Solucion Del Libro Jacbson

Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling
by Mark Z. Jacobson
Deptartment of Civil & Environmental Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305-4020
Solution Manual
Chapters 1-10
**************************************************************************************
CHAPTER 2
Problems
2.1. If T = 295 K at 1 mm above the ground and the conductive heat flux is H c = 250 W m -2, estimate
the temperature at the ground. Assume the air is dry.
Conductive heat flux equation

ΔT W J  295 − T 
Hc = − κa → 250 2 = −0.0256  → T = 304.8 K
 
Δz m m s K  0.001 m 
2.2. If Nq = 1.5 × 1012 molec. cm-3 for O 3 gas, T = 285 K, and p d = 980 hPa, find the volume mixing
ratio, dry-air mass mixing ratio, and partial pressure of ozone.
Partial pressure of ozone

molec. 3
-19 cm hPa
pq = N q k B T = 1.5 × 1012 × 1.3807 × 10 × 285 K = 5.9 × 10 −5 hPa
cm3 molec. K
Volume mixing ratio of ozone

pq 5.9 × 10-5 hPa molec.
χq = = = 6.02 × 10-8 = 0.0602 ppmv
pd 980 hPa molec.
Mass mixing ratio of ozone

mq 48.0 g mol -1
ωq = χq = 0.0602 ppmv = 0.0998 ppmm
md 28.966 g mol -1
2.3. If ωq = 1.3 ppmm for carbon monoxide gas, T = 285 K, and pd = 980 hPa, find the volume mixing
ratio, number concentration, and partial pressure of carbon monoxide.
Number concentration of dry air molecules
1
pd 980 hPa molec.
Nd = = 3 = 2.49 × 1019
k BT cm hPa cm 3
1.3807 ×10 -19 × 285 K
molec. K
Number concentration of carbon monoxide

g
mq N q 28.0 × Nq
molec. molec.
ωq = → 1.3 ×10 -6 = mole → N q = 3.35 × 1013
m d Nd molec. 28.966 g
× 2.49 × 1019
molec. cm 3
mole 3
cm
Volume mixing ratio of carbon monoxide

N q 3.35 × 1013 molec. cm -3 molec.
χq = = 19 -3 = 1.345 × 10 −6 = 1.345 ppmv
N d 2.49 × 10 molec. cm molec.
Partial pressure of carbon monoxide

molec.
pq = N q k B T = χ q pd = 1.345 × 10 −6 × 980 hPa = 1.318 × 10−3 hPa
molec.
2.4. If T = 268 K and pd = 700 hPa, respectively, find p v,s in hPa, and find the corresponding mixing
ratio of water vapor in percent, ppmm, and ppmv.
Celsius temperature
Tc = T − 273.15 K = 268 K − 273.15 K = -5.15o C
Saturation vapor pressure of water over a liquid surface

 17.67Tc   17.67 × -5.15o C 
pv,s = 6.112 exp   = 6.112exp  o  = 4.17 hPa
 Tc + 243.5   -5.15 C + 243.5 
Volume mixing ratio, % of air number concentration, and ppmv of water vapor at saturation
pv,s 4.17 hPa molec.
χ v,s = = = 0.00596 = 0.596% = 5960 ppmv
pd 700 hPa molec.
Saturation mass mixing ratio of water vapor

m 18.0 g mol -1
ω v,s = v χ v,s = 5960 ppmv = 3704 ppmm
md 28.966 g mol -1
2.5. Find the mass density of moist air (ρa) if T = 283 K, fr = 78 percent, and p d = 850 hPa.
Celsius temperature
Tc = T − 273.15 K = 283 K − 273.15 K = 9.85 o C

 17.67Tc   17.67 × 9.85 o C 
pv,s = 6.112 exp   = 6.112exp  o  = 12.15 hPa
 Tc + 243.5   9.85 C + 243.5 
Saturation mass mixing ratio of water over liquid

εpv,s 0.622 ×12.15 hPa kg
ω v,s = = = 8.89 × 10−3
pd 850 hPa kg
2
Ambient mass mixing ratio of water vapor
kg kg
ω v = ω v,s fr = 8.89 × 10−3 × 0.78 = 6.93 ×10 −3
kg kg
Gas constant for total air

1+ ωv ε  m3 hPa 1+ 6.93 × 10−3 0.622  m 3 hPa
Rm = R ′   = 2.8704 ×  −3  = 2.8824
 1 + ωv  kg K  1+ 6.93 × 10  kg K
Partial pressure of water vapor

pv ≈ pv,s fr = 12.14 hPa × 0.78 = 9.47 hPa
Mass density of moist air

p p + pv 850 hPa + 9.47 hPa kg
ρa = a = d = 3 = 1.05 3
Rm T Rm T m hPa m
2.8824 × 283 K
kg K
2.6. Find the pressure exerted by moist air if T = 288 K, fr = 82 percent, and p d = 925 hPa.
Celsius temperature
Tc = T − 273.15 K = 288 K − 273.15 K = 14.85o C

 17.67Tc   17.67 × 14.85 o C 
pv,s = 6.112 exp   = 6.112exp  o  = 16.88 hPa
 Tc + 243.5   14.85 C + 243.5 

pv ≈ pv,s fr = 16.88 hPa × 0.82 = 13.84 hPa
Pressure exerted by moist air

pa = pd + pv = 925 hPa + 13.84 hPa = 938.84 hPa
2.7. Find the virtual temperature when N a = 2.1 × 1019 molec. cm-3, T = 295 K, and fr = 92 percent.
Celsius temperature
Tc = T − 273.15 K = 295 K − 273.15 K = 21.85 o C

 17.67Tc   17.67 × 21.85 o C 
pv,s = 6.112 exp   = 6.112exp  o  = 26.19 hPa
 Tc + 243.5   21.85 C + 243.5 
Total air pressure

molec. 3
-19 cm hPa
pa = N a k B T = 2.1 ×1019 × 1.3807 × 10 × 295 K = 855 hPa
cm3 molec. K

εpv,s 0.622 × 26.19 hPa kg
ω v,s = = = 1.97 × 10 −2
pa − pv,s 855 hPa − 26.19 hPa kg
Mass mixing ratio of water vapor
3
kg kg
ω v = ω v,s fr = 1.97 × 10 −2 × 0.92 = 1.81 ×10 −2
kg kg
Virtual temperature
1 + ω v ε  1+ 1.81 × 10−2 0.622 
Tv = T   = 295 K  −2  = 298.2 K
 1+ ωv   1+ 1.81 × 10 
2.8. Find the partial pressure of water vapor if q v = 3 g kg-1, T = 278 K, and ρd = 0.5 kg m-3.
Water vapor density from specific humidity

ρ ρv ρv kg kg
qv = v = = = 0.003 → ρ v = 0.0015 3

ρa ρ d + ρv 0.5 kg + ρ kg m
v
m3

kg m3 hPa
pv = ρv Rv T = 0.0015 3 × 4.6191 × 278 K = 1.93 hPa
m kg K
2.9. If Tv = 281 K, p v = 3 hPa, and pa = 972 hPa, find the air temperature.

εp v 0.622 × 3 hPa kg
ωv = = = 0.00193
pa − pv 972 hPa − 3 hPa kg
Temperature from virtual temperature

Tv 281 K
T= = = 280.67 K
 1+ ω v ε  1 +1.93 × 10 −3 0.622 
 1+ ω   
 v   1 +1.93 × 10 −3 
2.10. If the total air pressure, temperature, and relative humidity are pa = 945 hPa, T = 276 K, and fr
= 46 percent, respectively, find ωv, ma, Rm, T v, and ρa.
Celsius temperature
Tc = T − 273.15 K = 276 K − 273.15 K = 2.85o C

 17.67Tc   17.67 × 2.85 o C 
pv,s = 6.112 exp   = 6.112exp  o  = 7.50 hPa
 Tc + 243.5   2.85 C + 243.5 

εpv,s 0.622 × 7.50 hPa kg
ω v,s = = = 4.98 × 10−3
pa − pv,s 945 hPa − 7.50 hPa kg

kg kg
ω v = ω v,s fr = 4.98 × 10 −3 × 0.46 = 2.29 ×10 −3
kg kg
Molecular weight of air
4
g
28.966
md mol g
ma = = = 28.926
1+ 0.6ω v 1 + 0.6 × 2.29 ×10 −3 kg mol
kg
Virtual temperature
1 + ω v ε  1 + 2.29 ×10 −3 0.622 
Tv = T   = 276 K  −3  = 276.38 K
 1+ ωv   1 + 2.29 ×10 

1+ ωv ε  m3 hPa 1+ 2.29 × 10 −3 0.622  m 3 hPa
Rm = R ′   = 2.8704 × −3  = 2.8743
 1 + ωv  kg K  1+ 2.29 × 10  kg K

p 945 hPa kg
ρa = a = 3 = 1.19 3
Rm T m hPa m
2.8743 × 276 K
kg K
2.11. If dry-air pressure, temperature, and water-vapor-dry-air mass mixing ratio are pd = 927 hPa,
T = 281 K, and ω v = 0.005 kg kg-1, find fr , ma, Rm, T v, and ρa.
Celsius temperature
Tc = T − 273.15 K = 281 K − 273.15 K = 7.85 o C

 17.67Tc   17.67 × 7.85 o C 
pv,s = 6.112 exp   = 6.112exp  o  = 10.61 hPa
 Tc + 243.5   7.85 C + 243.5 

εpv,s 0.622 ×10.61 hPa kg
ω v,s = = = 7.12 × 10 −3
pd 927 hPa kg
Relative humidity
ωv 5.0 × 10−3 kg kg−1
fr = = = 0.703 = 70.3%
ω v,s 7.12 × 10 −3 kg kg −1
Specific humidity
ωv 0.005 kg
qv = = = 0.00498
1+ ωv 1 + 0.005 kg
Molecular weight of total air

g
28.966
md mol g
ma = = = 28.879
1+ 0.608q v 1 + 0.608 × 0.00498 kg mol
kg

1+ ωv ε  m3 hPa 1+ 5.0 × 10 −3 0.622  m3 hPa
Rm = R ′   = 2.8704 × −3  = 2.8791
 1 + ωv  kg K  1+ 5.0 × 10  kg K
5
Virtual temperature
1 + ω v ε   1+ 5.0 × 10−3 0.622 
Tv = T   = 281 K −3  = 281.85 K
 1+ ωv   1+ 5.0 × 10 

pv ≈ pv,s fr = 10.61 hPa × 0.703 = 7.46 hPa

p p + pv 927 hPa + 7.46 hPa kg
ρa = a = d = 3 = 1.16 3
Rm T Rm T m hPa m
2.8791 × 281 K
kg K
2.12. If the total air pressure, water-vapor volume mixing ratio, and temperature are p a = 966 hPa,
χv = 3000 ppmv, and T = 284 K, respectively, find pv, ma, Rm, T v, and ρa.
Water vapor volume mixing ratio

p pv molec. pv
χv = v = → 3 ×10 −3 = → pv = 2.91 hPa

pd pa − pv molec. 966 hPa − pv

molec. kg
ω v = εχv = 0.622 × 0.003 = 0.001866
molec. kg
Specific humidity
ωv 0.00187 kg
qv = = = 0.00187
1+ ωv 1 + 0.00187 kg
Molecular weight of total air

g
28.966
md mol g
ma = = = 28.933
1+ 0.608q v 1 + 0.608 × 0.00187 kg mol
kg

1+ ωv ε  m3 hPa 1+ 0.00187 0.622  m3 hPa
Rm = R ′   = 2.8704 × = 2.8737
 1 + ωv  kg K  1+ 0.00187  kg K
Virtual temperature
1 + ω v ε  1 + 0.00187 0.622 
Tv = T   = 284 K  = 284.32 K
 1+ ωv   1 + 0.00187 

p 966 hPa kg
ρa = a = 3 = 1.184 3
Rm T m hPa m
2.8737 × 284 K
kg K
2.13. Find the altitude in a standard atmosphere that a pressure altimeter gives if the pressure
measured by the altimeter is pa = 770 hPa and the air is dry.
Altitude in a standard atmosphere
6
 K m2 m
Γe R ′ g  0.0065 × 287.04 9.8 2 
Ta,s   pd  288 K   770 hPa  m 2
s K s
z= 1−   = 1 −    = 2.26 km
Γe   pd,s   6.5 K   1013.25 hPa  
  km  

2.14. Estimate the scale height of the atmosphere (H) and resulting pressure at z = 200 m altitude if
the air is dry, the pressure at z = 100 m is p d = 990 hPa, and the average temperature between
z = 100 m and z = 200 m is T = 284 K.
Virtual temperature in dry air ( ω v = 0): Tv = T = 284 K
Scale height at 200 m.

kg m 2
1.3807 × 10-23 × 284 K
k T s2 K
H= B v =
Mg m = 8310 m = 8.31 km
4.8096 ×10 -26 kg × 9.81 2
s
Pressure at 200 m
( )
pd = pd,ref e −( z− z ref ) H = 990 hPa × e − 0.2− 0.1 km 8.31 km = 978.2 hPa
2.15. If the air is dry, z = 10 km, p d = 250 hPa, and T = 218 K (base of the tropopause), estimate the
scale height at z = 10 km and pressure at z = 10.5 km.
Scale height at 10 km
kg m2
1.3807 × 10-23 × 218 K
k T s2 K
H= B v = = 6386 m = 6.386 km
Mg m
4.8096 × 10-26 kg × 9.81 2
s
Pressure at 10.5 km
pd = pd,ref e −( z− z ref ) H = 250 mb × e −(10.5−10 km ) 6.386 km = 231.2 mb
2.16. Calculate the saturation vapor pressure of water over liquid and ice if Tc= -15 oC. Find ωv and
p v at this temperature if f r = 3 percent and pd = 230 hPa.
Kelvin temperature
T = Tc + 273.15 K = −15o C + 273.15 K = 258.15 K

  1 1  273.15  
pv,s = 6.112 exp 6816 −  + 5.1309ln  = 1.916 hPa
  273.15 258.15   258.15  
Saturation mass mixing ratio of water over ice

 1 1  273.15  
4648 −  − 11.64 ln 
pv,I = 6.112exp   273.15 258.15   258.15   = 1.655 hPa

+.02265(273.15 − 258.15 ) 
7
pv ≈ pv,s fr = 1.916 hPa × 0.03 = 0.0575 hPa

εp 0.622 × 0.0575 hPa kg
ωv = v = = 1.56 × 10 −4
pd 230 hPa kg
2.17. Calculate the dew point if fr = 54 percent and T = 263 K.
Celsius temperature
Tc = T − 273.15 K = 263 K − 273.15 K = −10.15 o C

 17.67Tc   17.67 × −10.15o C 
pv,s = 6.112 exp   = 6.112exp  o  = 2.834 hPa
 Tc + 243.5   −10.15 C + 243.5 

pv ≈ pv,s fr = 2.834 hPa × 0.54 = 1.53 hPa
Dew point
4880.357 − 29.66ln pv
TD = = 255.46 K
19.48 − ln pv
2.18. Derive the expression for the water-vapor mass mixing ratio as a function of dew point and
pressure from (2.68). If TD = 284 K and p d = 1000 hPa, find ω v .
Mass mixing ratio of water vapor from the equation for dew point
ε 19.48TD − 4880.357  0.622 19.48 × 284 K − 4880.357  kg
ωv = exp   = exp   = 0.00807
pd  TD − 29.66  1000 hPa  284 K − 29.66  kg
2.19. If TD = 279 K, T = 281 K, and p d = 930 hPa, calculate fr, p v, ω v , and ω v,s .
Celsius temperature
Tc = T − 273.15 K = 281 K − 273.15 K = 7.85 o C
Surface (saturation) vapor pressure of water over liquid

 17.67Tc   17.67 × 7.85 o C 
pv,s = 6.112 exp   = 6.112exp  o  = 10.61 hPa
 Tc + 243.5   7.85 C + 243.5 

εpv,s 0.622 ×10.61 hPa kg
ω v,s = = = 7.10 × 10 −3
pd 930 hPa kg
Mass mixing ratio of water vapor from the equation for dew point
ε 19.48TD − 4880.357  0.622 19.48 × 279 K − 4880.357  kg
ωv = exp   = exp   = 0.00618
pd  TD − 29.66  930 hPa  279 K − 29.66  kg
Relative humidity
ω 6.18 × 10 −3 kg kg−1
fr = v = = 0.870 = 87.0%
ω v,s 7.10 × 10 −3 kg kg −1
8
pv ≈ pv,s fr = 10.61 hPa × 0.87 = 9.23 hPa
2.20. (a) Estimate the diabatic energy (dQ) that needs to be added to or removed from a parcel of air
to increase its virtual temperature dTv = +2 K when ρa = 1.2 kg m -3 and when the pressure
change in the parcel due to adiabatic expansion is dpa = -10 hPa.
J −10 hPa 100 J J

dQ = c p, d dTv − α a dpa = 1004.67
kg K
(
2 K −) kg ×
hPa m 3 = 2842.7
kg
1.2 3
m
(b) If dQ is removed from part (a) and other conditions stay the same, what is the parcel
virtual-temperature change? What type of process is this?
αa 1 −10 hPa 100 J

dTv = dpa = dpa = × 3 = −0.8292 K
c p,d ρ a c p,d J kg
1005 1.2 3 hPa m
kg K m
Since dQ = 0, this process is adiabatic.
(c) If the parcel in part (a) does not rise or expand ( dpa = 0), but dQ calculated from part (a)
remains, what is the virtual-temperature change of the parcel? What is the name of this type of
process?
1 1 J
dTv = dQ = J × 2840 kg = 2.83 K Since dpa = 0, this process is isobaric.
c p,d 1005
kg K
(d) If the parcel in part (a) does not change virtual temperature ( dTv = 0), but dpa = -10 hPa,
what is the new value of dQ? What is the name of this process?
−10 hPa 100 J J

dQ = −α a dpa = − × 3 = 833.3 kg Since dTv = 0, this process is isothermal.
kg hPa m
1.2 3
m
2.21. Calculate the potential virtual temperature of dry air when (a) pa = 900 hPa and T = 280 K; (b)
p a = 850 hPa and T = 278 K. Is the air parcel between 900 and 850 hPa stable, unstable, or
neutral with respect to unsaturated air?
Potential virtual temperature at 900 mb

κ 0.286
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
(a) θ v = Tv   = 280 K  900 hPa  = 288.57 K
 pa   

κ 0.286
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
(b) θ v = Tv   = 278 K 850 hPa  = 291.22 K
 pa   
Since ∂θ v ∂z > 0 , the parcel is stable.
9
2.22. If θp = 303 K at pd = 825 hPa, find the air temperature at this pressure.
Temperature from potential temperature

κ 0.286
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
θ p = T   → 303 K = T   → T = 286.8 K

 pd   825 hPa 
2.23. Calculate the change in potential virtual temperature with altitude ( ∂θ v ∂z ) when the ambient
virtual-temperature lapse rate is Γv = +6.2 K km -1, the air pressure is p a = 875 hPa, and Tv =
283 K. Is this air stable, unstable, or neutral with respect to unsaturated air?

κ 0.286
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
θ v = Tv   = 283 K   = 294.0 K
 pa   875 hPa 
Change of potential virtual temperature with altitude

∂θ v θ v 294 K  K K K
= ( Γ − Γv ) =  9.8 − 6.2  = 3.74
∂z Tv d 283 K  km km  km
The atmosphere is stable with respect to unsaturated air
2.24. If the air is dry and the potential virtual temperature increases at the rate ∂θ v ∂z = 1 K km -1,
calculate the ambient virtual-temperature lapse rate when pa = 925 hPa and T = 288 K. Is this
air stable, unstable, or neutral with respect to unsaturated air?
Potential virtual temperature

κ 0.286
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
θ v = Tv   = 288 K  = 294.5 K
 pa   925 hPa 
Environmental lapse rate derived from potential virtual temperature lapse rate
288 K
∂θ v θ v
= ( Γ − Γv ) → Γv = Γd − Tv ∂θ v = 9.8 K − × 1.0
K
= 8.82
K
∂z Tv d θ v ∂z km 294.5 K km km
Since ∂θ v ∂z > 0 , the atmosphere is stable with respect to dry air.
2.25. If the potential virtual temperature increases at the rate ∂θ v ∂z = 2 K km -1 in dry air at an
altitude where pa = 945 hPa and T = 287 K, estimate T at 100 m above this altitude.
Potential virtual temperature

κ 0.286
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
θ v = Tv   = 287 K   = 291.7 K
 pa   945 hPa 
Environmental lapse rate derived from potential virtual temperature lapse rate
287 K
∂θ v θ v
= ( Γd − Γv ) → Γv = Γd − Tv ∂θ v = 9.8 K − × 2.0
K
= 7.83
K
∂z Tv θ v ∂z km 291.7 K km km
Temperature 100 m above 945 mb
10
∂Tv K Tv − 287 K
Γv = − → 7.83
 ≈− → Tv = 286.2 K = T

∂z km 0.1 km
2.26. Would liquid water and/or ice particles grow when (a) pv = 1 hPa, T = -30 K; (b) pv = 1.2 hPa, T
= -20 K; or (c) pv = 1 hPa, T = -16 K? Use Fig. 2.8 (b).
(a) Water would condense onto liquid drops and deposit onto ice crystals.
(b) Water would evaporate from liquid drops and deposit onto ice particles.
(c) Water would evaporate from liquid drops and sublimate from ice crystals.
2.27. Does potential virtual temperature at sea level increase, decrease, or stay constant (on average)
between the equator and North Pole? Why? Does potential virtual temperature increase,
decrease, or stay constant with altitude if Γv = +6.5 K km -1? Why?
Potential virtual temperature decreases from equator to pole because sea-level virtual temperature
decreases from equator to pole more than does sea-level pressure. See Fig. 2.13.
Potential virtu al temperature increases with increasing altitude since pressure decreases faster than
virtual temperature increases with altitude in the potential virtual temperature equation. See Fig.
2.13.
2.28. What might Fig. 2.3 (a) and (b) look like under a low-pressure system, if all other conditions
were the same?
A subsidence inversion would not be present and cloud top heights would not be suppressed under a
low pressure system.
Computer Programming Practice
2.29. Write a computer script to calculate air pressure (pa) as a function of altitude from (2.41).
Assume p a = 1013 hPa and T = 288 K at the surface, the temperature decreases at the rate of
6.5 K km-1, and the air is dry. Use the program to estimate the pressure from z = 0 to 10 km in
increments of 100 m. Calculate the density ρa with the equation of state at the base of each
layer before each pressure calculation for the next layer. Plot the results.
The plot should be similar to fig. 2.1 (a).
2.30. Write a computer script to calculate pa as a function of altitude from (2.44). Assume T=298 K
and pa=1013 hPa at the surface and the air is dry. Use the program to estimate the pressure
from z = 0 to 10 km in increments of 100 m. Plot the results.
2.31. Write a computer script to calculate pa as a function of altitude from (2.48). Assume T=298 K
and pa=1013 hPa at the surface, the air is dry, and the temperature decreases from the surface
at 6.5 K km-1. Use the program to estimate the pressure from z=0 to 10 km in increments of
100 m, calculating the scale height for each layer. Plot the results.
11
2.32. Write a computer script to calculate the saturation vapor pressure of water over liquid and ice
from (2.61) and (2.64), respectively. Use the program to estimate p v,s between -50 oC and +50
oC and p v,I between -50 oC and 0 oC, in increments of 1 oC. Plot results.
The plots should be similar to figs. 2.8 (a) and (b).
2.33. Write a computer script to calculate p v,s , p v,I , and TD versus altitude. Assume T is 298 K at z =
0 km and decreases 6.5 K km-1. Assume also that fr = 90 percent at all altitudes. Use the
program to estimate parameters from z = 0 to 10 km in increments of 100 m. Plot the results.
Solution not shown.
12
**************************************************************************************
CHAPTER 3
Problems
3.1. Expand the total derivative of the u-scalar velocity [e.g., substitute u for N in (3.5)] when the air
flow is (a) steady, (b) unsteady.
Total derivative under steady flow

du ∂u ∂u ∂u
=u +v +w
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
Total derivative under unsteady flow

du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
= +u +v +w
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
3.2. Explain why (3.17) differs from (3.26).
Both are species continuity equations, but the first is in units of number concentration and the second
is in units of mass mixing ratio. The second form is obtained by combining the first form with the
continuity equation for dry air.
3.3. What is the purpose of Reynolds averaging?
Reynolds averaging is performed to account for subgrid scale disturbances in a model with finite
grid spacing.
3.4. If u = -5 m s-1 and v = +5 m s-1, write out the horizontal velocity vector, determine the horizontal
wind speed, and name the wind.
Horizontal velocity vector

v h = −i5 + j5
Horizontal wind speed

m
vh = u 2 + v 2 = 7.07
s
Southeasterly wind (originates from the southeast)
3.5. Assume that a grid cell has dimension Δx = 5 km, Δy = 4 km, and Δz = 0.1 km and that the west,
east, south, north, and lower scalar velocities are u1 =+3, u2 =+4, v3 =-3, v4 =+2, and w 5 =+0.2
m s-1. If the atmosphere is incompressible, what is w at the top of the cell?
Incompressible continuity equation

∂u ∂v ∂w u −u v − v3 w 6 − w 5
+ + = 0≈ 2 1 + 4 +
∂x ∂y ∂z Δx Δy Δz
Vertical scalar velocity at top of the box

 m m 2 m − −3 m  
 u2 − u1 v 4 − v3   4 s −3 s s  s   m m
w 6 = −Δz +  + w 5 = −0.1 km +  + 0.2 = 0.055
 Δx Δy   5.0 km 4.0 km  s s
 
13
3.6. (a) A grid cell has dimensions Δx = 5 km, Δ y = 4 km, and Δz = 0.1 km. Assume the gas
concentration and scalar velocity at the west boundary of the cell are N 1 = 1 × 1011 molec. cm-3
and u1 = +7 m s-1, respectively, and those at the east boundary of the cell are N2 = 5 × 1011
molec. cm-3 and u 2 = +8 m s-1, respectively. (i) Assuming external sources and sinks and eddy
diffusion are absent, estimate N at the cell center after 60 s if the initial N is an average of the
two boundary N-values and boundary parameters remain constant. (ii) Calculate the time
after the start at which N at the cell center becomes zero.
Final concentration from continuity equation

ΔN u N −u N   u N −u N 
= − 2 2 1 1   → N t = N t− h −  2 2 1 1  h
h  Δx   Δx 
Initial concentration at the center of the grid cell

1 1 molec. molec.
2 (
N t− h ≈ ( N 2 + N1 ) = 5× 1011 + 1× 1011
2 ) cm
= 3 ×10 11
cm
(i) Concentration after 60 seconds

molec. m molec. m
5 × 1011 × 8 − 1× 1011 ×7
11 molec. 3 s 3 s 60 s molec.
N t = 3 ×10 3 −
cm cm × = 2.604 × 1011
cm 5.0 km 1000
m cm3
km
(ii) Time at which the concentration becomes zero.
molec.
3× 1011 −0
 N t− h − N t  cm 3 1000 m
h=  Δx = × 5.0 km × = 455 s
 u2 N 2 − u1 N1  molec. m 11 molec. × 7 m km
5 ×10 11 × 8 − 1× 10
cm 3 s cm3 s
(b) Assume that the gas concentration and scalar velocity at the south boundary of the grid cell
in part (a) are N3 = 1 × 1011 molec. cm-3 and v 3 = -2 m s -1, respectively, and those at the north
boundary are N4 = 7 × 1011 molec. cm -3 and v 4 = +1 m s -1, respectively. Calculate (i) N at the
cell center after 60 s and (ii) the time after the start at which N at the center becomes zero.
Assume fluxes operate in four directions, and the initial N at the center of the cell is the
average of all four grid-boundary N-values.
Final concentration from continuity equation

 u N −u N v N −v N 
N t = N t− h −  2 2 1 1 + 4 4 3 3  h
 Δx Δy 
Initial concentration at the center of the grid cell

N + N 2 + N 3 + N 4 1× 1011 + 5 ×10 11 + 1 ×10 11 + 7 × 1011 molec.
N t− h ≈ 1 = = 3.5 ×1011
4 4 cm 3
(i) Concentration after 60 seconds

molec.  5 × 1011 × 8 −1 ×10 11 × 7 7 ×10 11 × 1− 1× 1011 × [ -2]  60 s
N t = 3.5 × 1011 3 − + ×
cm  5.0 km 4.0 km  1000 m
km
11 molec.
= 2.969 × 10
cm3
14
3.5 × 1011 molec. −0 1000 m
N t− h − N t cm −3
h = u N −u N = 11 11 11 11 ×
2 2 v
1 1+ 4 4 N − v N
3 3 5 × 10 × 8 −1 ×10 × 7 7 ×10 × 1− 1× 10 × [-2] km
Δx Δy +
5.0 km 4.0 km
= 395.5 s
(c) Convert the gas number concentrations from part (a) (N 1 and N2) to moist-air mass mixing
ratios, assuming that the gas is ozone, Tv = 298 K, and p a = 1013 hPa.
Air density from equation of state

p 1013 hPa kg
ρa = a = 3 = 1.184 3
R′Tv m hPa m
2.8704 × 298 K
kg K
West-edge moist-air mass mixing ratio of ozone

g molec. kg
48 × 1011 ×
mN1 mole cm 3 1000 g kg
q1 = = = 6.73 × 10-9
ρ a A 1.184 kg × 6.022 ×10 23 molec. kg
m3 mole
East-edge moist-air mass mixing ratio of ozone

g molec. kg
48 × 5× 1011 3 ×
mN2 mole cm 1000 g kg
q2 = = = 3.37 × 10-8
ρa A kg molec. kg
1.184 3 × 6.022 × 1023
m mole
(d) Re-solve parts (a) (i) and (a) (ii) with (3.26) using moist-air mass mixing ratios instead of
number concentration units. Assume that the west-east velocity for this question is an average
of the grid-cell boundary velocities. Convert the mass mixing ratio from the 60-s case back to
number concentration units. How does the result differ from that found in part (a) (i)? If it
differs, why does it differ?
Continuity equation for moist-air mass mixing ratio of a trace species

∂q  q − q1 
= −v • ∇q  → q t = qt −h − uavg  2 h=
∂t  Δx 
Average west-east wind scalar velocity

u +u 7+8 m
uavg ≈ 1 2 = = 7.5
2 2 s
Initial moist-air mass mixing ratio at the cell center

g molec. kg
48 × 3 ×10 11 ×
mole cm 3 1000 g kg
q t− h = = 2.02 ×10 -8
kg 23 molec. kg
1.184 3 × 6.022 ×10
m mole
(i) Final moist-air mixing ratio at the cell center after 60 seconds
kg kg
3.37 ×10 -8 − 6.73 ×10 -9
kg m kg kg 60 s
q t = 2.02 × 10-8 − 7.5 × -8 kg
kg s 5.0 km
× m = 1.78 × 10 kg
1000
km
Final number concentration at the cell center after 60 seconds
15
kg kg molec.
1.184 ×1.78 ×10 -8 × 6.022 × 10 23
ρ q A m3 kg mole molec.
Nt = a t = = 2.64 ×1011
m 48
g
×
kg cm 3
mole 1000 g
Part (a.i) gave N = 2.604 x 1011 molec. cm-3. The difference arises because air density, in the mixing
ratio case, is assumed to be the same at the east and west edges of the grid. In reality, differences in
east and west velocities change air densities at each edge (via the continuity equation for air).
Changes in air densities change moist-air mass mixing ratios at the edges. If such density changes
were accounted for in the mixing ratio discretization, the result would be the same as in part (a.i).

kg kg
2.02 ×10 -8 −0
q t− h − q t kg kg
h= = 499 s
q2 − q1 = -8 kg kg
uavg × 3.37 ×10 − 6.73 × 10-9
Δx m kg kg km
7.5 × ×
s 5.0 km 1000 m
3.7. A grid cell has dimensions Δx = 5 km, Δy = 4 km, and Δz = 0.1 km. Assume that the potential
virtual temperature, pressure, and scalar velocity at the west boundary of the grid cell are θ v,1
= 302 K, p a,1 = 1004 hPa, and u 1 = +7 m s -1, respectively, and those at the east boundary of the
grid cell are θ v,2 = 299 K, p a,2 = 1008 hPa, and u2 = +8 m s -1, respectively.
(a) Calculate the virtual temperature and air density at the west and east boundaries of the grid
cell.
(b) Calculate the energy density E at each boundary.
(c) Assuming diabatic energy sources and sinks and eddy diffusion are absent, calculate the
potential virtual temperature at the center of the grid cell after 10 s.
(a) Virtual temperatures at west and east edges
κ 0.286
 pa,1   1004 hPa 
Tv,1 = θ v,1  = 302 K   = 302.34 K
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
κ 0.286
 pa,2   1008 hPa 
Tv,2 = θv,2   = 299 K   = 299.68 K
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
Densities at west and east edges

pa,1 1004 hPa kg
ρ a,1 = = 3 = 1.157 3
R ′Tv,1 m hPa m
2.8704 × 302.34 K
kg K
pa,2 1008 hPa kg

ρ a,2 = == 3 = 1.172
R′Tv,2 m hPa m3
2.8704 × 299.68 K
kg K
(b) Energy density at west and east edges

J kg J
E1 = c p,d ρ a,1θ v,1 = 1004.67 × 1.157 3 × 302.34 K = 3.5105 ×10 5 3
kg K m m
J kg J
E2 = c p,d ρ a,2 θ v,2 = 1004.67 × 1.172 3 × 299.68 K = 3.5206 × 10 5 3
kg K m m
(c) Continuity equation for energy density
16
ΔE u E − u E  u E − u E 
= − 2 2 1 1  → Et− h −  2 2 1 1  h
Δt  Δx   Δx 
Initial energy density at the center of the grid cell

1 J
Et− h ≈ ( E2 + E1 ) = 3.5156 × 105 3
2 m
Energy density after 10 s
J m J m
3.5206 × 105 ×8 − 3.5105 ×10 5 3 × 7
J 3 s s 10 s
Et = 3.5156 × 10 5 3 − m m ×
m 5.0 km m
1000
km
J
= 3.5084 × 105
m3
Potential virtual temperature after 10 s
J
3.5084 × 10 5
θv =
E
= m3 = 299.87 K
c p,d ρ a J 1 kg kg 
1004.67 1.157 3 + 1.172 3 
kg K 2  m m 
3.8. Assume that grid-cell size, boundary conditions, and N are initially the same as in Problem 3.6
(a). Write a computer script to calculate the final N at the grid cell center after a time step h.
After each time step, set the east-boundary gas concentration (N2) equal to the final
concentration at the center of the cell. Set h=3 s, and run the program for a simulation period
of one hour. Plot the grid center concentration versus time.
Equation for final concentration
 u N −u N 
N t = N t− h −  2 2 1 1  h
 Δx 
Initial concentration at the center of the grid cell at the beginning of the simulation
N + N1 5 × 1011 + 1× 1011 molec.
N t−1 ≈ 2 = = 3 × 1011
2 2 cm3
Figure. Change in grid-center concentration as a function of time.

3.5 101 1
Concentration (molec. cm-3)
3 101 1
2.5 101 1
2 101 1
1.5 101 1
1 101 1
5 101 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (minutes)
3.9. Assume that grid-cell size, boundary conditions, and initial θ v are the same as in Problem 3.7.
Write a computer script to calculate the final θ v at the cell center after a time step h. After
17
each step, set θ v,2 equal to θ v at the cell center. Set h = 3 s, and run the program for six hours.
Plot θ v versus time at the cell center.
Solution not shown.
18
**************************************************************************************
CHAPTER 4
Problems
4.1. Assume a spherical coordinate grid cell, centered at ϕ = 60 oS, has dimension dλ e = 2.5 o and dϕ
= 2o. Calculate dx at the north and south boundaries of the cell, and calculate dy.
Convert angles to radians

π π
dλ e = 2.5o × = 0.0436 rad. dϕ = 2.0o × = 0.0349 rad.
180 o 180 o
dx = ( Re cosϕ) dλ e = 6371 km × cos 61o × 0.0436 rad. = 134.7 km at north boundary
dx = ( Re cosϕ) dλ e = 6371 km × cos 59o × 0.0436 rad. = 143.1 km at south boundary
dy = Redϕ = 6371 km × cos 60o × 0.0349 rad. = 222.3 km at all longitudes
4.2. If u = 10 m s-1, v = 10 m s-1, w = 0.01 m s -1, and du dt scales as u ( Δx u ) , estimate each term on
the right side of (4.29) at ϕ = 30 oN. Let Δx = 5 km, Δy = 5 km, and Δz = 1 km.
m
10
du u s m
≈ = = 0.02 2
dt Δx u 5000 m 10 m s
s
m
10
dv v s m
≈ = = 0.02 2
dt Δy v 5000 m 10 m s
s
m
0.01
dw w s m
≈ = = 10 −7 2
dt Δz w 1000 m 0.01 m s
s
m m o
uv tan ϕ 10 s × 10 s × tan 30.0 m
≈ 6 = 9.06 ×10 −6 2
Re 6.371× 10 m s
m m o
u 2 tanϕ 10 s × 10 s × tan 30.0 m
≈ 6 = 9.06 × 10 −6 2
Re 6.371 ×10 m s
m m m m
10 × 10
u2 s s = 1.57 × 10 −5 m uw 10 s × 0.01 s m
≈ 6 ≈ = 1.57 × 10 −8 2
s2
Re 6.371 ×10 m 6
Re 6.371× 10 m s
m m m m
vw 10 s × 0.01 s 10 × 10
m v2 s s = 1.57 × 10−5 m
≈ 6 = 1.57 × 10−8 2 ≈ 6
Re 6.371 × 10 m s Re 6.371 ×10 m s2
19
( )
4.3. In Cartesian coordinates, show that ( v• ∇)v = ∇ v2 2 + ( ∇ × v ) × v .
Left side of equation

 ∂ ∂ ∂
( v• ∇)v =  u + v + w  (iu + jv + kw)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂u ∂u ∂u   ∂v ∂v ∂v   ∂w ∂w ∂w 
= i u +v + w  + ju +v + w  + k u +v +w 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Right side of equation

 v2   v • v   (iu + jv + kw ) • (iu + jv + kw ) 
∇  = ∇ = ∇ 
 2  2   2 
= ∇
 u 2 + v2 + w 2 
 =i
(
∂ u 2 + v2 + w 2) +j
(
∂ u 2 + v 2 + w2 )
+k
(
∂ u2 + v 2 + w 2 )
 2  2∂x 2∂y 2∂z
 ∂u ∂v ∂w   ∂u ∂v ∂w   ∂u ∂v ∂w 
= i u +v +w  + j u +v +w  + k u +v +w 
 ∂x ∂x ∂x   ∂y ∂y ∂y   ∂z ∂z ∂z 
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂  ∂w ∂v   ∂w ∂u   ∂v ∂u 
∇ × v = ∂x ∂y ∂z = i −  − j −  + k − 
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z   ∂x ∂y 
u v w
i j k
 ∂w ∂v   ∂w ∂u   ∂v ∂u 
(∇ × v) × v =  −  −  −   − 
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z   ∂x ∂y 
u v w
  ∂w ∂u   ∂v ∂u     ∂w ∂v   ∂v ∂u     ∂w ∂v   ∂w ∂u  
= −i w  −  + v −   − jw  −  − u −   + k v  −  + u − 
  ∂x ∂z   ∂x ∂y     ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y     ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z  
 v2   ∂u ∂u ∂u   ∂v ∂v ∂v   ∂w ∂w ∂w 
∇  + (∇ × v) × v = i u +v + w  + ju +v + w  + k u +v +w 
 2  ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
4.4. Assume a grid cell has dimension Δx = 5 km, Δy = 4 km, and Δz = 0.1 km, and assume the west,
east, south, north, lower, and upper boundary scalar velocities are u1 =+2, u 2 =+3, v3 = +1, v 4
=-3, w5 =+0.03, and w 6 =+0.04 m s-1, respectively. Estimate the magnitude of the divergence
term of the local acceleration ( v • ∇v ).
Divergence term
 ∂u ∂u ∂u   ∂v ∂v ∂v   ∂w ∂w ∂w 
( v• ∇)v = i u + v + w  + j u + v + w  + k  u + v + w 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Magnitudes of terms
 m m
∂u m  3 s −2 s  m
u ≈ 2.5 = 5 × 10−4 2
∂x s  5000 m  s
 
20
 m m
∂v m  -3 s − 1 s  m
v ≈ −1 = 1× 10 −3 2
∂y s  4000 m  s
 
 m m
∂w m  0.04 s − 0.03 s  m
w ≈ 0.035 = 3.5 × 10 −6 2
∂z s  100 m  s
 
Remaining terms are zero
4.5. If u=30 m s -1, v = 10 m s-1, and ϕ = 45 oN, find the Coriolis-force magnitude per unit mass.
Magnitudes Coriolis force per unit mass

Fc
= f u 2 + v 2 = 2Ω sin ϕ u2 + v 2
Ma
 rad  m 2 m 2 m
= 2  7.292 × 10 −5  sin 45o  30  + 10  = 3.26 × 10 −3 2
 s   s  s s
4.6. Assume a grid cell has dimension Δx = 500 km and Δy = 400 km, centered at ϕ = 30oN latitude.
Assume potential virtual temperature and air pressure at the west, east, south, and north
boundaries are θ v,1 = 302 K and p a,1 = 520 hPa, θ v,2 = 304 K and p a,2 = 530 hPa, θ v,3 = 302 K
and p a,3 = 500 hPa, and θ v,4 = 304 K and p a,4 = 540 hPa, respectively. Estimate the
geostrophic scalar velocities and geostrophic wind speed.
Virtual temperatures
0.286
 pa 
Tv = θv  
 1000 hPa 
0.286 0.286
 520 hPa   530 hPa 
Tv,1 = 302 K  = 250.5 K Tv,2 = 304 K   = 253.5 K
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
0.286 0.286
 500 hPa   540 hPa 
Tv,3 = 302 K  = 247.7 K Tv,4 = 304 K   = 254.9 K
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
Air densities
p
ρa = a
R′Tv
520 hPa kg 530 hPa kg

ρ a,1 = 3 = 0.723 3 ρ a,2 = 3 = 0.728
m hPa m m hPa m3
2.8704 × 250.5 K 2.8704 × 253.5 K
kg K kg K
500 mb kg 540 hPa kg

ρ a,3 = 3 = 0.703 3 ρ a,4 = 3 = 0.738
m mb m m hPa m3
2.8704 × 247.7 K 2.8704 × 254.9 K
kg K kg K
21
Coriolis parameter
 rad  rad
f = 2Ω sin ϕ = 2 7.292 × 10−5  sin 30o = 7.292 × 10 −5
 s  s
Average air density

1 kg
( )
ρ a,avg ≈ ρ a,1 + ρa,2 + ρ a,3 + ρa, 4 = 0.723 3
4 m
Geostrophic Scalar Velocities

1 ∂pa 1 540 hPa - 500 hPa 100 kg m
ug = − =− 5 2 = −189.7
fρ a,avg ∂y  rad   kg  4 × 10 m m s mb s
 7.292 × 10 −5   0.723 3 
 s  m 
1 ∂pa 1 530 hPa - 520 hPa 100 kg m

vg = = 5 2 = 37.9
fρa,avg ∂x  rad  kg  5 × 10 m m s hPa s
 7.292 × 10 −5  0.723 3 
 s  m 
Geostrophic wind speed

m
vg = u 2g + v 2g = (189.7) 2 + (37.9)2 = 193.4
s
4.7. In a region to the east of the center of an intense hurricane at ϕ = 20 oN latitude, a west-east
pressure gradient of 50 hPa per 125 km and a gradient wind scalar velocity of v = 70 m s-1 are
observed. What is the distance between the center of the hurricane and the observation?
Assume Tv = 280 K and pa = 930 hPa.
Coriolis parameter
 rad  rad
f = 2Ω sin ϕ = 2 7.292 × 10−5  sin 20 o = 4.988× 10 −5
 s  s
Air density
p 930 hPa kg
ρa = a = 3 = 1.157
R′Tv m hPa m3
2.8704 × 280 K
kg K
Solve gradient wind force balance equation for radius of curvature

2
1 ∂pa vθ
0 = fvθ − + →
ρ a ∂Rc Rc
2
 70 m 
vθ2  s
Rc = = = 157.7 m
1 ∂pa 100 kg
− fv θ 50 hPa ×
ρ a ∂Rc 1 m s2 hPa rad m
− 4.988 × 10−5 × 70
kg 1.25 ×10 5 m s s
1.157
m3
4.8. (a) Assume u1 = 1 m s -1 at x1 = 0 m, u 2 = 2 m s -1 at x2 = 2500 m, u 3 = 3 m s -1 at x3 = 5000 m,

and Km,xx = 2.5 × 103 m2 s-1. If density and Km,xx are constant, estimate the change in u, due
to eddy diffusion alone, at the cell center after one hour.
22
Simplified equation of motion
∂u 1 ∂  ∂u  K m,xx  u3 − u2 u2 − u1 
≈  ρ a K m,xx  ≈ − =
∂t ρa ∂x  ∂x  ( x3 − x1 ) 2  x 3 − x 2 x2 − x1 
m2  m m m m 
2.5 × 103
3 −2 2 −1
s  s s s s  m
→ Δu ≈ 3600 s ×
  5000 m − 2500 m − 2500 m − 0 m  = 0 s
(
5000 m − 0 m 2 

) 
(b) Assume w1 = 0.02 m s -1 at location z1 = 0 m, w 2 = 0.02 m s-1 at z2 = 50 m, w3 = 0.04 m s -1

at z3 = 1000 m, and K m,zz = 50 m 2 s-1. If density and K m,zz are constant, estimate the change
in w at the cell center after 100 s, due to eddy diffusion alone.
Simplified equation of motion

∂w 1 ∂  ∂w  K m,zz  w 3 − w 2 w 2 − w1 
≈  ρ a K m,zz ≈ −
∂t ρ a ∂z  ∂z  ( z3 − z1 ) 2  z3 − z2 z2 − z1 
m2  0.04 m − 0.02 m 0.02 m − 0.02 m 

50
s  s s s s  m
→ Δw ≈ 100 s ×
  100 m − 50 m − 50 m − 0 m  = 0.04 s
(
100 m − 0 m 2 

) 
4.9. Calculate the viscous acceleration force per unit mass when the air is dry, T = 298 K, pa = 995
hPa, and u = 1.0 m s-1 at 10 cm above the ground and 0.7 m s-1 at 5 cm above the ground.
Air density
p 995 hPa kg
ρa = a = 3 = 1.163
R′Tv m hPa m3
2.8704 × 298 K
kg K
Dynamic viscosity of air

 416.16   T 1.5 kg
ηa ≈ 1.8325 × 10 −5  = 1.841× 10−5
 T + 120   296.16  m s
Viscous force per unit mass

Fv,zx ηa 1  u3 − u2 u2 − u1 
≈ −
Ma ρ a ( z3 − z1 ) 2  z3 − z2 z2 − z1 
kg
1.841 ×10 −5  1 m − 0.7 m m
0.7 − 0
m 
m s  m
= s s − s s 
kg  0.1 m − 0.05 m 0.05 m − 0 m  = −0.00127 2
1.163
m3
( 0.1 m − 0 m) 2
  s
4.10. Derive (4.155).
Solution not shown.
23
4.11. (a) Assume Δx = 5 km for a grid cell, v = 5 m s-1 at the center of the cell, ϕ = 35 oN, T=285 K,
∂u ∂y = 0, ∂u ∂z = 0, p a,1 = 1010 hPa and p a,2 = 1006 hPa at the west and east boundaries
of the cell, and u1 = +3 m s -1 and u 2 = +4 m s-1 at the west and east boundaries of the cell,
respectively. Write a computer script to estimate u over time from (4.73), assuming that
viscous and diffusive terms are zero. Assume ∂u ∂x in the u ∂u ∂x term is constant
throughout the simulation, but u is not. Set the time step to 1 s and run the program for one
hour. Plot the results.
(b) Change p a,2 to (i) 1009 hPa and (ii) 1011 hPa. Plot the results in both cases. For p a,2 = 1009
hPa, change u1 to +3.5 m s-1 and plot the results. Comment on the sensitivity of the solution
to changes in pressure and velocity.
Scalar velocity vs. time. The curves identify the base case (base), the base case with u1 = +3.5 m s-1
(wind3.5), the base case with u1 = +5.0 m s-1 (wind5.0), the base case with pa,2 = 1009 mb
(press1009), and the base case with pa,2 = 1011 mb (press1011).
Scalar Wind Velocity (cm s-1)
250
200 wind3.5
150
base
100 wind5.0
50
pres
0 press1011 1009
-50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (minutes)
4.12. Write a computer program to replicate the results in Fig. 4.18 for both nondispersive and
dispersive waves and plot the results.
The plots should be identical to Figure 4.18.
4.13. Write a computer program to replicate the results in Fig. 4.19 and plot the results.
The plot should be identical to Figure 4.19.
24
**************************************************************************************
CHAPTER 5
Problems
5.1. (a) Assume Δx = 5 km, Δy = 5 km, and Δp a = -10 hPa for a grid cell in the pressure coordinate
and that the west, east, south, north, and lower boundary scalar velocities are u1 =-2 m s-1,
u 2 =+1 m s-1, v3 = +1 m s-1, v 4 =-2 m s-1, and w 5 =+0.03 m s-1, respectively. Convert w5 to
the pressure coordinate with w p = −wρ ag , assuming T = 284 K and p a = 980 hPa. Use the
pressure-coordinate continuity equation for air to estimate w p at the top of the cell.
Air density
p 980 hPa kg
ρa ≈ a = 3 = 1.202
R ′T m hPa m3
2.8704 × 284 K
kg K
Vertical scalar velocity in the pressure coordinate

2
m kg m m s hPa hPa
w p,5 = −w 5ρ a g = −0.03 × 1.202 3 × 9.8 2 × = 0.003534
s m s 100 kg s
Continuity equation for air in the pressure coordinate

 ∂u ∂v  ∂w p u −u v − v3 w p,6 − w p,5
 +  + =0  → 2 1 + 4 + =0
 ∂x ∂y  p ∂pa Δx Δy Δpa
m  m  hPa 
1 −  −2  −2 m −1 m w p,6 −  −0.003534 s 
s  s s s + hPa

→ + → w p,6 = −0.003534
=0 
5000 m 5000 m −10 hPa s
The grid-cell top and bottom vertical velocities are identical.
(b) For the same cell as in part (a), assume the west, east, south, north, lower, and upper
boundary mass mixing ratios of a gas are 0.004, 0.005, 0.003, 0.004, 0.0045, and 0.0055 kg kg-1,
respectively. Estimate the change in q at the center of the cell after 500 s ignoring eddy
diffusion and external sources/sinks.
Initial mass mixing ratio

1 kg
q t− h ≈ ( q1 + q 2 + q 3 + q 4 + q 5 + q6 ) = 0.0043
6 kg
Average velocities
1 m 1
u ≈ (u1 + u2 ) = 0.5 v≈ (v + v 4 ) = −0.5 m wp ≈
1
( )
w p,5 + w p,6 = 0
mb
2 s 2 3 s 2 s
Species continuity equation in the pressure coordinate

 ∂q  ∂q q − qt −h q − q1 q − q3 q − q5
 ∂t  p
(
  + vh • ∇ p q + w p) ∂pa
=0  → t
h
+u 2
Δx
+v 4
Δy
+wp 6
Δpa
=0
kg kg kg kg
q t − 0.0043 0.005 − 0.004 0.004 − 0.003 0.0055 − 0.0045
kg m kg m kg mb kg
+ 0.5 − 0.5 +0 =0
500 s s 5000 m s 5000 m s -10 mb
25
kg
→ q t = 0.0042

kg
5.2. Assume a horizontal grid cell has dimension Δx = 500 km and Δy = 400 km, centered at ϕ = 30oN.
Assume that the cell is on a surface of constant pressure at p a = 500 hPa and that the altitudes
of the west, east, south, and north boundaries are 5.5, 5.4, 5.6, and 5.3 km, respectively.
Calculate geostrophic scalar velocities (ug and vg) and the geostrophic wind speed.
Coriolis parameter
 rad  rad
f = 2Ω sin ϕ = 2 7.292 × 10−5  sin 30o = 7.292 × 10 −5
 s  s
Geostrophic scalar velocities

m
9.8 2  5.4 km - 5.5 km 
1  ∂Φ  s m
vg =   ≈   = −26.88
f  ∂x  p 7.292 × 10−5 rad 500 km s
 
s
m
9.8 2  5.3 km - 5.6 km 
1  ∂Φ  s m
ug = −   ≈−   = 100.8
f  ∂y  p rad 400 km s
7.292 ×10 −5  
s
Geostrophic wind speed

m
vg = u 2g + v 2g = 104.3
s
5.3. Assume that a cell in the σ-p coordinate has dimension Δx = 4 km, Δy = 5 km, and Δσ = 0.05. The
west, east, south, and north boundary u- and πa-values are u1 =-2 m s-1 and πa,1 = 748 hPa, u2
=+1 m s-1 and πa,2 = 752 hPa, v3 = -1 m s-1 and πa,3 = 749 hPa, and v4 =-2 m s-1 and πa,4 = 753
hPa, respectively. Assume p a,top = 250 hPa, σ = 0.9 at the cell bottom, the grid-cell center πa-
value is an average of the four boundary values, Tv = 298 K, the lower boundary vertical scalar
velocity in the altitude coordinate is w 5 =+0.02 m s-1, and the air is dry.
(a) Convert vertical scalar velocity from the altitude to the sigma-pressure coordinate with
σ˙ = −wρ a g π a . Use the continuity equation for air in the sigma-pressure coordinate to estimate
the sigma-pressure coordinate vertical scalar velocity at the top of the cell, assuming ∂π a ∂t =
0.
Average pi value
1
( )
π a ≈ π a,1 + π a,2 + π a,3 + π a,4 = 750.5 hPa
4
Air pressure
pa = pa,top + σπ a = 250 hPa + 1× 750.5 hPa = 1000.5 hPa
Air density
p 1005 hPa kg
ρa ≈ a = 3 = 1.175
R ′ Tv m hPa m3
2.8704 × 298 K
kg K
Vertical scalar velocity in the sigma-pressure coordinate
26
m kg m
0.02 × 1.175 3 × 9.8 2
wρ a g s m s = −3.055× 10 −6 sigma
σ˙ = − =−
πa 100 kg s
750.5 hPa × 2
m s hPa
Continuity equation for air in the sigma-pressure coordinate, assuming no time derivative
∂σ˙ u2 π a,2 − u1π a,1 v 4 π a,4 − v 3π a,3 ˙ − σ˙ 5
σ
∇ σ • ( vh π a ) + π a =0 
→ + + πa 6 =0
∂σ Δx Δy Δσ
m m m m
1 × 752 hPa −  −2  × 748 hPa −2 × 753 hPa −  −1  × 749 hPa
s  s s  s

→ +
4000 m 5000 m
sigma 
σ˙ 6 −  −3.055 ×10 −6 
 s  sigma
+750.5 hPa → σ˙ 6 = 2.43 × 10−5
=0 
−0.05 sigma s
(b) Assume that the west, east, south, north, lower, and upper boundary values of θ v are 299,
297, 304, 301, 300, and 302 K, respectively, and that no eddy diffusion or external sources/sinks
exist. Estimate the value of θ v at the center of the grid cell after 200 s.
Initial potential virtual temperature

1
( )
θ v,t −h ≈ θ v,1 + θv,2 + θ v,3 + θ v,4 + θ v,5 + θ v,6 = 300.5 K
6
Average scalar velocities

1 m 1
u ≈ (u1 + u2 ) = −0.5 v≈ (v3 + v 4 ) = −1.5 m 1 ˙
σ˙ ≈ ( σ5 + σ˙ 6 ) = 1.062 × 10
−5 sigma
2 s 2 s 2 s
Thermodynamic energy equation in the sigma-pressure coordinate

 ∂θ v  ˙ ∂θ v = 0
  + ( vh • ∇σ )θ v + σ
 ∂t  σ ∂σ
θ v,t − θv,t− h θ v,2 − θv,1 θv,4 − θ v,3 θ − θv,5


→ +u +v ˙ v,6
+σ =0 
→
Δt Δx Δy Δσ
θ v,t − 300.5 K m 297 − 299 K m 301− 304 K sigma 302 − 300 K

− 0.5 × − 1.5 × + 1.062 × 10 −5 × =0
200 s s 4000 m s 5000 m s −0.05 sigma
→ θ v,t = 300.4 K

5.4. Assume that a horizontal grid cell has dimension Δx = 5 km and Δy = 4 km and that θ v and
pa on the west, east, south, and north boundaries of the cell are θ v,1 = 298 K and p a,1 = 1010
hPa, θ v,2 = 304 K and p a,2 = 1004 hPa, θ v,3 = 302 K and p a,3 = 1000 hPa, and θ v,4 = 301 K
and pa,4 = 1006 hPa, respectively. What is the change in the u- and v-component scalar
velocities after 10 min due to the pressure gradient force alone? Assume the air is dry.
Virtual temperatures
0.286
 pa 
Tv = θv  
 1000 hPa 
27
0.286 0.286
 1010 hPa   1004 hPa 
Tv,1 = 298 K  = 298.85 K Tv,2 = 304 K   = 304.35 K
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
0.286 0.286
 1000 hPa   1006 hPa 
Tv,3 = 302 K  = 302.0 K Tv,4 = 301 K  = 301.52 K
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
Air densities
p
ρa = a
R′Tv

ρ a,1 = 3 = 1.177 3 ρ a,2 = 3 = 1.149
m hPa m m hPa m3
2.8704 × 298.85 K 2.8704 × 304.35 K
kg K kg K

ρ a,3 = 3 = 1.161 3 ρ a,4 = 3 = 1.162
m hPa m m hPa m3
2.8704 × 302 K 2.8704 × 301.52 K
kg K kg K
Average air density

1 kg
( )
ρ a ≈ ρa,1 + ρ a,2 + ρa,3 + ρ a,4 = 1.162 3
4 m
Simplified momentum equations

∂u 1 ∂pa Δu 1 pa,2 − pa,1
=−  → ≈− →
∂t ρ a ∂x h ρa Δx
Δu 1 1004 hPa − 1010 hPa 100 kg m
≈− × × 2 
→ Δu = −62.0
600 s kg 5000 m m s hPa s
1.162 3
m
∂v 1 ∂pa Δv 1 pa, 4 − pa,3

=− → ≈− 
→
∂t ρ a ∂y Δt ρa Δy
Δv 1 1006 hPa −1000 hPa 100 kg m
≈− × × 2 → Δv = 77.5

600 s kg 4000 m m s hPa s
1.162 3
m
5.5. Derive the continuity equation for air in Cartesian-sigma-pressure coordinates from the
continuity equation for air in Cartesian-altitude coordinates.
Cartesian-altitude coordinate continuity equation for air.

∂ρ a
= −ρ a ( ∇• v) − (v • ∇ )ρa (1)
∂t
Divide into horizontal and vertical components
 ∂ρ a   ∂w  ∂ρ
  = −ρ a ∇z • v h + − ( v h • ∇ z )ρ a − w a (2)
 ∂t  z  ∂z  ∂z
Apply (5.14) to v h
28
∂v
∇ z • vh = ∇ p • vh + ∇ z ( pa ) • h (3)
∂pa
Substitute (3) and dz = − dpa gρ a into (2)
 ∂ρ a   ∂v  ∂( wρa )
  = −ρ a ∇ p • vh + ∇ z ( pa ) • h  − (v h • ∇ z )ρ a + ρ a g (4)
 ∂t  z  ∂pa  ∂pa
Vertical velocity in the pressure coordinate

dp  ∂p   ∂p  ∂p
w p = a =  a  + ( v • ∇) pa =  a  + (v h • ∇ z ) pa + w a (5)
dt  ∂t  z  ∂t  z ∂z
Substitute dpa = −ρa gdz

 ∂z 
w p = − ρ a g  + (v h • ∇z ) pa − wρa g (6)
 ∂t  z
Partial derivative of w p with respect to altitude

∂w p  ∂ρ  ∂v ∂p ∂( wρ a )
= −g  a  + ∇ z ( pa ) • h + (v h • ∇ z ) a − g (7)
∂z  ∂t  z ∂z ∂z ∂z
Substitute the hydrostatic equation throughout

∂w p  ∂ρ a  ∂v ∂(wρ a )
ρa =  + ρ a ∇ z ( pa ) • h + ( vh • ∇ z )ρa − ρ a g (8)
∂pa  ∂t  z ∂pa ∂pa
Add (4) to (8) and eliminate terms -->Continuity equation for air in Cartesian-pressure coordinates
∂w p
∇ p • vh + =0 (9)
∂pa
Substitute dpa = π a dσ and the gradient conversion from (5.55) into (9)
σ ∂v 1 ∂w p
∇σ • vh − ∇ σ (π a ) • h + =0 (10)
πa ∂σ π a ∂σ
Substitute pa = ptop + π a σ and (5.57) into (5)

dp dπ dσ dπ
wp = a = σ a + π =σ a +σ ˙ πa (11)
dt dt dt a dt
Substitute the total derivative of πa into (11)

 ∂π  
w p = σ  a  + (v h • ∇ σ )π a  + σ ˙ πa (12)
 ∂t  σ 
where ∂π a ∂σ = 0 . The partial derivative of this equation with respect to sigma is

∂w p  ∂π a  ∂v ∂σ˙
=  + (v h • ∇ σ )π a + σ∇σ (π a ) • h + π a (13)
∂σ  ∂t  σ ∂σ ∂σ
Substituting (13) into (10), canceling terms, and compressing the result yields the continuity
equation for air in Cartesian-sigma-pressure coordinates
 ∂π a  ∂σ˙
  + ∇ σ • ( vh π a ) + π a =0 (14)
 ∂t  σ ∂σ
5.6. Derive the horizontal momentum equation in Cartesian-pressure coordinates from that in
Cartesian-sigma-pressure coordinates. Ignore conversion of the eddy diffusion term.
29
Horizontal momentum equation in Cartesian-sigma-pressure coordinates
 ∂v h  ˙ ∂v h + fk × vh = −∇ σ Φ + σ ∇ σ ( π a ) ∂Φ +
(∇ • ρ a Km ∇) vh
  + ( v h • ∇ σ ) vh + σ
 ∂t  σ ∂σ πa ∂σ ρa
Convert gradient of geopotential from the sigma-pressure to pressure coordinate

σ ∂Φ
∇ σΦ − ∇ (π ) = ∇ pΦ
π a σ a ∂σ
Convert total derivative from the sigma-pressure to pressure coordinate

d  ∂ ∂ d  ∂ ∂
=   + vh • ∇σ + σ˙
dt  ∂t  σ ∂σ
→
dt  ∂t  p
(
=   + vh • ∇ p + w p ) ∂pa
Horizontal momentum equation in Cartesian-pressure coordinates

 ∂v h  ∂v (∇ • ρ a Km ∇ )vh

 ∂t  p
( )
 + vh • ∇ p v h + w p h = − fk × v h − ∇ p Φ +
∂pa ρa
5.7. Write a computer script to set up a model grid over the globe. Assume the grid stretches from
ϕ centered at -88oS to +88 oN, where dϕ = 4 o and from λ e centered at -177.5 oW to +177.5 oE,
where dλ e = 5 o. Calculate dx and dy at the top and bottom of every grid-cell, and print the
values to a table.
Solution not shown.
30
**************************************************************************************
CHAPTER 6
Problems
6.1. Identify five characteristics of a good numerical approximation, and explain which of these
characteristics you think the Forward Euler scheme (Section 6.4.4.2) with no diffusion has.
(Hint: the characteristics of the scheme may be obtained by estimation or by writing a one-
dimensional code with periodic boundary conditions and testing the effect of changes in time
step and grid spacing).
Characteristics of a good scheme include (1) convergence of finite-difference analogs, (2)

consistency, (3) high order of approximation, (4) convergence of overall solution, (5) stability, (6)
numerical diffusion, and (7) numerical dispersion. The finite-difference analogs in the Forward
Euler scheme are convergent. The Forward Euler scheme is consistent because the truncation errors
of its time- and space approximations approach zero as h and Δx, respectively, approach zero. The
order of approximation of the scheme is low (first order). The scheme is unconditionally unstable
since its error grows over time, regardless of time step or grid spacing. Because it is unconditionally
unstable, the overall scheme scheme must be nonconvergent. In other words, its solution does not
converge to an exact solution as Δx and h approach zero. Due to the low order of the time and space
approximations, the scheme is numerically diffusive. It also creates waves ahead of and behind peak
concentrations, so it is dispersive.
6.2. If an implicit approximation such as (6.36) is unconditionally stable, why is it less accurate, for
the same grid spacing and time step, than (6.44) when µ c = 0.5?
(6.36) is a first-order in time and second-order in space approximation. (6.44) is a second-order in

time and second-order in space approximation when µ c = 0.5. For the same grid spacing and time
step, the truncation error from (6.44) converges to zero faster than does that from (6.36).
6.3. What advantage does the finite-element scheme of fourth-order in space and second-order in
time shown in this chapter have over a finite-difference scheme of the same orders?
The fourth-order in time and second-order in space finite-element scheme requires a solution over a
tridiagonal matrix. A finite difference scheme of the same order in space and time requires a solution
over a pentadiagonal matrix. Thus, the finite-element scheme requires fewer calculations.
6.4. Find a sixth-order central-difference approximation of ∂N ∂x . Assume constant grid spacing.
Solve the matrix,

 1 1 1 1 1 1 1  γ i−3  0
 −3Δx −2Δx Δx 0 Δx 2Δx 3Δx  γ i −2  1
 2    
 ( −3Δx ) ( −2Δx )2 ( −Δx )2 0 ( Δx )2 ( 2Δx ) 2 (3Δx )2   γ i−1  0
(−3Δx )3 ( −2Δx )3 ( −Δx ) 3 0 ( Δx )3 ( 2Δx ) 3 (3Δx ) 3   γ i  = 0
 4 4    
( −3Δx) ( −2Δx ) ( −Δx ) 4 0 ( Δx )4 (2Δx ) 4 ( 3Δx ) 4   γ i+1  0
( −3Δx ) ( −2Δx )5
5
( −Δx ) 5 0 ( Δx )5 ( 2Δx ) 5 (3Δx ) 5  γ i +2  0
    
( −3Δx )6 ( −2Δx )6 ( −Δx )6 0 ( Δx )6 ( 2Δx ) 6 (3Δx )6  γ i+3  0
to obtain constants for the finite-difference approximation,
31
∂N
≈ γ i−3 Ni −3 + γ i−2 N i− 2 + γ i −1N i−1 + γ i N i + γ i+1 N i+1 + γ i+ 2 N i+ 2 + γ i+ 3 N i+3
∂x
The result is a sixth-order central difference approximation

∂N − N i−3 + 9N i−2 − 45N i−1 + 45N i+1 − 9N i+ 2 + N i+3
=
∂x 60Δx
6.5. Find a fifth-order backward-difference approximation of ∂N ∂x . Assume constant grid spacing.
Solve the matrix,

 1 1 1 1 1 1 γ i−3  0
 −3Δx −2Δx −Δx 0 Δx 2Δx γ i−2  1 
 2 2    
( −3Δx ) ( −2Δx ) ( −Δx )2 0 ( Δx )2 ( 2Δx ) 2  γ i −1  0
(−3Δx )3 ( −2Δx )3 =

( −Δx ) 3 0 ( Δx )3 ( 2Δx ) 2  γ i  0
4 4
( −3Δx ) ( −2Δx ) ( −Δx ) 4 0 ( Δx )4 (2Δx ) 4  γ i +1  0
( −3Δx )5 ( −2Δx )5 ( −Δx ) 5 0 ( Δx )5 ( 2Δx ) 5 γ i+2  0

∂N
≈ γ i−3 Ni −3 + γ i−2 N i− 2 + γ i −1N i−1 + γ i N i + γ i+1 N i+1 + γ i+ 2 N i+ 2
∂x
The result is a fifth-order backward difference approximation

∂N −2 Ni −3 + 15Ni −2 − 60N i−1 + 20N i + 30N i+1 − 3N i+2
=
∂x 60Δx
or solve the matrix,

 1 1 1 1 1 1  γ i− 4  0 
 −4Δx −3Δx −2Δx −Δx 0 Δx  γ i −3  1 
 2    
 ( −4Δx ) ( −3Δx )2 ( −2Δx )2 ( −Δx ) 2 0 ( Δx )2  γ i− 2  0 
(−4Δx ) 3 (−3Δx )3 =

( −2Δx )3 ( −Δx ) 3 0 ( Δx )2  γ i−1  0 
 
4 4
( −4Δx ) ( −3Δx ) ( −2Δx )4 ( −Δx ) 4 0 ( Δx )4   γ i  0 
( −4Δx ) (−3Δx )5
5
( −2Δx )5 ( −Δx ) 5 0 ( Δx )5  γ i+1  0 

∂N
≈ γ i− 4 N i− 4 + γ i− 3 Ni −3 + γ i− 2 N i− 2 + γ i−1 Ni −1 + γ i N i + γ i+1 N i+1
∂x
The result is another fifth-order backward difference approximation
∂N 3N i− 4 − 20N i− 3 + 60N i− 2 − 120N i−1 + 65N i + 12N i+1

=
∂x 60Δx
6.6. Suppose the horizontal wind in a large domain shifted from a 5 m/s southwesterly wind to a 10
m/s westerly wind to an 8 m/s northwesterly wind back to a 10 m/s westerly wind 3, 2, and 1
hour ago, respectively. Draw the trajectory of a Lagrangian pollution parcel carried by the
wind, and calculate the straight-line distance the parcel traveled between 4 hours ago and the
present time. Ignore curvature of the Earth.
The figure below shows the trajectory from four hours ago to the present. The distance between the
beginning and end point can be determined geometrically. The net north-south distance traveled was
( 28.8 − 18) 2 = 7.64 km. The net west-east distance traveled was
32
36 + 36 + (18 + 28.8) 2 = 105.1 km. Thus, the total straight-line distance traveled was
7.642 + 105.12 = 105.4 km.
6.7. Set up a west-east grid with periodic boundary conditions that has 100 uniformly spaced grid
cells. Assume the last grid cell to the east meets the first grid cell to the west. Set Δx = 5 km in
each cell and u = 5 m s-1 at each cell west-east boundary. Initialize the gas concentration on the
2
grid with the Gaussian distribution Ni = N0 e −( i−50) 8 , where N 0 = 10 12 molec. cm -3 is a peak
concentration and i corresponds to a cell boundary. Solve (6.36), assuming the eddy diffusion
coefficient is zero, with the matrix given in (6.42). Use a time step of 5 s, and solve until 10
revolutions around the grid have been completed. Plot concentration versus grid cell at the end
of each revolution. Discuss the numerical diffusion of the peak over time.
Solution not shown.
6.8. Do the same as in Problem 6.7, but instead solving with the 4 th-Order Runge-Kutta technique.
Use a time step of 0.1 s to obtain an “exact” solution. Plot the difference between the “exact”
and modeled concentration at one point along the grid at a specific time during the simulation
versus time step when different time steps are used to demonstrate the 4th-order nature of the
solution.
Solution not shown.
33
**************************************************************************************
CHAPTER 7
Problems
7.1. For the same time step and grid spacing, should the model accuracy increase or decrease when
Matsuno but no leapfrog steps are taken versus when both Matsuno and leapfrog steps are
taken? Why? How is the computer time affected in each case?
Since the leapfrog scheme is a second-order approximation in time and the Matsuno scheme is a
first-order approximation in time, the truncation error from the leapfrog scheme converges to zero
faster than does than that from the Matsuno scheme for the same grid spacing and time step. Thus,
use of the leapfrog scheme with the Matsuno scheme should be more accurate than use of the
Matsuno scheme, alone. Use of the leapfrog plus Matsuno scheme is also faster than use of the
Matsuno scheme, alone.
7.2. (a) Assume a grid cell, centered at ϕ = 45 oN, has dimensions Δλ e = 5 o, Δϕ = 4 o, and Δσ = 0.05.
Calculate q at the center of the cell after one 5-min time step if u1 =+3 m s -1, πa,1 = 745
hPa, q1 = 0.0062 kg kg -1; u2 =+1 m s-1, πa,2 = 752 hPa, q2 = 0.0047 kg kg -1; v3 = +2 m s-1,
πa,3 = 754 hPa, q3 = 0.0064 kg kg-1; v4 = +1 m s-1, πa,4 = 746 hPa, q4 = 0.0054 kg kg -1,
−6
σ˙ 5 = −4.58 × 10 σ s -1, q 5 = 0.005 kg kg -1; and σ˙ 6 = −6.11 × 10 −6 σ s -1, q 6 = 0.006 kg kg -1,
where subscripts 1,...,6 denote the west-, east-, south-, north-, lower-, and upper-
boundaries, respectively. Average the four π a-values and six q-values to obtain center
values. Neglect eddy diffusion and external sources and sinks. Assume the air is dry and the
π a -values stay constant for the time step.
Average initial pi value

1
( )
π a ≈ π a,1 + π a,2 + π a,3 + π a,4 = 749.25 hPa
4
Initial moist-air mass mixing ratio

1 kg
q t− h ≈ ( q1 + q 2 + q 3 + q 4 + q 5 + q6 ) = 0.00562
6 kg
Continuity equation for air in the sigma-pressure coordinate, assuming no time derivative
m m 2 hPa
F1 = (uπ a ReΔϕ )1 = 3 × 745 hPa × 6.371 × 106 m × 0.0698 rad = 9.939 × 108
s s
m m 2 hPa
F2 = ( uπ a Re Δϕ) 2 = 1 × 752 hPa × 6.371× 10 6 m × 0.0698 rad = 3.344 ×10 8
s s
m m 2 hPa
G3 = (vπ a Re cos ϕΔλ e ) 3 = 2 × 754 hPa × 6.371 ×10 6 m × 0.707 × 0.0873 rad = 5.93 × 108
s s
m m2 hPa
G4 = ( vπ a Re cosϕΔλ e ) 4 = 1 × 746 hPa × 6.371× 106 m × 0.707 × 0.0873 rad = 2.933 × 108
s s
Moist-air mass mixing ratio

( π a q )t −h h
qt = + 2 ×
π a,t π a,t Re cos ϕΔλ eΔϕ
34
 ( σ˙ t q t −h )6 − ( σ˙ t qt −h ) 5 
{
 ( Fq )1 − ( Fq) 2 + (Gq) 3 − ( Gq) 4 } + π a,t Re2 cos ϕΔλ e 
 t −h Δσ 
kg
→ q t = 0.00555

kg
(b) For the conditions of part (a), calculate θ v at the center of the cell after 30 minutes if the
west, east, south, north, lower, and upper grid-cell boundary values are θ v = 297, 298, 300,
299, 298.3, and 298.7 K, respectively. Average the six boundary values to obtain an initial
center value of θ v .
Initial potential temperature

1
( )
θ v,t −h ≈ θ v,1 + θv,2 + θ v,3 + θ v,4 + θ v,5 + θ v,6 = 298.5 K
6
Thermodynamic energy equation

(π a θ v ) t− h h
θ v,t = + 2 ×
π a,t π a,t Re cosϕΔλ e Δϕ
 (
σ˙ t θ v,t −h − σ ) (
˙ t θv,t− h  )
{
 ( Fθ v ) − ( Fθ v ) + (Gθv ) − (Gθ v )
 1 2 3 4 t− h }
+ π a,t Re
2
cosϕΔλ e
6
Δσ
5

→ θ v,t = 296.4 K

7.3. Set up a 20-layer (21-boundary) sigma-pressure-coordinate vertical model grid between pa,top =
250 hPa and pa,surf = 1000 hPa at sea level. Assume each layer has equal sigma thickness, and
assume T = 288 at the surface. Assume also that temperature decreases with increasing altitude
at 6.5 K km-1. Calculate pressure at the center of each layer with (7.10). Plot pressure versus
altitude.
Solution not shown.
35
**************************************************************************************
CHAPTER 8
Problems
8.1. Calculate the surface roughness length for momentum over a rough ocean assuming u*=0.3 m s-1
and over vegetated land assuming a forest canopy with top h c =20 m and LT= 7 m2 m -2.
Calculate the wind speed 100 m above the ocean surface and above h c assuming a displacement
height of dc =15 m for the canopy. Assume a neutral boundary layer and logarithmic wind
profile in both cases. In which case is the wind speed higher. Why?
The equatins for surface roughness in the two cases are (8.10) and (8.12), respectively:
2
0.3 m 
2
u  s
z0,m ≈ α c * = 0.016
g m = 0.00015 m
9.806 2
s
( ) (
z0,m = hc 1 − 0.91e −0.0075LT = 20 m × 1 − 0.91e −0.0075× 7 = 1.02 m )
From (8.66), the wind speed profile in a neutral boundary layer is
m
u*  z − dc  0.3 s  100 − 0 m  m
Ocean vh ( z) = ln = ln  =10.1
k  z0,m  0.4  0.00015 m  s
m
u*  z − dc  0.3 s  100 + 20 −15 m  m
Canopy vh ( z) = ln = ln  = 3.47
k  z0,m  0.4  1.02 m  s
The 100-m wind speed is faster over the ocean since the lower roughness length for momentum over
the ocean means less wind shear and fewer eddies mixing high-momentum air from aloft with slow-
momentum air near the surface. Over the forest, the high roughness enhances wind shear, increasing
the mixing of slow winds near the surface aloft, decreasing wind speeds aloft.
8.2. If conditions at the surface are zr = 10 m, z0, m = 0.05 m, z0, h = 0.0005 m, u ( z r ) = 8 m s -1, v (z r ) =
2 m s-1, T (z r ) = 285 K, T (z 0, h ) = 286 K, p a ( zr ) = 1004 hPa, and p a ( z0, h ) = 1005 hPa, calculate
u* , θ * , L, Rib , and Km, zx at the reference height. Assume dry air.
Virtual temperature in dry air ( ω v = 0): Tv = T
Potential virtual temperature when ω v = 0

κ 0.286
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
θ v ( zr ) = Tv ( zr )  = 285 K  = 284.7 K
 pd (zr )   1004 hPa 
κ 0.286
 1000 hPa   1000 hPa 
( ) (
θ v z0,h = Tv z0,h ) 
 = 286 K  = 285.6 K
(
 pd z0,h  )  1005 hPa 
Mean horizontal wind speed
36
m
vh = u 2 + v 2 = 8.25
s
Bulk Richardson number

m 2
[
g θv ( zr ) − θv z0,h )]( zr − z0,m ) 2
( 9.81 2 [284.7 − 285.6 K ](10 − 0.05 m)
s
Ri b = = = −4.5 × 10−3
θv ( z0,h )[u ( zr ) + v ( zr ) ](zr − z0,h ) 285.6 K 8 m  +  2 m   10 − 0.0005 m
2 2 2 2
 ( )
 s   s 
Parameterization factors
Gm = 1−
9.4Ri b (
9.4 × −4.5 × 10 −3 )
2 0.5 = 1 − 0.5 = 1.0307
1+
70k ( Ri b zr z0,m ) 70 × ( 0.4) 2  −4.5× 10 −3 10 m 0.05 m
ln 2 ( zr z0,m ) 1+
ln 2 10 m 0.05 m
( )
Gh = 1−
9.4Ri b (
9.4 × −4.5 × 10 −3 )
0.5 = 1 − 0.5 = 1.0333
50k 2 Ri b zr z0,m
( ) 50( 0.4 ) 2 −3 
1+  −4.5 ×10 10 m 0.05 m
2 1+
ln ( zr z0,m ) ln 2 10 m 0.05 m
( )
Friction velocity
 0.4 × 8.25 m 
 k vh (zr )    m
u* ≈   Gm =  s
 1.0307 = 0.632 s
(
 ln zr z0,m )   ln 10 m 0.05( m ) 
Potential temperature scale

m
[
k 2 vh ( zr ) θ v (z r ) − θ v z0,h ( )] ( 0.4 )2 × 8.25 [
284.7 − 285.6 K ]
θ* ≈ Gh = s × 1.0333 = −0.0728 K
(
u* Prt ln2 zr z0,m ) m
0.632 × 0.95 × ln2 10 m 0.05 m
s
( )
Monin-Obukhov length
2
 0.632 m  × 284.7 K
2
u θv  s
L= * = = −398 m
kgθ* 0.4 × 9.81 m × ( −0.0728)
s2
Dimensionless wind shear

−1 4
 z  −1 4  10 m 
φm = 1 − γ m  = 1− 19.3  = 0.906
 L  −398 m 
Eddy diffusion coefficient for momentum

m
kzu* 0.4 × 10 m × 0.632 s m2
K m,zx = = = 2.79
φm 0.906 s
8.3. Assume z0, m = 0.01 m, u* = 1 m s -1, u ( z r ) = 10 m s-1, and v (z r ) = 5 m s-1 at zr = 10 m. Calculate

the eddy diffusion coefficient for momentum, Km, zx .
37
Eddy diffusion coefficient for momentum
2
1 m 
2
u*  s m2
K m,zx ≈ (
vh ( zr )
)
zr − z0,m = ( )
10 − 0.01 m = 0.894
s
 m2  m2
10  +  5 
 s  s
8.4. Assuming u* = 0.1 m s -1, p a = 998 hPa, and the air is dry, calculate the surface roughness
lengths for energy and water vapor when T = 288 K.
Thermal conductivity of dry air

J
κ d ≈ 0.023807 + 7.1128 ×10 −5 ( T − 273.15) = 0.02486
m s K
Mass density of air

p 998 hPa kg
ρa = a = 3 = 1.207 3
R′Tv m hPa m
2.8704 × 288 K
kg K
Thermal diffusion coefficient

J
0.02486
m s K 2
κd −5 m
Dh = = = 2.05 × 10
ρ a c p 1.207 kg × 1004.67 J s
m3 kg K
Surface roughness length for heat

2
−5 m
2.05 × 10
D s
z0,h = h =
ku* m = 0.000513 m
0.4 × 0.1
s
Diffusion coefficient for water vapor

 288 K 1.94  1013.25 hPa  m2
Dv = 2.11× 10−5  = 2.37× 10 −5
 273.15 K   998 hPa  s
Surface roughness length for water vapor

2
−5 m
2.37 ×10
D s
z0,v = v =
ku* m = 0.000593 m
0.4 × 0.1
s
8.5. Compare vertical turbulent sensible-heat fluxes over the ocean from bulk aerodynamic formulae
and Monin-Obukhov similarity theory. Assume the same conditions as in Problem 8.2, except
assume z0, m = 0.00001 m. Assume θv at the roughness length for energy equals that at the
roughness length for momentum. Discuss differences in results.
Turbulent sensible heat flux from bulk aerodynamic formulae

m mK
( )s [ ( )] s
[ ]
w ′θ v′ = −C H vh (zr ) θv ( zr ) − θ v z0,h = −0.001× 8.25 × 284.7 − 285.6 K = 0.007425
s
38
Bulk Richardson number
m 2
[
g θv ( zr ) − θv z0,h )]( zr − z0,m ) 2 9.81 s2 [ 284.7 − 285.6 K ](10 − 0.00001 m)
(
Ri b = = = −4.55 × 10−3
θv ( z0,h )[u ( zr ) + v ( zr ) ](zr − z0,h ) 285.6 K 8 m  +  2 m   10 − 0.0005 m
2 2 2 2
 ( )
 s   s 
Parameterization factors
Gm = 1−
9.4Ri b (
9.4 × −4.55 × 10 −3 )
2 0.5 = 1 − 0.5 = 1.0086
1+
70k ( Ri b zr z0,m ) 70 × ( 0.4) 2  −4.5× 10 −3 10 m 0.00001 m
ln 2 ( zr z0,m ) 1+
ln 2 10 m 0.00001 m
( )
Gh = 1−
9.4Ri b (
9.4 × −4.55 × 10 −3 )
0.5 = 1 − 0.5 = 1.0112
50k 2 Ri b zr z0,m
( ) 2
50( 0.4 ) −3 
1+  −4.5 ×10 10 m 0.00001 m
2 1+
ln ( zr z0,m ) ln 2 10 m 0.00001 m
( )
Friction wind speed
 m 
 k vh (zr )  0.4 × 8.25
 s  m
u* ≈   Gm =   1.0086 = 0.240
(
 ln zr z0,m )  (
 ln 10 m 0.00001 m 
s )
Potential temperature scale
m
[
k 2 vh ( zr ) θ v (z r ) − θ v z0,h ( )] ( 0.4) 2 × 8.25 [
284.7 − 285.6 K ]
θ* ≈ Gh = s × 1.0112 = −0.0276 K
(
u* Prt ln2 zr z0,m ) m
(
0.24 × 0.95 × ln2 10 m 0.00001 m
s
)
Turbulent sensible heat flux from similarity theory
m m K
( )
w ′θ ′v = −u*θ* = −0.24 × −0.0276 K = 0.006624
s s
(
s
)
The solutions from both methods are different from each other by about 10%.
8.6. Using conditions from Problems 8.2 and 8.5, calculate the eddy diffusion coefficient for energy
with bulk aerodynamic formulae and similarity theory. Discuss differences in results.
Eddy diffusion coefficient for heat from bulk aerodynamic formulae

(
w ′θ ′v ) m m2
K h,zz = −
∂θv ∂z
s ≈ C v (z ) z − z
H h r r ( )
0,h = −0.001× 8.25 × 10 m − 0.0005 m = 0.0825
s s
( )
Monin-Obukhov length
2
 0.24 m  × 284.7 K
2
u θv  s
L= * = = −151 m
kgθ* 0.4 × 9.81 m × ( −0.0276)
s2
Dimensionless potential temperature gradient
39
−1 2
 z  −1 2  10 m 
φ h = Prt 1− γ h  = 0.951 − 11.6  = 0.714
 L  −151 m 
Eddy diffusion coefficient hor heat from similarity theory

m
kzu* 0.4 × 10 m × 0.24 s m2
K h,zz = = = 1.34
φh 0.714 s
Bulk aerodynamic formulae are valid for cases where potential virtual temperatures do not change
significantly with heigh. In this case, the atmosphere is unstable and potential virtual temperatures
decrease with height. The buoyant instability is accounted for in the similarity theory equation but
not the bulk aerodynamic equation.
8.7. Assume all conditions are the same as in Problem 8.2, except that the relative humidity at the
reference height is now 85 percent, and the specific humidity at the roughness length for
moisture equals the saturation specific humidity at the roughness length for energy. Estimate
the vertical turbulent flux of moisture from similarity theory.
Integral of dimensionless potential temperature gradient

  12   z0,h  1 2 
  1− γ h zr  − 1    1− γ h  − 1 
zr ∂z   L L  
= Prt ln   − ln  
∫ z0,h
φh
z   1− γ zr 
1 2    z0,h  1 2 
+ 1  1− γ + 1 
  h
L  
  h
L 



  12   12 
  1− 11.6 10 m  −1   0.0005 m 
− 1 
1 −11.6 
   −398 m    −398 m   
0.95 ln 12  − ln  12   = 9.283
  10 m    0.0005 m  
  1− 11.6  + 1  1 −11. 6  + 1 
   −398 m     −398 m   
Celsius temperature at the reference height

Tc = T − 273.15 K = 285 K − 273.15 K = 11.85o C
Saturation vapor pressure of water over a liquid surface at reference height

 17.67Tc   17.67 × 11.85 o C 
pv,s = 6.112 exp   = 6.112exp  o  = 13.88 hPa
 Tc + 243.5   11.85 C + 243.5 
Partial pressure of water vapor at reference height

pv = fr pv,s = 0.85 × 13.88 hPa = 11.80 hPa
Specific humidity at reference height

εpv 0.622 ×11.80 hPa kg
q v ( zr ) = = = 0.00726
pd + εp v 1004 hPa + 0.622 × 11.80 hPa kg
Celsius temperature at surface roughness length for heat

Tc = T − 273.15 K = 286 K − 273.15 K = 12.85o C
Saturation vapor pressure of water over a liquid surface at surface roughness length for heat
40
 17.67Tc   17.67 × 12.85 o C 
pv,s = 6.112 exp   = 6.112exp  o  = 14.82 hPa
 Tc + 243.5   12.85 C + 243.5 
Specific humidity at surface roughness length for heat (surface is saturated)

εpv,s 0.622 × 14.82 hPa kg
(
qv z0,h = ) =
pd + εpv,s 1005 hPa + 0.622 × 14.82 hPa
= 0.00909
kg
Water vapor scale

 kg kg 
0.4 0.00726 − 0.00909 
q* =
[ ( )]
k q v (zr ) − q v z0,v
=
 kg kg 
= 7.89 × 10 −5
kg
r φ h ∂z
∫zz0,v
9.283 kg
z
Mass mixing ratio of water vapor at reference height
εp 0.622 × 11.80 hPa kg
ω v ( zr ) = v = = 0.00731
pd 1004 hPa kg
Virtual temperature at the reference height

1 + ω v ε   1+ 0.00731 0.622 
Tv = T   = 285 K 1+ 0.00731  = 286.3 K
 1+ ω v 
Total air pressure at reference height

pa = pd + pv = 1004 hPa +11.80 hPa = 1015.8 hPa
Mass density of air at reference height

p 1015.8 hPa kg
ρa = a = 3 = 1.236 3
R′Tv m hPa m
2.8704 × 286.3 K
kg K
Vertical turbulent flux of moisture

kg m kg kg
E f = −ρa u* q* = −1.236 3 × 0.632 × 7.89 ×10 −5 = 6.16 × 10−5 2
m s kg m s
8.8. Calculate the thermal conductivity of a soil-water-air mixture for a sandy-loam soil when the
volumetric water content is 0.2 and 0.05 m 3 m-3, respectively. In which case is the mixture more
conductive? Why?
At w g =0.05 m3 m-3,
 w g,s  b  0.435  4 .9
ψ p = ψ p,s   = −21.8 = −875187 cm
 wg   0.05 
J
( )
κ s = max 418e − log10 −875187−2.7 , 0.172 = 0.172
m s K
At w g =0.2 m3 m-3,
 w g,s  b  0.435  4 .9
ψ p = ψ p,s   = −21.8 = −982 cm
 wg   0.2 
J
( )
κ s = max 418e − log10 −982− 2 .7 , 0.172 = 1.41
m s K
41
The thermal conductivity is higher in the high-moisture case because the thermal conductivity of
liquid water is about 25 times greater than that of air that it displaces.
8.9. Simplify (8.130) to calculate the temperature of the mixed layer of the ocean in the absence of
sensible and latent heat fluxes and assuming the only source or sink of thermal-infrared
4
radiation is the sink due to upward emission ( σ Bε w Tg,t −h ). Calculate the temperature after two
hours if the initial temperature is 290 K, the downward solar irradiance is 800 W m-2, and the
thickness of the mixed layer is 70 m. Should the temperature change increase or decrease if the
mixing depth increases?
Tg,t = Tg,t −h +h
( 4
Fs − σ B ε wTg,t −h )
ρ swc p,s w Dl
 W W 4
800 2 − 5.67 × 10−8 2 4 × 0.97 × 290 K 
 m m K 
( )
= 290 K + 7200 s × = 290.01 K
kg J
1028 3 × 3986.5 × 70 m
m kg K
With a deep mixing depth, the temperature change is smaller than with a shallow mixing depth.
8.10. If zr = 10 m, u ( z r ) = 3 m s-1, v (z r ) = 16 m s-1, T (z r ) = 293 K, T (z 0, h ) = 292.5 K, p a ( zr ) = 1002

hPa, and p a ( z0, h ) = 1003 hPa, write a script to calculate u* , θ * , L, Rib , and Km,zz as a
function of z0, m when the air is dry. Calculate values for 0.00001 m < z0, m < 5 m. Assume
z0, h ≈ z 0,m 100 . Plot the results for each variable.
Solution not shown.
8.11. Write a computer script to calculate the change of wind speed and potential virtual temperature
with height in the surface layer from similarity theory. Assume the same conditions as in
problem 8.2. Plot the results from the ground surface up to 10 m altitude. Change T (z r ) to 286
K, and replot the results. Discuss the differences between the two cases.
Solution not shown.
8.12. Write a computer program to calculate the temperature over a single asphalt layer 6 cm thick
from (8.128) assuming air temperature at the reference height (10 m) is a constant 295 K, the
initial ground temperature is 285 K, the constant soil temperature below the ground is 290 K,
the surface air pressure is 1013 hPa, the pressure at the reference height is 1012 hPa, the
incident solar radiation varies with a sine function between 06:00 and 18:00, with a peak value
of 1000 W m-2 at 12:00 and zero values before 06:00 and after 18:00, and the downward
thermal-IR irradiance is zero. In addition, assume Ra = 0.74 ln( zr z 0,h ) ku* , where
z0, h =0.000135 m and u* =0.4 m s -1. Finally, assume q v ( z r ) =0. Use the program to calculate the
ground temperature from 03:00 to 21:00 on a single day. Plot and discuss the result. (Hint: take
a time step of 1 s. Iterate the equation four times for each time step. At the end of each time
step, update temperatures and solar radiation on the right side of the equation).
42
Temperature should vary during the day somewhat like that in Figure 8.6(a), but not necessarily with
the same magnitude.
43
**************************************************************************************
CHAPTER 9
Problems
9.1. Calculate the radiance and irradiance from the Planck function at T = 273 K and (a) λ = 0.4 µm,
(b) λ = 1.0 µm, and (c) λ = 15 µm.
Planck function
m2
2 2 × 6.6256 ×10 −34 J s ×  2.9979 ×10 8 
2hc  s m
Bλ,T = = × 6
  hc     −34 J s × 2.9979 × 108 m   10 µm
λ5 exp   −1  5  6.6256 × 10  
λk T
 B   λ m exp ( ) s
 J  − 1
  λ ( m) × 1.38 × 10−23 × 273 K  
  K  
W
→ Bλ ,T = 6.641 × 10 −42
λ = 0.4 µm  2
m µm
W
→ Bλ,T = 1.509 × 10 −15
λ = 1.0 µm  2
m µm
W
λ = 10.0 µm 
→ Bλ,T = 6.143 2
m µm
9.2. Calculate the equilibrium surface temperature of the Earth if its emissivity and albedo were 70
and 25 percent, respectively. Does this represent an increase or decrease with respect to the
equilibrium temperature (when the emissivity and albedo are 100 and 30 percent,
respectively)?
Equilibrium temperature of the Earth

 W 1 4
1365 2 × (1− 0.25)
 Fs (1− Ae ) 1 4  
Te =  = m  = 283.4 K
 W
 4ε σ
e B   4 × 0.7 × 5.67 ×10 −8 2 4 
 m K 
This equilibrium temperature exceeds the current equilibrium temperature of 254.8 K.
9.3. Calculate the transmission of light through a 0.5-µm-diameter particle made of ammonium
sulfate at a wavelength of λ = 0.5 µm (use the data from Table 9.6).
Transmission
I
= e −4πκ (x − x 0 ) λ = exp −4π × 0.00054 × 0.5 µm 0.5 µm = 0.9932
[ ]
I0
9.4. Calculate the extinction coefficient, meteorological range, and optical depth in a 1-km region of
the atmosphere resulting from nitrogen dioxide absorption at a wavelength of λ = 0.55 µm
when the volume mixing ratio of NO 2 is χ = 0.05 ppmv, T = 288 K, and p d = 980 hPa.
44
pd 980 hPa molec.
Nd = = 3 = 2.46 × 1019
k BT cm hPa cm3
1.3807 ×10 -19 × 288 K
molec. K
Number concentration of NO2

molec. molec. 12 molec.
N NO2 = χ NO2 N d = 5× 10 −8 × 2.46 × 1019 3 = 1.23 ×10
molec. cm cm 3
Extinction coefficient due to NO2 absorption
molec. 10 5 cm
σ a,g,λ = N NO2 ba,g,NO2 ,λ = 1.23× 1012 cm 2 ×
−20
3 × 9.99 ×10 = 0.0123 km −1
cm km
Meteorological range due to NO2 absorption

3.912 3.912
x= = = 318 km
σ a,g,λ 0.0123 km−1
Optical depth through 1 km

τ a, g,λ = σa, g,λ Δz = 0.0123 km−1 × 1 km = 0.123
9.5. Calculate the real and imaginary refractive indices of a two-component mixture using (a) the
volume average mixing rule and (b) the volume average dielectric constant mixing rule when
the volume fraction of each component is 0.5 and the index of refraction of the maxtrix
component is m1=1.34- i1.0x10-9 and that of the absorbing inclusion is m2= 1.82-i0.74. Also,
calculate the real and complex parts of the dielectric constant for each of the two components in
the mixture.
(a) Volume average mixing rule: mmix=1.58- i 0.37

(b) Volume average dielectric constant mixing rule: mmix=1.60- i 0.52
Real and imaginary components of the matrix component
ε r, M = n2M − κ 2M = 1.7956 ε i, M = 2nM κ M = 2.68 × 10−7
Real and imaginary components of the absorbing component
ε r, A = n 2A − κ 2A = 2.7648 ε i, A = 2n A κ A = 2.6936
9.6. Find the meteorological ranges at λ = 0.53 µm under the following conditions:
(a) In a rain shower with 1-mm-diameter water drops and a mass loading of 1 g m-3.
(b) In a fog with 10-µm-diameter water drops and a mass loading of 1 g m-3.
(c) In a haze with 0.5-µm-diameter particles, 40 percent ammonium sulfate by volume, 60
percent liquid water by volume, and a total mass loading of 50 µg m-3.
(c) Behind a diesel exhaust, with 50 µg m-3 of 0.5-µm-diameter soot particles.
In all cases, assume particles are spherical, neglect Rayleigh scattering, and neglect gas
absorption. In the case of soot and raindrops, assume particle scattering and absorption occur.
In the other cases, assume only particle scattering occurs. In the case of haze, calculate the
scattering efficiency by weighting the volume fractions of each component by the corresponding
scattering efficiency. Use Figs. 9.20 and 9.21 to determine the efficiencies. Assume the scattering
efficiency of ammonium sulfate is the same as that of water. Assume the mass densities of soot,
ammonium sulfate, and liquid water are 1.25, 1.77, and 1.0 g cm-3, respectively.
(a) Rain Drops
45
Mass concentration of drops
g
mi = 10−6
cm 3
Volume of a single drop

4 4 3
υi = πri3 = π 0.05 cm = 0.0005235 cm 3
( )
3 3
Number concentration of drops

g
10 −6
ni =
mi cm3 partic.
= 3 = 0.00191
ρ p υi g cm cm 3
1.0 × 0.0005235
cm 3 partic.
Single-particle scattering and absorption efficiencies from figures

1000 µm
At diameter d = 0.5 µm = 943 µm  → Qs = 1.1 , Qa = 1.0
0.53 µm
Extinction coefficient due to scattering and absorption

partic. 2 5 cm
σ ext = ni πri2 (Qs + Qa ) = 0.00191 ( ) −1
3 × π × 0.05 cm × (1.1 + 1.0) × 10 km = 3.15 km
cm
Meteorological range when both scattering and absorption are accounted for.
3.912 3.912
x= = = 1.24 km
σ ext 3.15 km−1
(b) Cloud Drops

g
mi = 10−6
cm 3

4 4 3
υi = πri3 = π 0.0005 cm = 5.235× 10 −10 cm3
( )
3 3

g
10 −6
ni =
mi cm 3 partic.
= 3 = 1910
ρ p υi g cm cm3
1.0 × 5.235 × 10−10
cm 3 partic.

1000 µm
At diameter d = 0.5 µm = 943 µm  → Qs = 2.0 , Qa = 0.0
0.53 µm

partic. 2 5 cm
σ ext = ni πri2 (Qs + Qa ) = 1910 ( ) −1
3 × π × 0.0005 cm × (2.0 + 0.0) × 10 km = 300 km
cm
46
3.912 3.912
x= = = 13 m
σ ext 300 km −1
(c) Water-Ammonium Sulfate Particles

g
mi = 5 × 10−11
cm 3

4 4 3
υi = πri3 = π 0.000025 cm = 6.545× 10 −14 cm3
( )
3 3
Average drop density ( f1 and f2 = volume fractions of water and ammonium sulfate, respectively)
g g g
ρ p = ρ1 f1 + ρ2 f2 = 1.0 3 × 0.6 + 1.77 3 × 0.4 = 1.308
cm cm cm 3

g
5× 10 −11
ni =
mi
= cm 3 = 584
partic.
3
ρ p υi g cm cm3
1.308 × 6.545 × 10 −13
cm 3 partic.
Single-particle scattering and absorption efficiencies from figures (use same figures for both
substances)
0.5 µm
At diameter d = 0.5 µm = 0.472 µm  → Qs = 2.0 , Qa = 0.0
0.53 µm

partic. 2 5 cm
σ ext = ni πri2 (Qs + Qa ) = 584 −1
cm
( )
3 × π × 0.000025 cm × ( 2.0 + 0.0 ) ×10 km = 0.0731 km
3.912 3.912
x= = = 53.5 km
σ ext 0.0731 km −1
(d) Soot Particles

g
mi = 5 × 10−11
cm 3

4 4 3
υi = πri3 = π 0.000025 cm = 6.545× 10 −14 cm3
( )
3 3

g
5 × 10−11
ni =
mi
= cm 3 = 611
partic.
3
ρ p υi g cm cm 3
1.25 × 6.545 × 10 −13
cm 3 partic.
47
0.5 µm
At diameter d = 0.5 µm = 0.472 µm  → Qs = 1.35 , Qa = 1.5
0.53 µm

partic. 2 5 cm
σ ext = ni πri2 (Qs + Qa ) = 611 ( ) −1
3 × π × 0.000025 cm × (1.35 +1. 5) × 10 km = 0.342 km
cm
3.912 3.912
x= = = 11.4 km
σ ext 0.342 km −1
9.7. Write a script to calculate radiance and irradiance from the Planck function versus temperature
and wavelength. Use the program to calculate values between λ=0.01 µm and λ=100 mm for
T=6000 K and T=300 K. Plot the results.
See fig. 10.5 for irradiance plot.
9.8. Divide the atmosphere from z = 0 to 10 km into 100 vertical layers. Assume T=288 K and
p d =1013 hPa at the surface, and assume the temperature decreases 6.5 K km -1. Use (2.41) to
estimate the air pressure in each layer. Calculate the extinction coefficient and optical depth in
each layer due to Rayleigh scattering at λ = 0.4 µm. Estimate the cumulative optical depth at
the surface.
Solution not shown.
48
**************************************************************************************
CHAPTER 10
Problems
10.1. When T = 265 K and pd = 223 hPa, calculate the second-order rate coefficient for
M
H + O2 HO2

p 223 hPa molec.
Nd = d = 3 = 6.095 × 1018
k BT cm hPa cm 3
1.3807 ×10 -19 × 265 K
molec. K
Low pressure limit rate coefficient

cm6 18 molec. -13 cm
3
k 0,T [M] = 7.56 × 10-32 2 × 6.095 × 10 3 = 4.61× 10
molec. s cm molec. s
High pressure limit rate coefficient

cm 3
k ∞,T = 7.5× 10 -11
molec. s
Second-order pressure-dependent rate coefficient

  2  −1
  k0,T [M]  
1+  log10 
k∞,T k 0,T [M]   k ∞,T   cm 3 cm 3
= 4.14 × 10-13 × 0.55 0.170 = 4.46 × 10-13

kr = F
k ∞,T + k 0,T [M] c molec. s molec. s
10.2. When T = 298 K and pd = 1013 hPa, calculate the first-order rate coefficient for
M
N2 O5 NO2 + NO 3
Repeat for T = 288 K. Discuss temperature effects on the reaction rate coefficient.

p 1013 hPa molec.
Nd = d = 3 = 2.46 × 1019 at 298 K
k BT -19 cm hPa cm3
1.3807 ×10 × 298 K
molec. K
pd 1013 hPa molec.

Nd = = 3 = 2.55 × 1019 at 288 K
k BT cm hPa cm 3
1.3807 ×10 -19 × 288 K
molec. K

cm 3 molec.
k 0,T [M] = 9.53 × 10-20 × 2.46 × 1019 −1
molec. s 3 = 2.34 s at 298 K
cm
cm 3 molec.
k 0,T [M] = 2.98 × 10-20 × 2.55 × 1019 = 0.76 s −1 at 288 K
molec. s cm 3
49
k ∞,T = 0.069 s −1 at 298 K
k ∞,T = 0.0189 s−1 at 288 K
First-order pressure-dependent rate coefficient

  2  −1
  k0,T [M]  
1+  log10 
k∞,T k 0,T [M]   k ∞,T  
= 0.06702 s−1 × 0.330.299 = 0.0481 s−1 at 298 K

kr = F
k ∞,T + k 0,T [M] c
  2  −1
  k0,T [M]  
1+ log
  10 
k∞,T k 0,T [M]   k ∞,T  
= 0.0184 s−1 × 0.330.28 = 0.0135 s−1 at 288 K

kr = F
k ∞,T + k 0,T [M] c
The rate coefficient increases with increasing temperature.
10.3. Estimate the e-folding lifetimes of CO, NO, O 3, SO2, HNO3, ISOP (isoprene), and HO 2 against
loss by OH if [OH] = 1.0 × 106 molec. cm-3, T = 288 K, and p d = 1010 hPa. The rate coefficients
are listed in Table B.4 of Appendix B. Order the species from shortest to longest lifetimes.
Which species will most likely reach the stratosphere if only OH reaction is considered?
CO + OH --> CO2 + HO2 1.30 × 10−13 (1+ 0.6pa.bar )(300 T )1.0
Lifetime
1 1
τ CO = = 3 = 4.6 × 106 s = 53.2 d
kr [OH ] cm molec.
2.175 × 10 −13 × 106
molec. s cm 3
NO + OH -[M] -> HONO 7.40 x 10 -31 (300/T)2.4

4.50 x 10 -11
(P) Fc = 0.90

p 1010 hPa molec.
[M] = Nd = d = 3 = 2.54 × 1019
kBT cm hPa cm 3
1.3807 × 10-19 × 288 K
molec. K

cm6 19 molec. = 2.07 × 10-11 cm
3
k 0,T [M] = 8.16 × 10-31 × 2.54 × 10
molec.2 s cm 3 molec. s

cm 3
k ∞,T = 4.5 ×10 -11
molec. s
50
  2  −1
  k0,T [M]  
1+ log
  10 
k∞,T k 0,T [M]   k ∞,T   cm3 cm3

kr = F = 1.42 × 10-11 × 0.90.8979 = 1.29 × 10 -11
Lifetime
1 1
τ NO = = 3 = 7.75 × 104 s = 21.5 h
k r [ OH] −11 cm 6 molec.
1.29 × 10 × 10
molec. s cm3
OH + O3 --> HO2 + O2 1.90 x 10 -12 e-1000/T
Lifetime
1 1
τO3 = = = 1.7 × 10 7 s = 196 d
kr [OH ] cm 3 molec.
5.9 ×10 −14 × 10 6
molec. s cm 3
SO2 + OH -[M]-> HSO3 4.00 x 10 -31 (300/T)3.3

2.00 x 10 -12
(P) Fc = 0.45

molec.
[M] = Nd = 2.54 ×10 19
cm 3

cm 6 molec. cm 3
k 0,T [M] = 4.58 × 10-31 2 × 2.54 × 1019 3 = 1.16 × 10-11
molec. s cm molec. s

cm 3
k ∞,T = 2.0 ×10 -12
molec. s

  2  −1
  k0,T [M]  
1+  log10 
k∞,T k 0,T [M]   k ∞,T   cm 3 cm 3

kr = F = 1.706 × 10-12 × 0.45 0.632 = 1.03× 10-12
Lifetime
1 1
τ SO 2 = = 3 = 9.7 ×10 5 s = 11.2 d
kr [OH ] −12 cm 6 molec.
1.03 × 10 × 10
molec. s cm 3
HNO 3 + OH --> NO3 + H2 O 7.20 x 10 -15 e785/T

4.10 x 10 -16 e1440/T
1.90 x 10 -33 e725/T

molec.
[M] = Nd = 2.54 ×10 19
cm 3
51
Rate coefficient
k 3 [M]
k r = k1 +
1+ k3 [M ] k2
cm6 molec.
2.35 × 10−32 2 × 2.54 × 1019
cm 3 molec. s cm 3 cm 3
= 1.099 × 10−13 + 6 = 1.65 × 10−13
molec. s cm molec. molec. s
2.35× 10 −32 × 2.54 × 1019
molec.2 s cm3
1+
cm 3
6.08 ×10 −14
molec. s
Lifetime
1 1
τ HNO 3 = = = 6.06 × 106 s = 70.1 d
kr [OH ] cm3 molec.
1.65 ×10 −13 × 106
molec. s cm3
ISOP + OH -O2 -> ISOH 2.55 x 10 -11 e410/T
Lifetime
1 1
τ ISOP = = = 9.4 × 103 s = 2.6 h
kr [OH ] cm 3 molec.
1.06 × 10−10 × 106
molec. s cm 3
OH + HO 2 --> H 2 O + O2 4.80 x 10 -11 e250/T
Lifetime
1 1
τ HO 2 = = 3 = 8.7 ×10 3 s = 2.4 h
k r [ OH] cm molec.
1.14 ×10 −10 × 106
molec. s cm3
Ordered lifetimes, longest to shortest
τ O 3 = 196 d
τ HNO 3 = 70.1 d
τ CO = 53.2 d
τ SO 2 = 11.2 d
τ NO = 21.5 h
τ ISOP = 2.6 h
τ HO 2 = 2.4 h
If only reaction with OH is considered, ozone has the longest lifetime and would most likely mix to
the stratosphere. Other reactions and processes must also be considered. For instance, the chemical
lifetime of ozone due to photolysis loss is much shorter than that due to hydroxyl radical loss.
10.4. Write rate expressions for the reactions
52
Cl + O3 ClO + O 2 and ClO + O Cl + O2
Write the time derivative of each species in the reactions, assuming the reactions are solved
together. What is the expression for the steady-state concentration of ClO?
Rate expressions
Rate1 = k1[Cl ][O3 ] Rate2 = k 2 [ClO ][ O]
Time derivatives of reactants and products

d[ Cl] d[ ClO]
= −k1[Cl ][ O3 ] + k 2 [ClO ][O] = −k2 [ ClO ][O ] + k1 [Cl ][ O3 ]
dt dt
d[ O3 ] d[ O]
= −k1[ Cl][O 3 ] = −k 2 [ ClO][O]
dt dt
d[ O2 ]
= k1 [Cl ][ O3 ] + k2 [ClO ][ O]
dt
Steady state
d[ ClO]
= −k2 [ ClO ][O ] + k1 [Cl ][ O3 ] = 0
dt
k1 [Cl ][ O3 ]
[ClO] =
k 2 [O ]
10.5. Given the following observed rate coefficients as a function of temperature, find the activation
energy and collisional prefactor of the associated bimolecular reaction. Show your work. In the
table, 1.303 (-14) means 1.303 × 10-14.
T (K) 278 288 298 308 318
kr ( cm3 molecule-1 s-1) 1.303 (-14) 1.547 (-14) 1.814 (-14) 2.106 (-14) 2.422 (-14)
Collisional prefactor. Extrapolate lnk r vs. 1 T to T → ∞ on a lnk r vs. 1 T diagram.
→ Ar = 1.799 × 10 −12
lnAr = −27.044 
Activation energy from slope of the line

Er J J
* = −1369.7 K  → Er = −1369.7 K × 8.3145
mol K
= 11, 388.4
mol
R

10.6. Write a computer script to calculate the first-order rate coefficient for
53
M
N2 O5 NO2 + NO 3
as a function of temperature and pressure. Draw graphs of the rate coefficient versus
temperature when p d = 1013 hPa and pd = 800 hPa, respectively, and versus pressure when T
= 298 K and T = 275 K, respectively. Discuss the results.
N2 O5 rate coefficient (a) versus temperature at two pressures; (b) versus pressure at two
temperatures.
100 10-2
N2O5 rate coefficient (s )
-1
N2O5 rate coefficient (s )

-1
10-2
298 K
-4 1013 mb
10
800 mb
10-6
275 K
10-8
10-10 10-3
200 250 300 500 600 700 800 9001000
Temperature (K) Pressure (mb)
(a) (b)
10.7. Write a computer script to read in reactions and rate-coefficient data from a computer file. Use
the script to calculate the rate coefficients for the first 15 reactions in Table B.4 of Appendix B
when T = 288 K and pd = 980 hPa. Calculate reaction rates when [O 3 ] = 2.45 × 1012 ,
[O ] = 1.0 × 10 3 , O( 1 D) = 1.0 × 10 −3 , [H ] = 1.0 ×10 0 , [OH] = 1.0 × 106 , [H 2 ] = 1.5 × 1013 ,
[ ]
[HO2 ] = 1.0 ×10 8 , [N 2 O ] = 7.6 × 1012 , and [H 2 O ] = 2.0 × 1017 molec. cm-3.
Reaction Rate coefficient Rate coef.ficient at Rate
expression 288 K, 980 mb (molec. cm-3 s-1)
1 O + O2 + M --> O3 + M 6.00 x 10-34 (300/T)2.3 6.59 × 10-34 8.39 × 107
2 O + O3 --> 2 O 2 8.00 x 10-12 e -2060/T 6.26 × 10-15 15.3
3 O(1 D) + O 3 --> 2O 2 1.20 × 10-10 1.20 × 10-10 0.294
4 O(1 D) + O 3 --> O 2 + 2O 1.20 × 10-10 1.20 × 10-10 0.294
5 O(1 D) + O 2 --> O + O2 3.20 x 10-11 e 67/T 4.04 × 10-11 2.08 × 105
6 O(1 D) + N 2 --> O + N2 1.80 x 10-11 e 107/T 2.61 × 10-11 5.02 × 105
7 O(1 D) + N 2 + M → N2 O + M 3.50 × 10-37 (300/T)0.6 3.59 × 10-37 0.169
8 O(1 D) + N 2 O --> N2 + O2 4.40 × 10-11 4.40 × 10-11 0.336
9 O(1 D) + N 2 O --> NO + NO 7.20 × 10-11 7.20 × 10-11 0.550
10 O(1 D) + H 2 --> OH + H 1.10 x 10-10 1.10 × 10-10 1.65
11 O(1 D) + H 2 O --> OH + OH 2.20 x 10-10 2.20 × 10-10 4.40 × 104
12 H + O2 -[M]-> HO2 (P) F c = 0.55 5.40 x 10-32 (300/T)1.6 1.21 × 10-12 6.17 × 106
7.50 x 10-11
13 H + O3 --> O 2 + OH 1.40 x 10-10 e -470/T 2.74 × 10-11 67.1
14 H + HO2 --> H 2 + O2 5.60 x 10-12 5.60 × 10-12 5.60 × 10-4
15 H + HO2 --> OH + OH 7.20 x 10-11 7.20 × 10-11 7.20 × 10-3
54

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