where f and g are continuous and f(x) ≥ g(x) for all x in [a, b], is
b
A =  [ f ( x) − g ( x)]dx
a
dx
Steps to find area between two curves:

1. Sketch the graph of the curves together.
This identify the up curve yT and the
bottom curve yB
2. Find the limits of integration (if not given
dx
in the problem).
3. Write a formula of [f(x) – g(x)] or [yT-yB] and
simplify it.
4. Integrate [f(x) – g(x)] from a to b. The number you get it is the area.
Example 1: Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabolas y = x 2 and
y = 2x − x2
Sol.: We first find the points of intersection of the parabolas by solving their
equations simultaneously.
127
x2 = 2x − x2  x2 + x2 − 2x = 0 
2 x2 − 2 x = 0  2 x( x − 1) = 0
either 2x = 0  x=0  y=0
or x −1 = 0  x =1  y =1
The points of intersection are (0,0) and (1,1) dx
We see from Figure that the top and bottom

boundaries are
yT = 2 x − x 2 and yB = x2
The area of a typical rectangle is

dA = yT − yB = (2 x − x 2 ) − ( x 2 ) = 2 x − x 2 − x 2 = 2 x − 2 x 2
and the region lies between x=0 and x= 1. So the total area is
1 1
2 x 2 2 x3 2(1)3 1
A =  dA =  (2 x − 2 x )dx =
2
− = [(1) 2 − ] − [0] = square units
0
2 3 0 3 3
If we are asked to find the area between the curves y=f(x) and y=g(x) where
f(x) ≥ g(x) for some values of x but g(x) ≥ f(x) for values of x, then we split the
given region S into several regions S1, S2, . . . with

areas A1, A2, . . . as shown in Figure. We then define the
area of the region S to be the sum of the areas of the
smaller regions S1, S2, . . . that is, A=A1+A2+…. Since
 f ( x) − g ( x) when f ( x)  g ( x)
f ( x) − g ( x) = 
 g ( x) − f ( x) when g ( x)  f ( x)
Example 2: Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y=sinx, y=cosx, x=0,
and x=/2.
Sol.: The point of intersection occur when sin x = cos x, that is, when x=/4.
Observe that cosx ≥ sinx when 0 ≤ x ≤ /4 but
sinx ≥ cosx when /4 ≤ x ≤ /2. Therefore the
required area is
128
 2
A=  cos x − sin x dx = A + A
0
1 2
 4  2
=  [cos x − sin x]dx +  [sin x − cos x]dx
0  4
= [sin x + cos x]0 4 + [− cos x − sin x] 24
 1 1   1 1 
= + − 0 − 1 +  − 0 − 1 + + 
 2 2   2 2
= 2 2 −2
In this particular example we could have saved some work by noticing
that the region is symmetric about x=/4 and so,
 4
A = 2 A1 = 2  [cos x − sin x]dx
0
Integration with respect to y (horizontal strip)

Some regions are best treated by regarding x as a
function of y. If a region is bounded by curves with
dy
equations x=f(y), x=g(y), y=c, and y=d, where f and g are
continuous and f(y) ≥ g(y) for c ≤ y ≤ d then its area is
d
A =  [ f ( y ) − g ( y )]dy
c
If we write for the right boundary xR and for the left

boundary xL, then we have dy
d
A =  [ xR − xL ]dy
c
Example 3: Find the area enclosed by the line y = x – 1 and the parabola
y2 = 2x + 6
Sol.: To find points of intersections put xline = xcurve so
dy
y2 − 6
y +1 =  2( y + 1) = y − 6  y − 2 y − 8 = 0
2 2
 ( y − 4)( y + 2) = 0 either y=4  x=5
129
or y=-2  x=-1
(5,4) and (-1,-2) are the points of intersections of the two curves.
We can notice from Figure that the left and right boundary curves are
xR = y + 1 1 2
and xL = y −3
2
We must integrate between the appropriate y-values, y=-2 and y=4. Thus
4 4
1
A =  [ xR − xL ]dy =  [( y + 1) − ( y 2 − 3)]dy
−2 −2
2
4
1 2 y3 y2
=  [− y + y + 4)]dy = [− + + 4 y ]4− 2
−2
2 2*3 2
 43 42   (−2)3 (−2)2 
=  − + + 4 * 4  −  − + + 4 * (−2) 
 6 2   6 2 
64 8
− + 8 + 16 − − 2 + 8 = 18 square units.
6 6
Example 4: Find the area of the region between the y
curves x=y2 and x=y+2 in the first quadrant. 3
Sol.: Graph the curves together 2
x=y2 (4,2)
a. Using vertical strip: we should split the are 1 dA2
A2 x=y+2
into two areas by the line x=2
0A1 dA1 x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
 A = A1 + A2
-1
The area of the first typical rectangle

-2
dA1 = ( yT − 0)dx = ( x − 0)dx = x dx
2 2
x3 2 2
 A1 =  dA1 =  xdx = = [23 2 − 0] = 1.885618
0
320 3
The area of the second typical rectangle

dA2 = ( yT − yB )dx = ( x − ( x − 2))dx = ( x − x + 2)dx
4 4
x3 2 x 2
 A2 =  dA2 =  ( x − x + 2)dx = − + 2x
2
32 2 2
130
43 2 4 2 23 2 2 2
=[ − + 2 * 4] − [ − + 2 * 2] = 1.447715 y
32 2 32 2
3
 A = 1.885618 + 1.447715 = 3.333333 square units

2
xL=y2 (4,2)
b. Using horizontal strip: xR=y+2
1 l=xR-xL dy
The area of the typical rectangle
0 x
dA = ( xR − xL )dy = {( y + 2) − y 2 }dy -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
2 2
y2 y3
 A =  dA =  ( y + 2 − y 2 )dy = + 2y −
0
2 3 0
-2
22 23
=[ + 2 * 2 − ] − [0] = 3.33333 square units
2 3
Homework:
1. Find the area between y=x and y=x3 from x=-1 to x=1.
2. Find the area of the "triangle" region bounded by the y-axis and the
curves y=sin x and y=cos x in the first quadrant.
3. Find the area bounded on the right by x+y=2, and on the left by y=x2 and
below by x-axis.
4. The area of the region between the curve y=x2 and the line y=4 is divided
into equal partitions by the line y=c.
a. Find c by integrating with respect to y. (This puts c into the limits
of integration).
b. Find c by integrating with respect to x. (This puts c into the
y
integrand as well)
9
5. Figure below shows triangle AOC 8
y=x2 7
inscribed in the region cut from the 6

5
2 2 A C y=a2
parabola y=x by the line y=a . Find the 4
2
(a,a )
(-a,a2) 3
ratio of the area of the triangle to the area 2

1
0 x
of parabolic region. -3 -2 -1 0
O 1 2 3
-a -1 -a
-2
6. Find the area bounded by: -3
a. The curve y=4x-x2 and the lines y=0, x=1 and x=3.
131
b. The curve x=1+y2and the line x=10.
c. The curve y=9-x2 and the line y=x+3.
d. The curves y=x2-4, y=8-2x2.
e. The curve y=x2-2 and the line y=2

f. The curve y=x2-2x and the line y=x.
132
2. Volume of Solids of Revolution:
The Solid generated by rotating a plane region about an axis in its plane is
called a solid of revolution. We will use the following methods to find this
volume
a. The Disk Method (The strip is perpendicular to the axis of revolution):
i. Rotation about x-axis: The volume of the solid generated by revolving
the region between the graph of continuous function y=f(x) and the x-axis
from x=a to x=b about the x-axis is
dV =  .(radius) 2 (thickness) =  . y 2 dx =  .( f ( x)) dx
2
b b
Volume =  dV =   (radius)2 dx =   ( f ( x) )2 dx
a a
y=f(x) radius=y=f(x)
a
y=f(x) d
b
radius=y=f(x)
a dx b
ii. Rotation about y-axis: If the region bounded between the continuous
function x=f(y) and y-axis is rotated about y-axis from y=c to y=d to generate
a solid, then the volume of the solid is:
dV =  .(radius) 2 (thickness) =  .x 2 dy =  .( f ( y)) dy
2
d d
Volume =  dV =  (radius) dy =   ( f ( y))2 dy.
2
c c
133
d
dy
c
c
radius=x=f(y) radius=x=f(y)
Example 1: The region between the curve y = x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, and the x-axis is

revolved about the x-axis to
generate a solid. Find its volume.
Sol.: We draw figures showing the region, the
typical radius and the generated solid. The
volume of the disk is
dx
dV =  .(radius) (thickness) =  .r .t
2 2
Where r = y = f ( x) = x and t = dx
 dV =  ( x ) 2 dx =  .x.dx r=y=
So the volume of the solid is

4 4
x2
V =  dV =   .x.dx =  dx
0
2 0
 16
= [4 2 − 0 2 ] = = 8 cubic units
2 2
134
Example 2: The circle x2 + y2 = a2 is rotated about the
x-axis to generate a sphere. Find its
volume. dV=(a2 –
x2)dx
Sol.: We imagine a sphere cut into thin slices by
planes perpendicular to the x-axis. The volume dx
of a typical slice at point x between a and –a is
dV =  .r 2 .t =  . y 2 dx =  (a 2 − x 2 )dx
dx
Therefore the volume is
a a
V =  dV =   (a 2 − x 2 )dx = 2  (a 2 − x 2 )dx
−a 0
a
x3 4
= 2 (a x − ) =  .a 3
2
3 0 3
Example 3: Find the volume of the solid

generated by revolving the region r
bounded by y = x and the lines y=1,

dx
x=4 about the line y=1.

typical radius and the generated solid. r
The volume of the disk is

dV =  .(radius) 2 (thickness) =  .r 2 .t
dx
Where r = y − 1 = x − 1 and t = dx
 dV =  ( x − 1) 2 dx

4 4 4
x2 2x3 2
V =  dV =   ( x − 1) dx =   ( x − 2 x + 1)dx
2
=( − + x)
1 1
2 32 1
135
4 2 4 * 43 2 12 4 *13 2 7
=  [( − + 4) − ( − + 1)] = cubic units
2 3 2 3 6
Example 4: Find the volume of the solid generated by
revolving the region between the y-axis and the
dy
curve x=2/y, 1 ≤ y ≤ 4, about y-axis.
Sol.: We draw figures showing the region, the typical radius=x=
radius and the generated solid. The volume of the
disk is
2
Where r = x = and t = dy
y
2 4
 dV =  ( ) 2 dy = 2 dy
y y

4 radius=x=
4 4
4
V =  dV =  2 dy = −
1
y y 1
1 1 3
= 4 [− − (− )] = 4 *
4 1 4
= 3 cubic units r
Example 5: Find the volume of the solid
generated by revolving the region dy
between the parabola x = y2 + 1 and
the line x = 3, about x = 3.
typical radius and the generated solid. r
Note that the cross-sections are

dy
perpendicular to the line x = 3. The
volume of the disk is
Where r = 3 − x = 3 − ( y 2 + 1) = 2 − y 2 and t = dy
136
 dV =  (2 − y 2 ) 2 dy

2
V =  dV =   (2 − y
2 2
) dy
− 2
2 2 2
4 y5
=   (4 − 4 y + y )dy = 2   (4 − 4 y + y )dy
2 4 2 4
= 2 (4 y − y 3 + )
2 0
3 5 0
4 ( 2 )5 64 2
= 2 [(4 2 − ( 2 ) 3 + ) − (0)] = cubic units
3 5 15
Example 8: The region bounded by the parabola y =x2 and the line y = 2x is
revolved about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the
solid.
Sol.: First we draw the
r R
region and draw a strip
R
across it perpendicular
to the axis of
r
revolution (the y-axis).
dy dy
The radii of washer
swept out by the strip
are R = xR = y and
r = xL = y / 2 but its
thickness is t=dy
The line and parabola intersect at y = 0 and y = 4, so the limits of integration
are c = 0 and d = 4. We integrate to find the volume:
y2
dV =  [ R 2 − r 2 ]t =  [( y ) 2 − ( y / 2) 2 ]dy =  [ y − ]dy
4
4 4
y2 y2 y3 8
V =  dV =   [ y − ]dy =  [ − ] =  cubic units
0
4 2 3* 4 0 3
137
Homework:
1. use the disk method to find the volumes of the solids generated by
revolving the given lines and curves about the given axis of rotation
(a.o.r)
a. The region bounded by: y = 9 − x 2 and y=0 about x-axis.

b. The region bounded by: y = x 3 , y=0 and x=2 about x-axis.

c. The region bounded by: y = cos x , 0  x  , y=0 and x=0 about x-axis.
2
 
d. The region bounded by: y = sec x , y=0 x = − , and x = about x-axis.
4 4
e. The region bounded by: x = 4 − y , x=0, and y=0 about y-axis.
f. The region bounded by: x = 1 − y 2 and x=0 about y-axis.

2
g. The region bounded by: y = , x=0, y=0 and x=3 about y-axis.
x +1
2. Use the washer method to find the volume of the solids generated by
revolving about the given axis of rotation the regions bounded by the
lines and curves in the following exercises.
a. The region bounded by: y = x 2 + 3 and y=4 about x-axis.
b. The region bounded by: y = x 2 + 3 and y=x+3 about x-axis.
 
c. The region bounded by: y = sec x , − x and y = 2 about x-axis.
4 4
d. The region bounded by: y = x , and y=x about y-axis.

e. The region bounded by: y = x 2 , y=0 and x=2 about y-axis.
f. The region bounded by: y = x , y=2 and x=0 about y=4.
g. The region bounded by: y = x , y=2 and x=0 about x=4.
1 1
h. The region bounded by: y = sin x , 0  x   and y = about y = .
2 2
138
139
3. Length of Plane Curves:
i. Suppose that y=f(x) is a smooth curve on the
interval [a, b], then:
(yk ) 2
Lk = (xk ) 2 + (yk ) 2 = (xk ) 2 [1 + ]
(xk ) 2
2
 y 
= [1 +  k  ].(xk )
 xk 
2
n n
 y 
 L =  Lk =  [1 +  k  ].(xk )
k =1 k =1  xk 
Lk
When n →   x → 0
2

 y 

Lk-1
So  L = lim [1 +  k  ].(xk )
x →0 k
k =1  xk 
Remember that lim yk = f `( x)

x→0 xk
2
 dy 
b b
 L =  1 + [ f `( x)]2 dx =  1 +   dx ----(1)
a a  dx 
ii. Suppose that x=f(y) is a continuous from y=c to y=d, then the arc-length of
the curve is:
2
d d
 dx 
L =  1 + [ f `( y )] dy = 2
1 +   dy ----(2)
c c  dy 
iii. If the curve is represented by a parametric equations:

dx dy
x=x(t), y=y(t) and a ≤ t ≤ b and if , are continuous functions on
dt dt
a ≤ t ≤ b, then the arc-length of the curve is:
2 2
 dx   dy 
b
L=   +   .dt ----(3)
a  dt   dt 
140
Example 1: Find the length of the curve
4 2 32
y= x − 1; 0  x  1.
3
Sol.: We use equation (1) with a=0 and b=1, and

4 2 32
y= x −1
3
dy 3 4 2 1 2
= * x = 2 2 x1 2
dx 2 3
( )
2
 dy  2
  = 2 2x = 8x .
12
 dx 
The length of the curve from x=0 to x=1 is
2
 dy 
b 1
L =  1 +   dx =  1 + 8 x dx
a  dx  0
1
1 (1 + 8 x)3 2
1
1
=  1 + 8 x 8.dx = .
80 8 32 0
1 13
= .[(1 + 8 *1) 3 2 − (1 + 8 * 0) 3 2 ] = unit length.
12 6
23
 x
Example 2: Find the length of the curve y =   from x=0 to x=2.
2
Sol.: The derivative:

−1 3 −1 3
dy 2  x  1 1 x
=   * =  
dx 3  2  2 32
is not defined at x=0, so we can not find the curve's length with equation
(1). We therefore rewrite the equation to express x in term of y (x=f(y)):
23
 x x
y =   y3 2 =  x = 2 y3 2
2 2
Note that when x=0  y=0

and x=1  y=1
141
from this we see that the curve whose length we want is also the graph
x = 2 y 3 2 from y=0 to y=1
The derivative
dx 3
= 2 * y1 2 = 3 y1 2
dy 2
is continuous from y=0 to y=1. We may therefore us equation (2) to find

the curve's length:
2
 dx 
1 +   dy =  1 + (3 y1 2 ) dy
d 1
L=
2
c  dy  0
1 (1 + 9 y )
1 32 1
= 1 + 9 y dy =
0
9 32 0
[((1 + 9 *1) ) − ((1 + 9 * 0) )]

2
=
32 32
27
2
= (10 10 − 1)  2.27 unit length.
27
Example 3: Find the length of the circle of radius r defined parametrically by
x=rcos t and y=rsin t 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.
Sol.: As the curve is defined by parametric equation, we use equation (3) to find
the length of the curve
2 2
 dx   dy 
b
L=   +   .dt
a  dt   dt 
2
 dx 
  = (− r sin t ) = r sin t
dx
= −r sin t 
2 2 2
We find
dt  dt 
2
 dy 
  = (r cos t ) = r cos t
dy
= r cos t 
2 2 2
dt  dt 
2 2
 dx   dy 
  +   = r sin t + r cos t
2 2 2 2
and
 dt   dt 
= r 2 (sin 2 t + cos 2 t ) = r 2 .
2 2
2
L = 
0
r 2 .dt =  r.dt = r.t 0
0
142
= r (2 − 0) = 2 .r unit length.
Example 4: Find the length of the curve

x=cos3t, y=sin3t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.
Sol.: Because the curve's symmetry with respect to
coordinate axes, its length is four times the length
of the first quadrant portion. We have
x=cos3t, y=sin3t
2
 dx 
  = [3 cos t.(− sin t )) = 9 cos t sin t
2 2 4 2
 dt 
2
 dy 
  = [3 sin t. cos t ] = 9 sin t cos t
2 2 4 2
 dt 
2 2
 dx   dy 
  +   = 9 sin t cos t (sin t + cos t )
2 2 2 2
 dt   dt 
= 9 sin 2 t cos2 t = 3 sin t cos t
= 3 sin t cos t (because sint.cost ≥ 0 for 0 ≤ t ≤ /2)

 2
Therefore: The Length of the first quadrant portion= 0
3 cos t sin t.dt
 2  2
3 3 3
=  sin 2t.dt = − cos 2t =
2 0 4 0 2
The length of the curve is four times this: 4(3/2)= 6 unit length.
Homework: Find the length of the following curves:
1. 6xy = x4 + 3 from x = 1 to x = 2.
2. x= (y3/3) + 1/(4y) from y = 1 to y = 3. (Hint: 1 + (dx/dy)2 is a perfect square.)
3. x= (y3/2/3) – y1/2 from y = 1 to y = 9. (Hint: 1 + (dx/dy)2 is a perfect square.)
4. x= (y4/4) + 1/(8y2) from y = 1 to y = 2. (Hint: 1 + (dy/dx)2 is a perfect square.)
5. x= (y3/6) + 1/(2y) from y = 2 to y = 3. (Hint: 1 + (dy/dx)2 is a perfect square.)
6. x=cos2 , y=sin2 0 ≤  ≤ /2.
7. x = t – cost, y = 1 + sint − ≤ t ≤ .
143
4. Area of Surface of Revolution:
dL
If the function y=f(x) > 0 is continuously B(b, d)
A(a, c)
differentiable on [a, b], the area of the surface
generated by revolving the curve y=f(x) about
the x-axis is calculated as following:
The surface area of typical cylinder is
dS=2r.dL
(a, c) dL
dL will be calculated from one of the following
(b, d)
three relations: or r
2
 dy 
i. dL = 1 +   .dx
 dx 
2
 dx 
ii. dL = 1 +   .dy
 dy 
2 2
 dy   dx 
iii. dL =   +   .dt
 dt   dt 
r or  is the radius of the typical cylinder: (As in this case when the curve is
rotated about x-axis), then

r=y=f(x)
b
So the surface area: S =  dS =  2 .r.dL

a
If we represent dL by the first equation, then:

2
 dy 
b b
S =  2 . y. 1 +   .dx =  2 . f ( x). 1 + [ f `( x)]2 .dx ----(1)
a  dx  a
When the same area is rotated about y-axis then:

r=x
The surface area is
b
S =  2 .x. 1 + [ f `( x)]2 .dx ----(2)
a
144
Note: We can use this expression instead of equation (1) in case of the curve is
expressed as x=f(y)
2
d
 dx  d
S =  2 . y. 1 +   .dy =  2 . y. 1 + [ f `( y )]2 .dy ----(3)
c  dy  c
and this expression instead of equation (2) in case of the curve is expressed as
x=f(y)
2
d
 dx  d
S =  2 .x. 1 +   .dy =  2 . f ( y ). 1 + [ f `( y )]2 .dy ----(4)
c  dy  c
If the curve is expressed as parametric equation such:

x=x(t), y=y(t) a≤t≤b
dx dx
and , are both continuous in above interval then the area of surface area
dt dt
generated by revolving this curve
i. about x-axis is
2 2
 dy   dx 
b
S =  2 . y (t )   +   .dt ----(5)
a  dt   dt 
ii. about y-axis is

2 2
 dy   dx 
b
S =  2 .x(t )   +   .dt ----(6)
a  dt   dt 
Or in general from short differential form

S =  dS =  2 . .dL
Where dL = dx 2 + dy 2
a.o.r
and  is the radius from axis of revolution to an
element of arc-length dL. If axis of rotation is
• x=k then  = x-k 
• y=k then  = y-k
145
Example 1: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve
y = 2 x , 1  x  2 about x-axis.
Sol.: dS=2r.dL
where r = y = 2 x
dL
and dL = 1 + [ f `( x)]2 .dx
1 1 r=y
f `( x) = 2 * x −1 2 =
2 x
dS = 2 (2 x ) 1 + [ f `( x)]2 .dx
1 2 1
= 4 x 1 + [ ] .dx = 4 x 1 + .dx
x x
2
x +1 2
( x + 1)3 2
= 4 x .dx = 4 x + 1.dx ➔  S =  dS =  4 x + 1.dx = 4
x 1
32 1
8
= [(2 + 1)3 2 − (1 + 1)3 2 ]  19 .836 square units
3
Example 2: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the portion of
the curve y=x2 between x=1 and x=2 about y
y-axis. 4 (2,4)
Sol.: dS=2r.dL 3
where r = x 2
and dL = 1 + [ f `( x)]2 .dx 1 (1,1)
y=x  f`(x) = 2x
2
0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
 dL = 1 + (2 x) .dx = 1 + 4 x .dx
2 2
-1
y
2 32 2
1 (1 + 4 x )
2
 S =  dS =  2 .x 1 + 4 x 2 .dx = 2 [ 4 (2,4)
1
8 32 1
3
 
2 r=x
= (1 + 4 x 2 ) 3 2 = [(1 + 4 * 2 2 ) 3 2 − (1 + 4 * 12 ) 3 2 ] 2
dL
6 1 6
 1 (1,1)
= [17 3 2 − 53 2 ]  30 .85 square units.
6 0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
146
Another solution: Use x=f(y)
dx 1
y=x2  x= y  =
dy 2 x
2
 dx   1 
2
1
   =   =
 dy   2 y  4y
4 y +1
2
 dx  1 4 y +1
 dL = 1 +   .dy = 1 + .dy = .dy = .dy
 dy  4y 4y 2 y
The limits of integration:

When x=1  y= (1)2=1 and when x=2  y=(2)2=4
4
4y +1 4
4y +1
 S =  dS =  2 .x .dy =  2 . y .dy
1 2 y 1 2 y
4
4
1 (4 y + 1)3 2 
=   . 4 y + 1dy =  * = [(4 * 4 + 1) 3 2 − (4 *1 + 1)3 2 ]
1
4 32 1
3

= [17 3 2 − 53 2 ]  30.58 square units.
6
Example 3: The line segment x =1-y, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, is revolve about x = -1 to generate
truncated cone. Find its lateral surface area y
(which excludes the top and base areas).

x=-1
Sol.: dS=2rdL
r = x-k = x-(-1) = x+1
x=1-y
2
 dy 
dL = 1 +   .dx x
 dx 
dy d
and = (1 − x) = −1 y
dx dx
2 r=x+1
 dy 
 1 +   = 1 + (−1) 2 = 1 + 1 = 2 dL
 dx 
 dL = 2.dx x
x
So dS = 2rdL = 2 ( x + 1) 2dx -1
147
When y=0  x =1-0=1
y=1  x =1-1=0
1
1
 x2 
 S =  dS = 2 2  ( x + 1).dx = 2 2  + x 
0 2 0
 12   02  3
= 2 2  + 1 −  + 0  = 2 2   = 3 2 square units
 2   2  2
Example 4: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the parametric
curve x=cos2t, y=sin2t , 0 ≤ t ≤ /2 about y-axis.
y
Sol.: dS=2.dL 4 (2,4)
where  = x = cos t 2
3
=x
2 2 dL
and dL = dx + dy =   +   .dt
2dx dy
2 2
 dt   dt 
1 (1,1)
2
dx  dx 
x = cos 2 t  = −2 cos t sin t    = 4 cos 2 t sin 2 t
dt  dt  -3 -2 -1
0
0 1 2 3
x
2
dy  dy  -1
y = sin t 
2
= 2 sin t cos t    = 4 sin 2 t cos 2 t
dt  dt 
dL = 8 sin 2 cos2 t .dt = 2 2 sin t cos t.dt

 2  2
S =  dS =  2 cos
2
t (2 2 sin t cos t )dt = 4 2 cos 3 t sin t.dt
0 0
 2
cos4 t 
= − 4 2 = − 2 [cos4 − cos4 0] = − 2 [(0) − 1] = 2 square units.
4 0 2
Homework:
1. Find the area of surfaces generated by revolving the curves indicated below
about x-axis.
x3
a. y = 0 x2 b. y = 2 x − x2 0 x2
9
x
c. y = 0 x4 d. y = x + 1 1 x  5
2
148
about y-axis:
y3 1
a. x = 0  y 1 b. x = 2 y − 1  y 1
3 2
c. x = 2 y −1 1 y  3
about the stated axis:
a. y=7x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 about y=2. b. y = x , 1 ≤ x ≤ 4 about x-axis.
c. y = 4 − x , -1 ≤ x ≤ 1 about x-axis. d. x = 3 y , 1 ≤ y ≤ 8 about x-axis.

2
e. x = 9 y + 1 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 2 about x=-1. f. x = 9 − y 2 , -2 ≤ y ≤ 2 about y-axis.
g x = y 3 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 about y-axis. h. x = 2 1 − y , -1 ≤ y ≤ 0 about y-axis.
i. x=t2, y=2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 4 about x-axis. j. x=r cost, y=r sint, 0 ≤ t ≤  about x-axis.
k. x=a -a sin, y= a -a cos, 0 ≤  ≤ 2 about x-axis.
149

Math-Lectures 2023-2024 - Cours 1

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Math-Lectures 2023-2024 - Cours 1

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Ass. Prof. Dr. Husham K.

Hashim Petroleum Engineering Department

• Number and sets.

• THOMAS' CALCULUS , G, B.THOMAS, R.L.FINNEY, M.D.WEIR,

• Calculus: Graphical, Numerical, Algebraic;

Sets and Intervals:

Real Number line

Mathematics- Preliminaries (1)

Union and Intersections of intervals: if A and B are two sets then:

Sol: x2 ≤ 4  x2-4≤ 0  (x-2)(x+2) ≤ 0

Sign of (x-2) -∞ ---------------- 2 +++ +∞

Sol: x2-x-30 ≤ 0  (x-6)(x+5) ≤ 0

the interval is { x: -2 ≤ x ≤ +1}  {x: x >+3} or [-2,+1]  (+3, ∞)

 the interval is {0<x<7} or (0,5)  (1,7)=(0,7)

Mathematics- Preliminaries (3)

Mathematics- Preliminaries (4)

sol: x2-3x-10>0  (x-5)( x+2)>0

So the interval (-∞,-2)  (5, ∞)

Mathematics- Preliminaries (5)

f: x f(x) it means that f sends x to f(x)

• The set of x is called the "Domain" of the function (Df).

Mathematics- Preliminaries (6)

So the values under even

always positive, we must

9y2 −1 9y2 −1 9y2 −1

Mathematics- Preliminaries (7)

Sign of (3y+1) -∞ ---------- -1/3+++++++++++++ +∞

 Rf ={y: -∞≤ y ≤ -1/3}  {y: 1/3≤ y ≤ ∞}.

Mathematics- Preliminaries (8)

The values under even roots must be positive:

Homework: Find the domains and ranges of the following functions.

Mathematics- Preliminaries (9)

Absolute Value Properties

Absolute Values and Intervals

Examples: Solve the following for x?

Mathematics- Preliminaries (10)

Sol.: − 7  2 x − 3  7 (6th property)

Sol.: x − 9  3 or x − 9  −3 (7th property)

Mathematics- Preliminaries (12)

Mathematics- Preliminaries (13)

Example: the values of the function

Example: Graph the function

Sol. Recall the definition of absolute value:

These expressions show that we must consider three cases:

Case I: if x < -2 we have f ( x) = x − 3 + x + 2

Mathematics- Preliminaries (14)

Case II: if -2 ≤x < 3 we have f ( x) = x − 3 + x + 2 y

Mathematics- Preliminaries (15)

Example 1: Combining Functions Algebraically:

have domains D( f ) = [0, ) and D( g ) = (−,1] . The points common to these

Mathematics- Preliminaries (16)

f+g, f-g, g-f, f.g, f /g and g /f where f ( x) = 4 − x 2 and g(x) = 3x+1

Function Formula Domain

f-g (x) = [-2,+2]

Mathematics- Preliminaries (17)

Sol.: (f o g)(x)= f(g(x)) = f ( x ) = ( x ) +1 = x +1

(go f)(x)=g(f(x)) = g ( x + 1) = x + 1  Dgo f = D f = R

Examples 3: Finding formulas for composites:

(a) (f o g)(x) = f ( g ( x)) = g ( x) = x + 1 [-1, )

(b) (g o f)(x) = g ( f ( x)) = f ( x) + 1 = x + 1 [0, )

(c) (f o f)(x) = f ( f ( x)) = f ( x) = x =x

Mathematics- Preliminaries (18)

The domain of fog ={x: 2-x ≥ 0}={x :x ≤ 2}=(-∞,2].