Photosynthesis >> Cellular respiration (Glycolysis >> Krebs)

Light-dependent Stage (photolysis and photophosphorylation) >> Light-independent

stage (Calvin cycle) >> glycolysis >> Krebs cycle >> Electron transport chain and
Oxidative phosphorylation

Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is the process whereby green plants and some organisms convert light energy
into chemical energy for glucose and ATP production wherein oxygen is released as a by-
product.

i) Light-Dependent Stage – photolysis occurs: this is the splitting of water molecules

into oxygen, hydrogen and protons using light energy. These protons are used to
produce ATP to be utilized in the light-independent stages.
Photosystems are the clusters of chlorophyll molecules in the thylakoid membranes. Each
photosystem contains protein and pigment molecules used to absorb photons of light energy.
The photosystems are categorized based on the different wavelengths of light absorbed by the
chlorophyll molecules. PSI absorbs has a higher abundance of chlorophyll a and absorbs longer
wavelengths. PSII has a higher abundance of chlorophyll b and absorbs shorter wavelengths.
PSII is involved in photolysis as it contains an enzyme that is used in the reaction.
Photophosphorylation is the production of ATP by combining a phosphate group with ADP.
There are two types:
- Cyclic – involves PSI and forms only ATP.
- Non-cyclic – involves both PSI and PSII and forms ATP and NADPH.

ii) Light-Independent Stage – the Calvin Cycle: ATP is broken down to release energy
which is used to combine hydrogen from the light reactions with carbon dioxide to
produce glucose and other sugars. The reactions are catalyzed by enzymes.

The Calvin Cycle has three main processes:

a) Carbon dioxide fixation – carbon dioxide is taken from the atmosphere and is attached
to 5-carbon RuBP to form a 6-carbon molecule that splits into two 3-carbon molecules
known as 3-phosphoglycerate. This reaction is catalyzed by the rubisco enzyme.

E.Jardine
 b) Carbon dioxide reduction – NADPH and ATP from the light reactions supply the
electrons and energy needed for carbon dioxide reduction. Hydrogen ions from NADPH
is used to reduce the 3-phosphoglycerate to triose phosphate. NADPH thus becomes
NADP and ATP becomes ADP. NADP and ADP return to the thylakoid membrane to
be converted back to ATP and NADPH. Here, some of the triose phosphate leave the
cycle and combine to form glucose.

c) RuBP Regeneration – ATP and most of the triose phosphate molecules are used to
form RuBP for the restart of the Calvin Cycle.

Cellular Respiration:
The products of photosynthesis is used in cellular respiration. Aerobic cellular respiration in
eukaryotic organisms is whereby glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water with the
use of oxygen. An organism’s main source of ATP is produced from cellular respiration.
Aerobic cellular respiration involves glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation (using an electron transport chain).

a) Glycolysis – This part of cellular respiration does not require oxygen. Here, glucose is
used to produce pyruvate and some amount of ATP.

i) ATP is used to convert glucose into two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-

phosphate (energy-requiring phase).
ii) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is converted into pyruvate and some amount of
ATP is produced (energy-releasing phase).

b) Krebs Cycle – Pyruvate is used to produce NADPH and FADH2. Here, oxygen is used
along with pyruvate to give out water and carbon dioxide. For the complete oxidation of a
glucose molecule (using pyruvate: oxidation of pyruvate), the cycle yields four CO 2, 6
NADH, 2 FADH2 and 2 ATPs.

i. Condensation of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate (4C) forming citrate (6C), coenzyme A is
released.
ii. Conversion of citrate to its isomer, isocitrate.
iii. Isocitrate is subjected to dehydrogenation and decarboxylation forming alpha-ketoglutarate
(5C).
iv. Alpha-ketoglutarate (5C) experiences oxidative decarboxylation forming succinyl CoA (4C).
v. Conversion of succinyl CoA to succinate by succinyl CoA synthetase enzyme along with
substrate-level phosphorylation of GDP forming GTP.

E.Jardine
 vi. Oxidation of succinate to fumarate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase.
vii. Fumarate gets converted to malate by the addition of one H2O.
viii. Malate is dehydrogenated to form oxaloacetate, which combines with another molecule of
acetyl CoA and starts the new cycle.

- Oxidative Phosphorylation – Moved to an electron transport chain, NADPH and FADH2

combine with oxygen and the energy released from this reaction is used to generate ATP
(32 ATP per molecule of glucose).

E.Jardine
E.Jardine
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Transport is the movement of substances throughout the bodies of organisms. This is achieved
by specialized tissues and organs that make up transport systems. These are:
- Mammals – circulatory system consisting of blood, blood vessels and a heart.
- Flowering plants – transport systems consisting of xylem tissue and phloem tissue.
These systems rely on the movement of fluids inside a single direction. This type of transport is
known as mass flow.
Most plants have more of a branching shape than animals and this provides a much larger
surface area to volume ratio for exchange with their environment than in an animal of the same
body mass. The differences in evolution between plants and animals have allowed them to have
differing transport systems.
The table below compares the transport systems of flowering plants and mammals.

Feature of Transport
Flowering Plants Mammals
System

Glucose
Sucrose
Nutrient transport fatty acids, vitamins
amino acids, ions (minerals)
amino acids, ions (minerals)

Water xylem Bloodstream

Supply of oxygen and carbon

dioxide is done by diffusion
Respiratory gas transport through air spaces and cells, Oxygen and carbon dioxide
hence, there is no physical
system.

Fluid transport Xylem, sap, phloem sap Blood

Xylem vessels, phloem sieve

Arteries, capillaries and veins
Tubes tubes (intracellular
(extracellular transport).
transport).

Mechanism Xylem – transpiration pull Heart pumps blood –

E.Jardine
 (cohesion – tension)
hydrostatic pressure
Phloem – pressure flow

Rate of Flow Slow Fast

Production of callose to seal

Dealing with fluid loss wounds in phloem sieve Blood clotting.
tubes.

Plants have two transport systems: one for carrying fluids and minerals from the root and the
other for photosynthetic products from the leaves. There is no system for gas exchange.

The Uptake of Water and Ions

There are four aspects to transport in plants:
- Absorption of water and ions from soil
- Movement of water and ions over short distances within organs (roots, stems and leaves)
- Long distance transport of xylem sap and phloem sap from roots to leaves, etc.
- Evaporation and loss of water vapour from leaves to the atmosphere.

E.Jardine