THE THERMAL BEHAVIOR OF MATTER

17
EXERCISES
Section 17.1 Gases
17. INTERPRET This problem involves the ideal-gas law, which we can use to find the volume of 1 mol of Martian
atmosphere given its temperature and pressure.
DEVELOP Apply Equation 17.2 PV = nRT with P = 0.01PE, T = 215 K, n = 1.0 mol, and R = 8.314 J/K.
EVALUATE Solving the ideal-gas law for the volume and inserting the given quantities gives
nRT (1.0 mol )( 8.314 J/K )( 215 K )
V= = = 1.8 m3
P (
( 0.01) 1.01× 105 Pa )
ASSESS The dimensions of this expression are
mol ( J K ) K mol ( N ⋅ m )
2
= = mol⋅ m3
N/m N/m 2

but a mole is a dimensionless number, so the final dimensions are m3, as expected for a volume.
18. INTERPRET We are dealing with an ideal gas. Given the pressure, temperature, and volume we are to find the
number of gas molecules.
DEVELOP We shall use the ideal-gas law, pV = NkT (Equation 17.1), to find the number of molecules N.
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities gives

N=
PV
=
( )(
1.8 × 105 Pa 8.5 × 10−3 m3
= 3.2 × 1023
)
kT (
1.38 × 10−23 J/K ( 350 K ) )
ASSESS One mole has N A = 6.02 × 1023 molecules. Thus, we have about 0.5 mole of molecules in the system.
19. INTERPRET This problem involves an ideal gas, so we can apply the ideal-gas law to find the pressure of the gas
at the given temperature and volume.
DEVELOP In terms of moles, the ideal-gas law is given by Equation 17.2, PV = nRT. The volume is V = 2.0 L =
2.0 × 10 m3, and T = −150°C = 123 K.
−3

EVALUATE Solving for the pressure and inserting the given quantities gives
nRT ( 3.5 mol )( 8.314 J/K )(123 K )
P= = = 1.8 × 106 Pa
V 2.0 × 10−3 m3

ASSESS This is about 20 times standard atmospheric pressure.

20. INTERPRET You want to verify that the tank you purchased contains the amount of argon that it is supposed to. You
can treat it as an ideal gas.
DEVELOP You know the volume, the temperature and the pressure of the gas. Using the ideal-gas law (Equation
17.2), you can find the number of moles in the tank: n = pV / RT , where R = 8.314 J/K ⋅ mol is the universal gas
constant.

17-1
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17-2 Chapter 17

EVALUATE Remembering that the temperature needs to be in Kelvin and the volume needs to be in m3 ,
the number of moles is:

n=
pV
=
(14 MPa )( 6.88 L ) ⎛ 1 m3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 40 mol
(
RT ( 8.314 J/K ⋅ mol ) 20o C+273 ⎝ 103 L ⎠ )
This is 5 mol less than the vendor claimed, so you did not get your money’s worth.
ASSESS If the right amount of gas were in the tank, then you would have measured a pressure of nearly 16 MPa.
Notice that at no point did we have to consider the specific properties of argon. The ideal-gas law applies to any
gas. The units work out since 1 Pa ⋅ m3 = 1 N ⋅ m = 1 J.

21. INTERPRET This problem involves an ideal gas, so we can apply the ideal-gas law. We are to find the volume of
an ideal gas given its temperature and pressure, then find its new temperature if the pressure is increased and the
volume is cut in half.
DEVELOP In terms of moles, the ideal-gas law takes the form of Equation 17.2, pV = nRT. For part (a), p =
1.5 atm = 1.5 × 1.01 × 105 Pa = 1.515 × 105 Pa, T = 250 K, and n = 2.0. For part (b), we can take the ratio of the
ideal-gas law applied to part (a) an that applied to part (b) to get
paVa nRTa Ta
= =
pbVb nRTb Tb

which we can solve for Tb given that Vb = Va/2 and Pb = 4.0 atm. Note that we have used the fact that the number of
moles does not change.
EVALUATE (a) The volume Va of the gas is
nRT ( 2.0 mol ) ⎡⎣8.314 J/ ( mol ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ ( 250 K )
V= =
P 1.515 × 105 Pa
−2
= 2.7 × 10 m3 = 27 L
(b) Upon compressing the gas and increasing its pressure, the new temperature is
⎛ 4.0 atm ⎞⎛ 0.5V1 ⎞
Tb = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ( 250 K ) = 330 K
⎝ 1.5 atm ⎠⎝ V1 ⎠
to two significant figures.
ASSESS As expected, the temperature increases if we compress the gas.
22. INTERPRET We treat air molecules as ideal gas. Given the pressure, temperature, and volume, we want to find
the number of air molecules.
DEVELOP We shall use the ideal-gas law, pV = NkT , given in Equation 17.1, to find the number of molecules.
EVALUATE The number of air molecules is
PV (10−10 Pa)(10−3 m3 )
N= = = 3 × 107
kT (1.38 × 10−23 J/K)(273 K)
ASSESS One mole has N A = 6.02 × 1023 molecules. Thus, we have about 4.4 × 10−17 mole of molecules in the
system.
23. INTERPRET This problem in an exercise in calculating the thermal speed of ideal-gas molecules at a given
temperature.
DEVELOP The thermal speed (also called the rms, or root-mean-square speed) is, from Equation 17.4,
vth = 3kT m , where m is the mass of a molecule. From Appendix C we estimate the mass of a H2 molecule to be
2 × 1.66 × 10−27 kg.

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-3

EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities into Equation 17.4 gives

vth =
( )
3 1.38 × 10−23 J/K (800 K )
= 3.16 km/s
(
2 1.66 × 10 −27
kg )
ASSESS This is about 100 times faster than the standard speed of sound (343 m/s).
24. INTERPRET In this problem we want to compare the thermal speeds of two different molecules that are at
different temperatures.
DEVELOP The thermal speed of a molecule is given by Equation 17.4:

3kT
vth =
m
where T is the temperature and m is the mass of the gas molecule. We can use this to compare the thermal speeds
of the two molecules in question.
EVALUATE Comparing the thermal speeds for H2 (mH2 = 2u ) and SO2 (mSO2 = 64u ) at the given temperatures,
we find
vth (H 2 ) TH2 mSO2 75 K 64u
= = = 2.62
vth (SO 2 ) TSO2 mH2 350 K 2u

So hydrogen is faster.
ASSESS The thermal speed of a gas molecule is proportional to T and inversely proportional to m.
Section 17.2 Phase Changes
25. INTERPRET This problem involves the latent heat of fusion, which is the energy it takes to liberate the molecules
that compose the ice to form water. We are asked to find the energy required to melt a 65-g ice cube.
DEVELOP The energy required for a solid-liquid phase transition at the normal melting point of water (0°C) is
(Equation 17.5) Q = mLf, where m = 0.065 kg and Lf = 334 kJ/kg (from Table 17.1).
EVALUATE The heat required to melt the ice cube is
Q = mLf = ( 0.065 kg )( 334 kJ/kg ) = 22 kJ

ASSESS This is equivalent to 5.2 kcal.

(See Table 17.1 for the heats of transformation.)
26. INTERPRET This problem is about melting, and it involves the heat of fusion. We want to identify the substance
in question given its mass and the energy required to melt it.
DEVELOP Using Equation 17.5, we find the heat of transformation from solid to liquid to be
Q 200 J
Lf = = = 25 kJ/kg
m 0.008 kg
Compare this result with the data given in Table 17.1 to determine the substance.
EVALUATE The closest figure in Table 17.1 is the heat of fusion for lead Lf = 25 kJ/kg, so the substance is lead.
ASSESS The heat of fusion Lf is a chemical property of a material. Thus, knowing Lf allows us to identify the
material.
27. INTERPRET This problem involves the latent heat of vaporization, which is the energy required to pass from the
liquid to the gas phase. Given the latent heat of vaporization (Table 17.1) and the energy required to vaporize the
substance, we are to calculate the mass of the substance.
DEVELOP Assuming the vaporization takes place at the normal boiling point for oxygen at atmospheric pressure,
we may use Equation 17.5, Q = Lvm, where Lv = 213 kJ/kg (from Table 17.1) and Q = 840 kJ.

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17-4 Chapter 17

EVALUATE The mass of oxygen in the sample is

Q 840 kJ
m= = =3.9 kg
Lv 213 kJ/kg

ASSESS Given that O2 is approximately 32 g/mol, this corresponds (at standard temperature and pressure) to a
volume of
nRT ( 3900 g )( 8.134 J/K )( 273 K )
V= = = 2.7 m3
p ( 32 g/mol ) 10 5
Pa ( )
28. INTERPRET This problem is about phase change of CO2 from gas to solid. We are asked to find the heat
(i.e., thermal energy) that must be extracted from the given amount of CO2 to solidify it, which is the same as
the heat required to sublime it (turn it from solid into gas).
DEVELOP The relevant latent heat of transformation in this process is the latent heat of sublimation, which is
Ls = 573 kJ/kg. Use this in Equation 17.5 to find the heat needed to solidify CO2.
EVALUATE Equation 17.5 gives Q = mLs = ( 0.25 kg )( 573 kJ/kg ) = 140 kJ to two significant figures.
ASSESS This is the heat that must be extracted to turn CO2 gas into frozen CO2, or dry ice. To revert to the
gaseous state, the same amount of heat must be absorbed.
29. INTERPRET This problems involves the phase transformation of a liquid to a gas, so the latent heat of
vaporization comes into play. Because the liquid is at its boiling point, any heat added to the liquid will cause
vaporization instead of a temperature rise.
DEVELOP From Table 17.1, the latent heat of vaporization for O2 is 213 kJ/kg. Use this in Equation 17.5,
Q = Lvm, to find the heat needed to vaporize 28 kg of O2.
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities into Equation 17.5 gives Q = mLv = ( 28 kg )( 213 kJ/kg ) = 6.0 MJ to
two significant figures.
ASSESS At standard temperature and pressure (STP, T = 273.15 K, p = 105 Pa), 28 kg of O2 would occupy a
volume of

V=
nRT
=
( )
28 × 103 g (8.134 J/K )( 273 K )
= 19 m3
p ( 32 g/mol ) 105 Pa ( )
Section 17.3 Thermal Expansion
30. INTERPRET This is a thermal expansion problem: we are given the length of a wire and the temperature, and we
wish to know the change in length at a higher temperature.
DEVELOP Thermal expansion is given by Equation 17.7,
∆L
α=
L∆ T
The wire is made of copper, and α = 17 × 10−6 K −1 for copper (see Table 17.2). The temperature change is ∆T = 38 K
and the initial length is L = 20 cm.
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities gives
( )
∆ L = α L∆ T = 17 × 10−6 K −1 ( 20 cm )( 38 K ) = 1.3 cm

ASSESS A small change, but enough that power and phone lines sag noticeably on hot days.
31. INTERPRET This is a problem in thermal expansion. We know the initial volume, the material, and the change in
temperature, and we need to find the new volume.
DEVELOP The change in volume is given by Equation 17.6,
∆V
β=
V ∆T

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-5

The initial volume is V = 1.00 L. The material is ethyl alcohol, which has a volume coefficient of expansion of
β = 75 × 10−5 K −1, and the change in temperature is ∆T = −18 K. The new volume V ′ of the liquid is
V ′ = V + ∆ V = V (1 + β ∆ T )

EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities gives

( )
V ′ = V (1 + β ∆ T ) = (1.00 L ) ⎡1 + 75 × 10−5 ( −18 K ) ⎤ = 0.987 L
⎣ ⎦
ASSESS This is enough to observe in your own refrigerator: Seal a volume of liquid at room temperature, put it in
the refrigerator, and observe the deformation of the container when it cools.
32. INTERPRET This problem involves thermal expansion (volume expansion in this case). We are given the
diameter of a Pyrex sphere and are to find its new diameter due to a given temperature change.
DEVELOP The volume V of the marble is related to its radius r by V = 4πr3/3. The change in volume is given by
Equation 17.6,
∆V
β=
V ∆T
where β = 3α = 3(3.2 × 10−6 K−1 ) = 9.6 × 10−6 K−1 (see Table 17.2 and Problem 71) and ∆T = 65 C° = 65 K. The
new volume is
V ′ = V + ∆ V = V (1 + β ∆ T )

so the new diameter will be

4 4
V ′ = π r ′3 = π r 3 (1 + β ∆ T )
3 3
d ′ = d 1 + β ∆T
3

where we have used d = 2r.

EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities into the expression above gives

( )
d ′ = d 3 1 + β ∆T = (1.00000 cm ) 3 1 + 9.6 × 10−6 K −1 ( 65 K ) = 1.00021 cm

ASSESS Because we are dealing with a sphere, we can also consider the linear expansion of the diameter using α.
33. INTERPRET This problem deals with thermal expansion of a steel washer. The quantity of interest is the diameter
of the washer, so the relevant quantity is the coefficient of linear expansion, α.
DEVELOP The coefficient of linear expansion is defined as (see Equation 17.7):
∆ L /L
α=
∆T
For steel, its value is (see Table 17.2) α = 12 × 10−6 K −1. Solve this equation for ∆T.
EVALUATE From the equation above, we get
∆L 9.55 mm − 9.52 mm
∆T = = = 263 K
( )
α L 12 × 10−6 K −1 ( 9.52 mm )

Since the initial temperature is 0°C we must heat the washer to 263°C.
ASSESS Since α is very small, a large increase in temperature results in a small increase in the washer’s diameter.
34. INTERPRET This problem involves the thermal expansion of a one-dimensional object, so we can use the linear
expansion formula to find the total distance a 5000-km rail would expand for a 60°C temperature change.
DEVELOP Equation 17.7,
∆ L /L
α=
∆T
gives the relationship between temperature change and linear expansion. For steel, α = 12 × 10−6 K−1 and the
temperature change is ∆T = 40°C − (−25°C) = 65°C = 65 K.

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17-6 Chapter 17

EVALUATE Solving the expression for ∆L and inserting the given quantities gives
( )
∆L = α L∆T = 12 × 10−6 K −1 ( 5000 km )( 65 K ) = 3.9 km

ASSESS This is a significant expansion, but it is spread over the 5000-km distance.
PROBLEMS
35. INTERPRET The system of interest is the solar corona, which we treat as an ideal gas. The quantity of interest is
the number density of air molecules.
DEVELOP The number density implied by the ideal-gas law (Equation 17.1) is
N p
pV = NkT → =
V kT

EVALUATE Applying the above equation to the solar corona, we obtain

⎛N⎞ p 3 × 10−2 Pa
⎜V ⎟ = = −23
= 1 × 1015 m −3
⎝ ⎠corona kT (1.38 × 10 J/K)(2 × 10 6
K)

If we assume the Earth’s atmosphere has standard temperature and pressure, the particle density is
⎛N⎞ p 1.013 × 105 Pa
⎜V ⎟ = = −23
= 2.7 × 1025 m −3
⎝ ⎠STP kT (1.38 × 10 J/K)(273 K)

So the corona is over 10 billion times less dense than on Earth.

ASSESS Scientists are still not entirely certain how the corona ends up being so hot.
36. INTERPRET We’re asked to figure out how much a balloon expands as it rises to an altitude of lower pressure and
temperature.
DEVELOP We’ll neglect the tension in the balloon material, so the helium gas will expand until its outward
pressure on the balloon matches the inward pressure from the surrounding air. The balloon’s temperature will also
come into equilibrium with its surroundings. The helium obeys the ideal-gas law at both the initial and final
altitudes, and since the number of molecules is constant, we have:
piVi pf Vf
=
Ti Tf

EVALUATE Solving for the final volume,

p T (1.0 atm ) ( 263 K ) 8.0 L = 11 L
Vf = i f Vi = ( )
pf Ti ( 0.65 atm ) ( 293 K )
ASSESS If the balloon’s pressure and temperature are in equilibrium with its surroundings, you might wonder
why it rises. By Archimedes’s principle from Chapter 15, the balloon will rise until its weight is equal to the
weight of air it displaces. If we neglect the contribution from the balloon material, the final volume will be
Vf = mHe N / ρair , where mHe is the mass of a single helium atom, N is the total number of helium atoms and ρ air is
the air density, which depends on altitude.

37. INTERPRET The object of interest is the cylinder compressed with air. We are given the pressure, temperature,
and volume, and want to find the number of moles (i.e., the number of air molecules) in the cylinder.
DEVELOP We shall treat the air as an ideal gas (although this is somewhat risky at 180 atm) and use the ideal-gas
law PV = nRT given in Equation 17.2, to find the number n of moles. The volume of the cylinder is
⎛ d2 ⎞
V = π ⎜ ⎟ h = π ( 0.10 m ) (1.0 m ) = 0.01 π m3
2

4
⎝ ⎠

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-7

EVALUATE (a) Applying the ideal-gas law gives

n= =
(
pV (180 atm ) 1.013 × 10 Pa/atm 0.01π m
5 3

= 235 mol
)( )
RT (8.314 J/K ⋅ mol )( 293 K )
where we have used T = 20°C = 293 K as the room temperature.
(b) If the pressure is p′ = 1 atm, then the volume would be
nRT ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ 180 atm ⎞
V′ =
p′
= ⎜ ⎟V = ⎜
′
3
(
⎟ 0.01π m = 5.65 m
3
)
⎝p ⎠ ⎝ 1 atm ⎠
ASSESS When temperature is held constant, PV = constant for an ideal gas. Therefore, decreasing the pressure
increases the volume in a proportional amount.
38. INTERPRET You’re arguing that a whipped cream can exploded because of an error on the part of the
manufacturer.
DEVELOP It’s true that the pressure is the relevant parameter, not the temperature. You can assume that the can is
in danger of exploding when the pressure is above the value pmax . You can estimate this value from the
manufacturer’s claim that a full can should not exceed a temperature of Tmax = 50 °C. By the ideal-gas law, the
maximum pressure is related to this temperature, as well as the initial volume and initial number of moles of the
propellant:
ni RTmax
pmax =
Vi

You can’t calculate the maximum pressure, but you can compare it to pressure, p, of the can that exploded, which
had T = 60°C, V > 2Vi and n < ni .
EVALUATE The ratio of the pressure to the maximum pressure is
p n Vi T ⎛ 1 ⎞ ( 333 K )
= < (1) ⎜ ⎟ = 0.52
pmax ni V Tmax ⎝ 2 ⎠ ( 323 K )

The can exploded when its pressure was about half the maximum pressure, so the manufacturer appears to be at
fault.
ASSESS By the above reasoning, a half-full can could supposedly withstand temperatures as high as about 370°C.
However, at such a high temperature the whipped cream will vaporize, thus adding its pressure to that of the
propellant.

39. INTERPRET The object of interest is the flask filled with air, which we treat as an ideal gas. We explore the effect
of changing temperature and pressure. The maximum pressure in the flask will occur when the gas inside the flask,
which is initially at STP, is heated to the boiling point of water (100°C). To find the number of moles that escape
when the flask is opened, we consider that the gas escapes so fast that the temperature of the gas can be considered
to be constant on this timescale.
DEVELOP When the flask is immersed in boiling water, its volume remains fixed. Therefore, the ideal-gas law
pV = nRT (Equation 17.2) applied at each temperature gives
p1V = nRT1 ⎫ p2 T2
⎬ =
p2V = nRT2 ⎭ p1 T1
The initial conditions of the gas are p1 = 1 atm, V = 3.00 L = 3.00 × 10−3 m3, and T1 = 293 K. The maximum
pressure in the flask occurs when T2 = 100°C = 373 K. For part (b), we first calculate the number of moles of gas
initially in the flask. Again applying the ideal-gas law, we find the number of molecules to be

n1 = =
(
p1V (1 atm ) 1.013 × 10 Pa/atm 3 × 10 m
5
)(
−3 3

= 0.125 mol
)
RT1 ⎡⎣8.314 J/ ( K ⋅ mol ) ⎤⎦ ( 293 K )

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17-8 Chapter 17

When the flask is opened at T2 = 373 K the pressure rapidly decreases to p2 = 1 atm, so the quantity of gas
remaining in the flask is

p1V1 ⎛ T1 ⎞
n2 = = ⎜ ⎟ n1
RT2 ⎝ T2 ⎠
so the number of moles that escaped from the flask is ∆n = n1 − n2. After the flask is closed and cooled back down
to T3 = 20°C = 293 K, we again apply the ideal-gas law using n2 to find the new pressure. This gives
n2 RT1 ⎛ n2 ⎞
p3 = = ⎜ ⎟ p1
V ⎝ n1 ⎠
EVALUATE (a) From the equation above, we find the maximum pressure reached in the flask to be
⎛T ⎞ ⎛ 373 K ⎞
p2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ p1 = ⎜ ⎟ (1 atm ) = 1.27 atm
T
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 293 K ⎠
(b) After opening the flask the quantity of gas left in the flask is
⎛T ⎞ ⎛ 293 K ⎞
n2 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ n1 = ⎜ ⎟ ( 0.125 mol ) = 0.0980 mol
⎝ T2 ⎠ ⎝ 373 K ⎠
Therefore, the amount that escaped is ∆ n = n1 − n2 = 0.0268 mol.
(c) After sealing the flask and cooling it to 293 K, the pressure of the gas in the flask is
n2 RT1 ⎛ n2 ⎞ ⎛ 0.098 mol ⎞
p3 =
V
= ⎜ ⎟ p1 = ⎜
n ⎟ (1 atm ) = 0.786 atm
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 0.125 mol ⎠
ASSESS As expected, the pressure in the flask is greatest for part (a), when the temperature is highest and there
are the most moles of gas in the flask, and the pressure is the lowest for part (c), when the reverse is true. Pressure
is proportional to the number of molecules in the volume, so after some gas molecules escape from the flask, the
pressure decreases.
40. INTERPRET We want to know how long it will take to warm up a frostbitten hand. We can calculate the total
energy needed and divide by the rate that energy is absorbed from the water bath.
DEVELOP We model the frostbitten hand as pure ice with mass m. A certain amount of heat will be needed to
first melt the ice: Q1 = Lf m, which is Equation 17.5 with Lf = 334 kJ/kg for water. Afterward, the water will have
to be warmed from the freezing temperature (T = 0 °C ) to the normal body temperature (T = 37 °C ) . This will
require Q2 = mc∆ T , where c = 4.184 kJ/kg ⋅ K from Table 16.1. The time to supply the full heat will be:
t = ( Q1 + Q2 ) / P.
EVALUATE The melting and warming steps will require energies of:
Q1 = Lf m = ( 334 kJ/kg )( 0.12 kg ) = 40.1 kJ
Q2 = mc∆T = ( 0.12 kg )( 4.184 kJ/kg ⋅ K )( 37 K ) = 18.6 kJ

Using the rate that heat is conducted into the hand,

Q + Q2 40.1 kJ + 18.6 kJ
t= 1 = = 73 s
P 800 W

ASSESS This seems reasonable, assuming the bath supplies heat to the hand at a constant rate. In fact, the outside
of the hand will come into near temperature equilibrium with the surrounding water, thus slowing the rate of heat
flow to the inner part of the hand.

41. INTERPRET This problem involves finding the time required to transform the given amount of 100°C water to
gas with the given rate of heating.

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-9

DEVELOP From Equation 17.5, the energy absorbed during the vaporization of water at its boiling point is Q = Lvm.
If this energy is supplied at in a time t, then the power must be P = Q/t, so t = Q/P. Given that P = 1500 W, we can
solve for the time t.
EVALUATE The time it takes to boil away the water is
Q Lv m ( 2257 kJ/kg )(1.1 kg )
t= = = = 1.66 × 103 s = 27.6 min
P P 1.5 kW

ASSESS This seems like a reasonable time, and it explains why it is a good idea to add water occasionally to
steamers when cooking with steam.
42. INTERPRET This problem is about melting, and it involves heat of fusion. We want to know how much ice would
melt by exploding a 1-megaton nuclear bomb in the Greenland ice cap.
DEVELOP A 1-megaton nuclear device releases about Q = 4.184 × 1015 J of energy. The heat of fusion for water
is Lf = 334 kJ/kg , so we can use Equation 17.5 Q = Lfm to find the mass m of ice that is melted.
EVALUATE The amount of ice at the normal melting point of 0°C that melts is
Q 4.184 × 1015 J
m= = = 1.25 × 1010 kg
Lf 334 kJ/kg
ASSESS The amount of ice melted by this explosion corresponds to a lake approximately 100-m deep, 1-km long,
and 100-m wide.
43. INTERPRET You want to know how long it will take your camping stove to melt snow. Note that the stove here is
the same as the one in Problem 16.56 that was used to boil water.
DEVELOP You can integrate the given power, P, to find the total heat that the snow has absorbed. You can then
equate that to the amount of energy needed to melt the snow. Since the snow starts off around 0°C, it doesn’t need
to be warmed up to the freezing point. From Equation 17.5: Q = Lf m, where Lf = 334 kJ/kg from Table 17.1.
EVALUATE The heat absorbed by the snow over a given time is:
Q = ∫ P ( t ′ ) dt ′ = at + 12 bt 2 = (1.1kW ) t + (1.15W/s ) t 2
t

You want to know how long until this absorbed heat melts the snow
Q = Lf m = ( 334 kJ/kg )( 5.0 kg ) = 1670 kJ

This requires solving a quadratic equation with the quadratic formula from Appendix A:
− (1100 W ) + (1100 W ) + 4 (1.15W/s )(1670 kJ )
2

t= = 818 s ≈ 14 min
2 (1.15W/s )

ASSESS In Problem 16.56, it took the same stove 9 minutes to boil water 2.5 kg of water. If we double this result,
we see that it takes about 20% less time to melt snow than to boil the same amount of water.

44. INTERPRET This problem is about melting, so heat of fusion is involved. We want to know how much energy is
needed to melt a given quantity of ice.
DEVELOP We can look up the surface area of Lake Superior: A = 82,000 km 2 . The total mass of ice is then
m = ρV = ρ Ah = (917 kg/m3 )(8.2 × 1010 m 2 )(1.3 m) = 9.78 × 1013 kg

If we can assume the ice is initially at 0°C, the energy needed to melt it will be Q = Lf m,
where Lf = 334 kJ/kg from Table 17.1.

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17-10 Chapter 17

EVALUATE (a) Substituting the values, the heat required to thaw Lake Superior is:
( )
Q = Lf m = ( 334 kJ/kg ) 9.78 × 1013 kg = 3.27 × 1019 J 33 EJ

18
Where we have used the prefix exa (10 ).
(b) If the ice melts in three weeks, the average power must be
Q 3.27 × 1019 J
P= = = 1.8 × 1013 W = 18 TW
t 3 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 24 ⋅ 60 ⋅ 60 s

ASSESS The power per unit area (or intensity) in this case is 219 W/m 2 . In Chapter 16, we learned that the Earth
absorbs energy from the Sun at a rate of 960 W/m 2 averaged over its cross-sectional area. Considering that the
Sun is shining on Lake Superior only a fraction of the three-week period, the calculated power is reasonable.

45. INTERPRET This problem involves the latent heat of fusion, with which we can calculate the time it takes to
freeze water that is at 0°C if we remove energy a the rate given.
DEVELOP From Equation 17.5, the refrigerator must extract the energy Q = Lfm, where m = 0.75 kg and
Lf = 334 kJ/kg (from Table 17.1). At the rate P = Q/t, where P is the power applied by the refrigerator, it will take a
time t = Q/P to freeze the water.
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities into the expression above gives
Q Lf m ( 334 kJ/kg )( 0.75 kg )
t= = = = 2.64 × 103 s = 43.9 min
P P 0.095 kW

ASSESS This is a good figure to keep in mind if you need to make ice cubes for a party.
46. INTERPRET You’re asked to determine if a highly absorbing black carbon can cause a layer of Arctic ice to
completely melt.
DEVELOP The ice has a thickness of d = 2.5 m. You assume that the only energy input is from absorbed
sunlight:
E = (1 − a ) SAt

where a is the fraction of light reflected away, S = 300 W/m 2 is the solar intensity, A is the exposed surface area of
ice, and t is the time, which we will assume is a quarter of a year for the summer season. The ice will melt if
E ≥ Q = Lf m, where Lf = 334 kJ/kg and m = ρ Ad .
EVALUATE Combining the above relations, the criteria for the ice to melt can be written as:

a ≤1−
Lf ρ d
=1−
(
( 334 kJ/kg ) 917 kg/m3 ( 2.5 m ) )
= 68%
St ( )(
300 W/m 2 14 365 × 86400 s )
So the ice shouldn’t melt completely under normal conditions when a = 90%, but the presence of black carbon
could cause complete melting, assuming a = 50% in this case.
ASSESS The parameter a is called the albedo. An object with zero albedo would absorb all incoming radiation,
like a perfect blackbody.

47. INTERPRET This problem involves a change in temperature and a phase change (solid to liquid). We will apply
the concepts of specific heat and heat of fusion to find temperature of the system in equilibrium.
DEVELOP From Example 17.4, we expect that the 50 g of ice at −10°C will completely melt in the 1.0 kg of
water at 15°C. To find the equilibrium temperature, consider that the water must first warm the ice from −10°C to
0°C, which will require an energy Q1 = micecice∆T, with ∆T = 10 K, mice= 0.050 kg, and cice= 2050 J/(kg·K) (see
Table 16.1). Next, the water will melt the ice, which costs an energy Q2 = Lfmice, with Lf = 334 kJ/kg
(see Table 17.1), and finally, the water will warm up the newly melted water from 0°C to the equilibrium

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-11

temperature T, which will cost an energy Q3 = micecwaterT. The sum of these energies must equate to the energy lost
by the water, or
mwater cwater (T0,water − T ) = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = mice ( cice ∆T + Lf + cwaterT )

where T0,water = 15°C and cwater = 4184 J/(kg·K) (see Table 16.1).
EVALUATE Solving the expression above for the equilibrium temperature T gives
mwater cwaterT0,water − mice ( cice ∆T + Lf )
T=
( mice + mwater ) cwater
(1.0 kg ) ⎡⎣ 4184 J/ ( kg ⋅ K )⎤⎦ (15°C ) − ( 0.050 kg ){⎡⎣ 2050 J/ ( kg ⋅ K )⎤⎦ (10°C ) + 334 kJ/kg}
=
( 0.050 kg + 1.0 kg ) ⎡⎣ 4184 J/ ( kg ⋅ K )⎤⎦
= 10 °C

ASSESS As expected, the water has not reached 0°C, so all the ice melts and our initial assumption is confirmed.
48. INTERPRET This problem involves raising the temperature of ice to the melting point and then changing the
phase, so both specific heat and heat of fusion are involved.
DEVELOP The energy needed to raise the temperature is given by Equation 16.3, Q1 = mcice ∆ T , with ∆T = Tfinal −
Tinitial = 0°C − (−10°C) = 10°C = 10 K. Equation 17.5, Q2 = Lf m, gives the heat of fusion required to change the
phase from solid to liquid. Use Table 16.1 to find the specific heat cice of ice and Table 17.1 to find the latent heat
of fusion Lf for water. The total energy required to go from ice at −10°C to water at 0°C is the sum of Q1 and Q2.
EVALUATE Adding up the two energies, we obtain
Qtot = Q1 + Q2 = mcice ∆T + mLf
warm water melt ice

{ }
= (10 kg ) ⎡⎣2.05 kJ/ (kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ (10 K )+ 334 kJ/kg = 0.205 MJ + 3.34 MJ = 3.545 MJ ≈ 3.5 MJ

ASSESS About 94% of the energy is actually used to melt the ice, only 6% for raising the temperature.
49. INTERPRET This problem involves raising the temperature of water, which involves the specific heat of water,
then changing its phase from liquid to gas, which involves the latent heat of vaporization. Using these two
concepts, we are to find the initial temperature of the water given that the 90% of the energy needed to boil the
water away is used to change the phase, with only 10% being used to raise its temperature.
DEVELOP Equation 16.3 Q1 = mc∆T gives the energy needed to raise the water’s temperature, where ∆T = 100°C − T
where T is the initial temperature of the water. The energy needed to boil the water (i.e., change it from the liquid
phase to the gas phase) is Q2 = mLv. The quantities Lv and c can be found in Tables 17.1 and 16.1, respectively. The
problem statement says that Q1 = Q2/10, so
mLv
mc∆T = mc (100 °C − T ) =
10
Lv
T = (100°C ) −
10c
we can solve for the initial water temperature T.
EVALUATE Inserting the specific heat and latent heat of vaporization into the expression above gives
2257 kJ/kg
T = (100°C ) − = 46.1 °C
10.0 ⎡⎣ 4.184 kJ/ ( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦

ASSESS Much more heat is required to boil the water away (i.e., change its phase from liquid to gas) than to raise
its temperature from 46°C to 100°C.
50. INTERPRET The problem deals with both raising the temperature of water and vaporizing it, so both the specific
heat and the latent heat of vaporization are involved.

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17-12 Chapter 17

DEVELOP The energy needed to raise the temperature of water is given by Equation 16.3, Q1 = mc∆T . Equation
17.5, Q2 = Lm, gives the energy for phase change. The total energy required is Qtot = Q1 + Q2. The mass of water
involved can be calculated from the density of water; m = ρV, with ρ = 1.00 × 103 kg/m3. Given that the reactor
provides energy at the rate P = 200 MW, the time t it takes to boil away the water is t = Q/P.
EVALUATE Thus, the amount of time t required is
Q m ( c∆T + Lv ) ρV ( c∆ T + Lv )
t= = =
P P P

=
(1.0 × 10 )( ){
kg/m3 420 m3 ⎡⎣ 4.184 kJ/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ (100°C − 20°C ) + 2257 kJ/kg
3

= 5.4 × 103 s
}
200 MW
= 91 min = 1.5 h
ASSESS Failsafe cooling systems are crucial for preventing nuclear meltdown.
51. INTERPRET This problem involves mixing ice with water and letting the mixture come to equilibrium. We are to
calculate the minimum amount of ice needed so that the final equilibrium mixture is at 0°C. This calculation will
involve the specific heat of water to calculate the energy required to raise the temperature of the ice to 0°C and the
latent heat of fusion to calculate the energy required to melt the ice.
DEVELOP For the final equilibrium temperature in Example 17.4 to be 0°C, the original 1.0 kg of water must lose
at least Q2′ = 62.8 kJ of heat energy (see Example 17.4). It could lose more energy, if some or all of it froze, but
this would clearly require a greater amount of ice. The amount of ice needed to absorb this thermal energy and just
melt, without exceeding 0°C, is given by summing the energy needed to raise its temperature to zero (Q1 = mc∆T,
where ∆T = 10°C) and the energy needed to melt the ice (Q2 = Lvm). Equating Q′2 with Q1 + Q2 gives
Q2′ = Q1 + Q2 = m ( c∆T + Lv )

which we can solve for m.

EVALUATE Solving for m gives

c∆T + Lv ⎡⎣ 2.050 kJ/ ( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ (10 °C ) + 2257 kJ/kg

m= = = 177 g
Q2′ 62.8 kJ

ASSESS The amount of original ice that could produce a final temperature of 0°C and freeze all the original water is

mice =
(
mw cw ∆ TW + Lf ) = (1.0 kg )( 62.8 + 334) kJ/kg = 19 kg
cice ∆ Tice 20.5 kJ/kg
The amount of ice that would produce a final temperature of 0°C with none of the ice melted and none of the water
frozen is
m W c W ∆ TW (1.0 kg ) ⎡⎣ 4.184 kJ/ ( kg ⋅ K )⎤⎦ (15°C )
mice = = = 3.1 kg
cice ∆Tice ⎡⎣ 2.050 kJ/ ( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ (10 °C )

For 177 g < mice < 3.1 kg, some of the original ice melts, and for 3.1 kg < mice < 19 kg, some of the original water
freezes.
52. INTERPRET Our system consists of both ice and warm water. We want to know how much ice at 0 °C is needed to
bring the water to 0°C. This process involves cooling the water (i.e., using the specific heat of water) and melting
the ice (i.e., using the latent heat of fusion of ice).
DEVELOP Assume that the only heat transfer is between the water and the ice. To cool the water to 0°C, the
amount of heat that must be extracted is (using Equation 16.3)

Q1 = mw cw ∆ T = (16 kg )( 4.184 kJ/kg ⋅ K )( 25 °C − 0 °C ) = 1.67 MJ

The amount of heat used to melt ice at 0°C is, from Equation 17.3, Q2 = Lf mice . For the ice to just melt and not
increase in temperature, we must have Q1 = Q2.

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-13

EVALUATE To bring the water temperature down to 0°C, the minimum mass of ice needed is thus
∆ Q 1.67 MJ
m= = = 5.0 kg
Lf 334 kJ/kg
ASSESS Note that the punch would be diluted with 5.0 kg of melt-water. To avoid this dilution, you could use less
ice at a temperature below 0°C.
53. INTERPRET This problem involves mixing an equal mass of ice and water and letting the mixture reach
equilibrium. We are to calculate at what temperature the water must be if the final mixture is to contain equal
amounts of ice and water.
DEVELOP Assume that all the heat gained by the ice was lost by the water, with no heat transfer to the container
or the surroundings. An equilibrium mixture of ice and water (at atmospheric pressure) must be at 0°C, and if the
masses of ice and water start out and remain equal, there is no net melting or freezing. Thus any energy spent
raising the temperature of the ice and melting it must be balanced by energy lost by the water as its temperature
lowers and it freezes. These energies are given by Equations 16.3 (for the temperature change), Q1 = mc and (for
the melting or freezing) Q2 = Lfm. We can therefore sum these energies for both ice and water and equate the
result, which gives
Q1ice Q2ice − Q1w − Q2w

Qice = micecice (0 °C − Tice ) + Lf mice = −Qw = mw cw (Tw − 0 °C) + Lf mw

where Tice = −10°C. Given that mice = mw, we can solve for the water temperature Tw.
EVALUATE Solving for TW and inserting the given quantities gives
cice ( −Tice ) 2.050 kJ/ ( kg ⋅ K )
Tw = = (10°C ) = 4.9°C
cw 4.184 kJ/ ( kg ⋅ K )

ASSESS Because any thermal energy spent melting the ice is balanced by freezing the water, only the specific
heats of water and ice come into play.
54. INTERPRET The evaporation of sweat removes heat from the body. We’re asked to find how much heat is
removed from a marathon runner during a race.
DEVELOP It takes 4.2 MJ to evaporate a kg of water, and we’re told that a marathoner typically sweats 3 L per
hour. We assume that all of this sweat is evaporated and that all of the needed heat comes from the marathoner’s
body.
EVALUATE During a 3-hour marathon, the amount of heat expelled due to sweating is:
⎛ 1 kg ⎞
Q = ( 2.4 MJ / kg ) ⎜ ⎟ ( 3 L/h )( 3 h ) = 22 MJ
⎝1L ⎠
ASSESS This is equivalent to 5300 kilocalories. However, running for 3 hours should only burn about 2500
kilocalories. That would mean the marathoner is losing more than twice the amount of energy he/she is consuming.
That wouldn’t make sense, so we might assume that some of the sweat falls off before evaporating.

55. INTERPRET This problem involves the latent heat of fusion of water, which is the energy required per unit mass
to change ice to water (or vice versa, but with the opposite sign). We can use this concept to find the energy
required to melt 20 kg of ice in 6 min, and from there find the power.
DEVELOP If the melting occurs at atmospheric pressure and if the ice is at 0°C, the energy required to melt the ice is
given by Equation 17.3, Q = Lfm, where Lf is the latent heat of fusion, which is given in Table 17.1. To melt the ice in
a time t = 6 min would require a power P = Q/t.

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17-14 Chapter 17

EVALUATE The power required is

Q Lf m ( 20 kg )( 334 kJ/kg )
P= = = = 19 kW.
t t 6 × 60 s
ASSESS This is equivalent to the power needed to light 190 100-W bulbs.

56. INTERPRET This problem involves both a temperature rise and a phase change, so both the specific heat and the
latent heat (of vaporization of water) will enter into the calculation. The object of interest is the water in the
microwave oven.
DEVELOP The energy needed to raise the temperature of the water is given by Equation 16.3, Q = mc∆T.
Equation 17.5, Q = Lvm, gives the heat needed to vaporize water. In 20 minutes, the total heat energy is transferred
to the water (if we ignore energy absorbed by a container or lost to the surroundings) is
Qtot = Pt = (0.5 kW)(20 × 60 s) = 600 kJ
Out of this total energy, the energy consumed in raising the water’s temperature to the normal boiling point is
Q1 = mc ∆T = ( 0.3 kg ) ⎡⎣ 4.184 kJ/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ (100°C − 20°C ) = 100 kJ

and the difference Q2 = Qtot − Q1 = 500 kJ is left to vaporize some of the water. The amount of water vaporized
can be found by using Equation 17.5, Q2 = Lvm, where Lv is the latent heat of vaporization from Table 17.1.
EVALUATE Using Equation 17.5, the mass mv of water vaporized is
Q2 500 kJ
mv = = = 221 g
Lv 2257 kJ/kg
Therefore, only ∆ m = m − mv = 300 g − 221 g = 79 g of boiling water (or less than 3 oz) is all that remains (to two
significant figures).
ASSESS The excess heat from the microwave oven vaporizes the water. This is precisely what causes your food to
dry out when you heat it in the microwave oven for too long.
57. INTERPRET This problem involves a change in temperature and phase (liquid to gas) for water, so both the
specific heat and the latent heat of vaporization come into play. We use these to calculate how long it takes, given
a constant input power of 200 MW, to boil away half of the water.
DEVELOP The reactor must first raise the temperature of the water to the boiling point, which requires an energy
Q1 = mc∆ T

(Equation 16.3), where ∆T = 100°C − 10°C = 90 K. Next, half the water must be boiled off, which requires an
energy
Lv m
Q2 =
2
(Equation 17.5), where Lv is the latent heat of vaporization (see Table 17.1). The total energy required is the sum of
these two, so at the given power P, it will take a time t = (Q1 + Q2)/P to boil off half the water.
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities, we find

t=
m ( c∆ T + Lv 2 )
=
( 4.5 ×10 5
){
kg ⎡⎣ 4.184 kJ/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ ( 90 K ) + 0.5⎣⎡2257 kJ/kg ⎦⎤ }
= 3.4 × 103 s = 56 min
P 20 × 104 kW

ASSESS For this solution, we have assumed that the water is heated uniformly, which may or may not be true
depending on the geometry of the situation. If the water does not circulate well, it is possible that half the water
boils off before the entire mass of water is heated to 100°C. In this case, the time would be less than we found
above, which is therefore the maximum time it can take for half the water to boil off.
58. INTERPRET This problem involves heat transfer between ice and water. Some of the ice may melt and some of
the water may freeze, which will involve the latent heat of fusion of water. In addition, the ice and the water will
change temperature, so the specific heats of ice and water are involved.

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-15

DEVELOP Assume that all the heat lost by the water is gained by the ice. The temperature of the water drops and
that of the ice rises. If either reaches 0°C, a change of phase occurs, freezing or melting, depending on which
reaches 0°C first. To cool to 0°C, the amount of heat the water would lose is
Qw,1 = mw cw ∆Tw = (1.0 kg ) ⎡⎣ 4.184 kJ/ ( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ ( 5.0 K ) =20.9 kJ

On the other hand, to warm the ice to 0°C, it would gain an energy
Qi = mi ci ∆Ti = (1.0 kg ) ⎡⎣ 2.050 kJ/ ( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ ( 40 K ) = 82.0 kJ

Evidently, the water reaches 0°C first, so we will assume it freezes and the ice simply warms up. Because all the
energy lost by the water in cooling and then changing phase to ice is assumed to be gained by the ice, we must
have Qi = Qw,1 + Qw,2, where Qw,2 = Lfm (Equation 17.3) is the energy is takes to freeze the water. We can therefore
solve for the mass m of water that is changed to ice.
EVALUATE Therefore, the mass of water m that freezes is
Qi − Qw,1 61.1 kJ
m= = = 0.18 kg
Lf 334 kJ/kg
The final mixture is thus at 0°C and contains 1.183 kg of ice and 1.0 kg − 0.18 kg = 0.82 kg of water.
ASSESS The equilibrium temperature in this case is 0°C where water and ice coexist.
59. INTERPRET This problem involves the linear thermal expansion of steel. We are to find the temperature at which
the hole in the steel plate will become large enough to allow the marble to pass through it.
DEVELOP The diameter of the hole expands with the coefficient of linear expansion of steel. Using Equation 17.7
∆L
α∆T =
L
with L = 1.000, L0 = 0.997, we can solve for ∆T.
EVALUATE Solving for T and inserting the given quantities gives
∆L 0.003 cm
∆T = = = 251 K
(
Lα ( 0.997 cm ) 12 × 10−6 K −1 )
so the plate must be heated to 251 K above room temperature.
ASSESS Note that we have treated the problem as if we were considering a steel disk of initial diameter 0.997 cm,
instead of a hole in a steel plate. The treatment is valid because such a hole must expand at the same rate as the
disk because if we put the disk in the hole, it must fit at all temperatures.

60. INTERPRET This problem is about thermal expansion. Since it involves volume, the relevant quantity is the
coefficient of volume expansion β , whose value can be used to identify the substance in question.
DEVELOP As in Example 17.5, we assume that the thermal expansion of the cylinder is negligible compared to
that of the liquid. Then the entire change in volume is due to the liquid. The amount of volume change can be
calculated from Equation 17.6,
∆V V
β=
∆T
EVALUATE Substituting the values given in the problem statement, we have
∆V V ( − 75 mL ) ( 2000 mL )
β= = = 75 × 10−5 K −1
∆T − 50 K
From Table 17.2, we see that this matches the coefficient for ethyl alcohol.
ASSESS The thermal expansion coefficient for ethyl alcohol is much greater than the material with which the
cylinder is made, so our assumption is justified.
61. INTERPRET This problem involves the linear expansion of Pyrex and steel. We are to find the temperature at
which the diameter of the Pyrex tube is 2 µm greater than the diameter of the steel ball.

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17-16 Chapter 17

DEVELOP Since the coefficient of linear expansion of steel is greater than that of Pyrex glass, the unit must be
cooled to provide clearance. The difference in the contraction of steel and Pyrex must be twice the given clearance
on one side, so

( )
| ∆ Lsteel| − | ∆ Lpyrex| = 2 µ m = α steel − α pyrex L |∆T |

which we can solve for ∆T (find the values for αsteel and αpyrex in Table 17.2).
EVALUATE Solving for ∆T and inserting the known quantities gives
2.0 × 10−4 cm 2.0 × 10−4 cm
∆T = = = 22.7 K
(α steel )
− α pyrex L ⎡⎣(12 − 3.2 ) × 10−6 K ⎤⎦ (1.0 cm )

Since we must cool the system by this amount, the final temperature of the system will be T = 330 K − 23 K =
307 K.
ASSESS Reversing this process is a good technique to create tightly fitted parts.
62. INTERPRET You’re in charge of specifying the size of an expansion tank for a car’s fuel system. This will
involve calculating the thermal expansion of gasoline.
DEVELOP The amount that a material expands due to an increase in temperature is given in Equation 17. 6:
∆V / V = β ∆T . For gasoline, the coefficient of volume expansion is β = 95 × 10−5 K −1 from Table 17.2.
EVALUATE The car you are working on has a gas tank with a volume of V = 75 L. You assume the tank is filled
initially with gasoline at 10°C. Once the gasoline comes into equilibrium with the outside temperature of 35°C, the
volume will have expanded by
( )
∆ V = V β ∆ T = ( 75 L ) 95 × 10−5 K −1 ( 25 K ) = 1.8 L

Your expansion tank needs to be at least this big.

ASSESS The expansion tank size is a little over 2% of the main tank’s size, which seems reasonable. Notice that
gasoline has the highest coefficient of volume expansion of all the liquids in Table 17.2.

63. INTERPRET This problem involves the linear expansion of a rod as it is heated, so the coefficient of linear
expansion will come into play. We are asked to calculate the height d of the apex of the triangle formed by the rod
that cracks upon expanding because it is fixed between two immovable walls.
DEVELOP If the two straight pieces in Fig. 17.11 are of equal length, the Pythagorean Theorem gives

( L 2 ) − ( L0 2 )
2 2
d=

where L = L0 (1 + α ∆ T ) is the total expanded length of the rod.

EVALUATE Inserting the expression for L gives
L0
d= 2α ∆ T + α 2 ∆T 2
2

ASSESS Checking the limits, we see that for ∆ T → 0 K, d → 0, as expected.

64. INTERPRET You have to quickly calculate how much ice to buy to keep your parent’s refrigerator from warming
up during a temporary black out.
DEVELOP For simplicity, let’s imagine that you will be placing bags of ice along the interior walls of the
refrigerator, as shown in the figure below. In this way, the heat from the outside room will flow directly into the ice
at a rate of H = ∆T / R, where R = 0.12 K/W is the thermal resistance of the fridge walls, and ∆ T = 20o C − 0o C
is the temperature between the room and the ice.

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-17

The heat will melt the ice in t = Lf m / H , so you want to buy enough ice that this time equals the 15 hours it
supposedly will take to return the electric power to your home.
EVALUATE Solving for the required mass of ice gives

m=
tH t ∆ T
= =
(15 ⋅ 3600 s )( 20 K ) = 27 kg
Lf Lf R ( 334 kJ/kg )( 0.12 K/W )

ASSESS You might have some difficulty stuffing 27 1-kg bags of ice in the fridge. Note that we haven’t taken
into account the fact that the fridge interior will not start out at 0°C, so some extra heat will flow between your
food and the ice.

65. INTERPRET This problem involves the temperature change and phase change (solid-liquid) of Glauber salt.
Given its thermal parameters, we are to calculate how long the salt takes to cool to 60°F, and how long the salt
takes to solidify at 90°F.
DEVELOP In cooling from 95°F to 90°F, the liquid expels a heat Q1 = mcliq∆Tliq (Equation 16.3). Changing phase
at 90°F from liquid to solid expels a further amount Q2 = Lfm (Equation 17.5). Finally, cooling the solid salt from
90°F to 60°F expels the heat Q3 = mcsol∆Tsol. Thus, the total heat expelled is
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = mcliq ∆ Tliq + Lf m + mcsol ∆ Tsol

Given that the house loses heat at a rate of P = 20,000 Btu/h, the time t it takes to cool to 60°F is t = Q/P.
EVALUATE (a) Inserting the given quantities gives
mcliq ∆ Tliq + Lf m + mcsol ∆ Tsol
t=
P
⎛ 5.0 × 2000 lbs ⎞
=⎜
⎝ 2.0 × 10 Btu/h ⎠
4 {
⎟ ( 5 °F ) ⎣⎡ 0.68 Btu/ ( lb ⋅ °F ) ⎦⎤ + 104 Btu/lb + ⎣⎡0.46 Btu/ ( lb ⋅ °F ) ⎦⎤ ( 30 °F ) }
= 61 h
(b) The time spent during just the solidification at 90°F is
mLf (5 .0× 2000 lb )(104 Btu /lb )
= = 52 h
P 2 .0× 104 Btu/h

ASSESS Most of the time the salt is at 90° because the latent heat of fusion is much greater than the heat liberated
by temperature change.
66. INTERPRET For this problem, we are to prove that the coefficient of volume expansion of an ideal gas at constant
pressure is the inverse temperature in the Kelvin scale.
DEVELOP As mentioned in the text following Equation 17.6, the coefficient of volume expansion β is defined in
general as
dV /V 1 dV
β= =
dT V dT
The ideal-gas law pV = NkT is given by Equation 17.1. The two equations can be combined to give the proof.

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17-18 Chapter 17

EVALUATE For an ideal gas at constant pressure, V = NkT/p. This gives dV/dT = nK/p. Substituting the equation
into the above expression for β gives
1 dV 1 Nk Nk 1
β= = = =
V dT V p NkT T
ASSESS The unit of β are K−1, which is the inverse temperature in the Kelvin scale.
67. INTERPRET For this problem, we are to show at what temperature between 0°C and 20°C water has its greatest
density. We are given the expression for the coefficient of volume expansion as a function of temperature.
DEVELOP We do not actually need to differentiate the density or the volume [ρ(t) = constant mass/V(T)] because
Equation 17.6 shows that dV/dT = βV = 0 when β(T) = 0. Thus, the maximum density (or minimum volume)
occurs for a temperature satisfying a + bT + cT 2 = 0 , which allows us to solve for T.

EVALUATE The quadratic formula gives

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
T=
2c

or, since both a and c are negative,

b ∓ b 2 − 4|a||c|
T=
2c

Canceling a factor of 10−5 from the given coefficients, we find

(1.70 ) − 4 ( 6.43)( 0.0202 ) °C

2
1.70 ∓
T= = 3.97°C
0.0404
ASSESS The second root, 80.2°C, can be discarded because it is outside the range of validity, 0 ≤ T ≤ 20 °C, of the
original function β (T). Thus, the maximum density of water occurs at a temperature close to 4°C. That this
represents a minimum volume can be verified by plotting V(T), or from the second derivative,
d 2V dβ dV ⎛ dβ ⎞
=V +β =V ⎜β 2 +
dT 2 dT dT ⎝ dT ⎟⎠
(
= V β 2 + b + 2cT > 0 )
for T = 3.97°C.
68. INTERPRET The problem involves finding the volume of water at a given temperature, given its coefficient of
volume expansion as a function of temperature.
DEVELOP In Problem 68, we learned that water’s coefficient of volume expansion in the temperature
range from 0°C to about 20°C is given approximately by β = a + bT + cT 2 , where T is in Celsius and
a = − 6.43 × 10−5°C−1 , b = 1.70 × 10−5°C−2 , and c = − 2.02 × 10−7°C −3 . Thus, the volume as a function of
temperature is
dV
= β dT = (a + bT + cT 2 )dT
V
Integrate this expression and impose the boundary condition that V(0°C) = 1.00000 L to find the volume of water at 12°C.
EVALUATE Integrating the expression above gives
dV ⎛V ⎞ 1 1
( ) ( )
V2 T2 T2
∫V1 V
= ln ⎜ 2
⎝ V1
⎟=
⎠
∫
T1
β dT = ∫T1
(a + bT + cT 2 ) dT = a (T2 − T1 ) + b T22 − T12 + c T23 − T13
2 3
For T1 = 0°C, T2 = 12 °C, and coefficients a, b and c given above, the right hand side is 3.36 × 10−4. With
V1 = 1.00000 L, exponentiation gives
V2 = V1e0.000336 = 1.00034 L

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-19

ASSESS The fraction of volume change is (V2 − V1 )/V1 = 0.00034.

69. INTERPRET This problem involves the conversion of gravitational potential energy into thermal energy. We are
to find the gravitational potential energy equivalent to the thermal energy needed to melt a falling ice cube on
impact.
DEVELOP The assumptions stated in the problem (no air resistance or heat exchange with the environment) imply
that the change in the gravitational potential energy of the ice cube, per unit mass, must equal the heat of
transformation of the ice cube. Expressed mathematically, this gives
mgh = mLf

which we can solve for the height h.

EVALUATE Solving for h, we find
Lf
h=
g
( )
= ( 334 kJ/kg ) 9.81 m/s 2 = 34.1 km

ASSESS Of course, the expression for potential energy difference, mgh, is not valid over such a large range, but
mgy RE /( RE + y ) only changes this result to 34.3 km. The thermal energies of ordinary macroscopic objects are
very large compared to their mechanical energies.
70. INTERPRET This problem deals with simple harmonic motion and the thermal expansion of a brass pendulum.
The quantity of interest is the pendulum’s length, so the relevant quantity is the coefficient of linear expansion, α.
DEVELOP N swings of a pendulum clock produce a time reading of t = Nτ where τ = 2π L / g (Equation 13.15)
is the period. If the clock is accurate at T1 = 20 °C, at some other temperature T2 , the length of the pendulum
becomes L2 = L1 (1 + α ∆T ) , where ∆T = 17°C − 20°C = −3 K. Therefore, the ratio of the periods is
τ2 L2
= = 1 + α ∆T
τ1 L1
The error in the clock is the difference in its time-readings for N swings at T2, relative to T1:
⎛τ ⎞
∆ t = t2 − t1 = Nτ 2 − Nτ 1 = Nτ 1 ⎜ 2 − 1⎟
⎝ τ1 ⎠
Solve this equation to find the time it takes for the clock to err by 1 minute.
EVALUATE Substituting the ratio of the periods into the expression for ∆t and solving for t1 gives
∆ t = t1 ( 1 + α ∆T − 1 )
∆t 1.0 min
t1 = = = 24 d
( 1 + α ∆T − 1 ) ( )
1 + 19 × 10−6 K −1 ( −3 K ) − 1

where we used α = 19 × 10−6 K−1 for brass from Table 17.2. Because L2 < L1 , τ 2 < τ 1 , ∆ t = t2 − t1 < 0, and the clock
at 17°C is fast.
ASSESS The period of a pendulum, τ = 2π L /g , increases with its length L. Due to thermal expansion, the
pendulum length at 20°C is greater than that at 17°C, and consequently, its period is longer.
71. INTERPRET We are asked to derive the given equation for the volume expansion coefficient β.
DEVELOP Equation 17.6 gives the volume expansion coefficient as
1 ∆V
β=
V ∆T
For infinitesimally small changes, this becomes
1 dV
β=
V dT

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17-20 Chapter 17

Using the chain rule in the expression for β gives

1 dV 1 dV dL
β= =
V dT L3 dL dT
Given that
dV d 3
=
dL dL
( )
L = 3L2

and, from Equation 17.7,

dL
=αL
dT
we can evaluate the chain-rule expression for β in terms of α.
EVALUATE Inserting the expressions above for the derivatives gives volume expansion coefficient as
1 dV dL 1
β= =
L3 dL dT L3
( )
3L2 (α L ) = 3α

ASSESS Alternatively, use the binomial approximation for ∆ V = ( L + ∆ L ) − L3 = 3L2 ∆L, keeping only the
3

lowest order term in ∆L. Since ∆ V = β V ∆ T and ∆ L = α L∆ T , one finds 3L2 (α L ∆ T ) = β L3 ∆ T , or β = 3 α .

72. INTERPRET This problem involves pressure, temperature, and volume. We will assume that the ideal-gas law
applies and use it to find the volume of one mole under the given conditions.
DEVELOP In terms of moles, the ideal-gas law (Equation 17.2) is pV = nRT where R = 8.314 J ( K ⋅ mol ) . The
pressure is p = 90 atm, the temperature is T = 730 K, and we are interested in the volume of 1 mole, so n = 1.0. We
want to find the volume of one mole of gas, and see if this volume is less than 1 L.
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities into the ideal-gas law gives
pV = nRT
nRT (1.0 mol ) ⎡⎣8.314 J ( K ⋅ mol ) ⎤⎦ ( 730 K )
V= = = 6.7 × 10−4 m3 = 0.67 L
p (
( 90 atm ) 1.01× 10 Pa/atm
5
)
ASSESS This design will work, as one liter contains more than a mole at this pressure and temperature.
73. INTERPRET This problem involves the determination of the linear expansion coefficient of a metal wire as it is
heated. We analyze the data to see how the vertical distance between the hanging mass and the top varies with
temperature.
DEVELOP Pythagorean Theorem gives
1 2
( L 2) − ( d 2)
2 2
+ y2 ⇒ y2 =
4
(
L − d2 )
where L = L0 (1 + α ∆ T ) is the total expanded length of the wire.
EVALUATE (a) Inserting the expression for L gives
1 2 d2 1 2 d2 1 2 1
y2 =
4
L0 (1 + α ∆ T ) 2 − ≈ L0 (1 + 2α ∆ T ) −
4 4 4 4 2
(
= L0 − d 2 + L20α ∆ T )
where we drop terms involving α . The expression is of the form y 2 = a + b(∆T ), so plotting y as a function of ∆T
2 2

will allow us to determine the expansion coefficient α.

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-21
2
(b) The plot of y versus T is shown below.

The slope is b = 12 L20α = 0.1173, from which we find α to be

2(0.1173 cm 2 /C°) 2(0.1173 cm 2 /C°)

α= = = 2.35 × 10−5°C −1
L20 (100 cm) 2

Similarly, the condition a = 1

4 (L
2
0 )
− d 2 = 900.01 leads to d = 80.0 cm.

(c) Comparing with Table 17.2, we identify the material to be aluminum.

ASSESS The simple apparatus is very useful for determining the linear expansion coefficient of a metal wire.
However, we ignore any stretching due to its “springiness.”
74. INTERPRET This problem involves exploring the impact of global warming on Greenland, and its energy
imbalance.
DEVELOP The energy required for a solid-liquid phase transition at the normal melting point of water (0°C) is
(Equation 17.5) Q = mLf, where m is the mass of ice and Lf = 334 kJ/kg (from Table 17.1).
15 12
EVALUATE (a) The heat required to melt 250 Pg (1 Pg = 10 g = 10 kg) of ice is
( )
Q = mL f = 250 × 1012 kg ( 334 kJ/kg ) = 8.35 × 1019 J ≈ 8.4 × 1019 J

(b) The rate of energy required to melt the ice is

dQ 8.35 × 1019 J
P= = = 2.65 × 1012 W
dt (365.25 d/year)(86400 s/d)
The area of Greenland covered with ice is approximately Aice = 1.71 × 1012 m 2 . Therefore, the rate of
absorption per unit area covered with ice is
P 2.65 × 1012 W
S= = = 1.5 W/m 2
Aice 1.71 × 1012 m 2
2
ASSESS The result is larger than the global imbalance of somewhat less than 1 W/m , and shows that the impact
of global warming is greater in the Arctic.
75. INTERPRET In this problem we derive an expression that relates the speed of sound to temperature.
DEVELOP The speed of sound in a medium is given by Equation 14.9:
γP
vsound =
ρ
where γ is a constant characteristic of the gas, P is the pressure, and ρ is the density of the gas. From the ideal-gas
law, pV = NkT (Equation 17.1), we can write
P P PV NkT kT kT
= = = = =
ρ M /V M M M /N m
where M is the mass of the total gas sample, and m is the mass of one molecule.
EVALUATE (a) Combining the two expressions, we obtain the desired result:
γP γ kT
vsound = =
ρ m

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17-22 Chapter 17

(b) The thermal speed of a molecule is given by Equation 17.4:

3kT
vth =
m
The ratio of the speed of sound to the thermal speed is
vsound γ kT / m γ
= =
vth 3kT / m 3
For diatomic molecules where γ = 7/5, the ratio is
vsound 7/5 7
= = = 0.683
vth 3 15
or about 68%.
ASSESS For monatomic molecules where γ = 5/3, the ratio is
vsound 5/ 3 5
= = = 0.745
vth 3 9
or about 75%.
76. INTERPRET In this problem we are given the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function, and asked to derive the
most probable speed, which corresponds to the peak of the curve.
DEVELOP The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is
3/ 2
⎛ m ⎞ 2
N (v)∆ v = 4π N ⎜ ⎟ v 2e− mv / 2 kT
∆v
⎝ 2π kT ⎠
The most probable speed vp is the speed that occurs mot often, and this corresponds to the maximum of N(v). The
condition dN (v) / dv = 0 allows us determine vp.
EVALUATE Differentiating N(v) with respect to v gives
3/ 2
dN (v) ⎛ m ⎞ 2 ⎛ mv 2 ⎞
= 4π N ⎜ ⎟ e − mv / 2 kT
v⎜ 2 − ⎟=0
dv ⎝ 2π kT ⎠ ⎝ kT ⎠
Thus, the most probable speed is
mv 2p 2kT
2− = 0 ⇒ vp =
kT m
ASSESS The ratio of the most probable speed to the thermal speed is
vp 2kT / m 2
= = = 0.816
vth 3kT / m 3
The thermal speed (Equation 17.4), which is the average molecular speed, is a factor of 3/ 2 , or about 20%
greater than the most probable speed—a fact that reflects the long, high-energy “tail” of the Maxwell–Boltzmann
distribution.
77. INTERPRET In this problem we compare the temperature predicted by the ideal-gas law, pV = nRT, to that
predicted by van der Waals equation.
DEVELOP At high gas densities, the van der Waals equation modifies the ideal-gas law to account for nonzero
molecular volume. The equation reads
⎛ n2a ⎞
⎜ p + 2 ⎟ (V − nb ) = nRT
⎝ V ⎠
where a = 0.14 Pa ⋅ m /mol = 1.382 atm ⋅ L /mol , and b = 3.91 × 10−5 m3 /mol = 0.0391 L/mol. The conversion
6 2 2 2

facilitates the calculation of the temperature for n = 1 mol, p = 10 atm, and V = 2.0 L.
EVALUATE (a) Using ideal-gas law, we find the temperature to be

pV (1.0 atm)(2.0 L)
T= = = 244 K
nR (1.0 mol)(0.0821 L ⋅ atm/mol)

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 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 17-23

(b) From van der Walls equation, we have

1 ⎛ n2a ⎞ 1 ⎛ (1.0) 2 (1.382) ⎞

T= ⎜ p + 2 ⎟ (V − nb ) = ⎜ 1.0 + ⎟ ( 2 − 0.0391) = 247 K
nR ⎝ V ⎠ (1.0)(0.0821) ⎝ (2) 2 ⎠

ASSESS The van der Waals equation predicts a slightly higher gas temperature. Note that at low densities,
a /(V / n) 2 << p, and b << V / n, van der Waals equation reduces to the ideal-gas equation.
78. INTERPRET We consider what goes on inside a pressure cooker.
DEVELOP The line connecting the triple point to the critical point in Figure 17.9 (the liquid-gas boundary)
designates all of the situations where the combination of pressure and temperature is right for water to boil.
EVALUATE If the pressure is higher than normal in a pressure cooker, then the temperature at which water boils
will be higher as well. By definition, this combination of elevated pressure and temperature must lie on the line
connecting the triple point to the critical point.
The answer is (b).
ASSESS If we started with boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure, and suddenly increased the pressure, the
water would stop boiling. This corresponds to moving vertically upward from the liquid-gas boundary in the phase
diagram of Figure 17.9. For the water to start boiling again, the temperature will have to increase until the
(p, T) combination is again located on the liquid-gas boundary.

79. INTERPRET We consider what goes on inside a pressure cooker.

DEVELOP We can use the ideal-gas law to compare the density of steam under atmospheric pressure to the
density of steam in a pressure cooker.
EVALUATE The density of steam, ρ , is equal to the mass of an individual water molecule, m, multiplied by the
number density of water molecules in the vapor state: ρ = mN / V . The number density is related to the
temperature and pressure by the ideal-gas law: N / V = p / kT . Therefore, the ratio of the steam density in a
pressure cooker to normal pressure is
ρ pc p T
= pc norm =
( 2 atm ) ( 373 K ) = 1.9
ρ norm pnorm Tpc (1 atm ) ( 393 K )
The answer is (c).
ASSESS The increased gas density is due to the fact that more of the water molecules have left the liquid to join
the vapor.

80. INTERPRET We consider what goes on inside a pressure cooker.

DEVELOP From the information given we can estimate the slope of the line marking the liquid-gas boundary.
EVALUATE Between 1 and 2 atm, the average slope of the line is ∆ p / ∆T = 1/ 20 atm/K, whereas between 2 and
3 atm, the average slope is ∆ p / ∆ T = 1/14 atm/K. Since the slope is getting larger as we move to the right on the
graph, the line should be concave upward.
The answer is (a).
ASSESS If the boundary line were a straight line, that is, p = α T for some constant α , this would imply that the
gas density remains constant as the temperature and pressure increase (see the previous problem). In fact, the gas
density increases, reflecting a higher number of water molecules in the gas phase at higher pressures.

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17-24 Chapter 17

81. INTERPRET We consider what goes on inside a pressure cooker.

DEVELOP As the water boils, more and more water molecules go from the liquid to the gaseous state. If the
release mechanism is clogged, those additional water molecules will have nowhere to go, so the gas density will
rise and pressure in the cooker will rise. If more and more steam is created, then the density inside the cooker will
rise. As we showed in Problem 17.74, the density is proportional to the pressure, so the pressure will rise. If the
pressure goes up, then the boiling temperature will also go up.
EVALUATE As we showed in Problem 17.74, the gas density is proportional to the pressure, so a clogged
mechanism will lead to an increase in pressure, as we’d expect. Now, if the temperature somehow remained
constant, the system would no longer be at a boiling point in the phase diagram. However, since heat is constantly
being supplied through the burner, the water temperature would eventually have to rise until it reached a new
boiling point specified by the elevated pressure. Therefore, both the pressure and temperature would continue to
rise.
The answer is (c).

ASSESS This increase in pressure can’t last forever. Eventually something will blow. This is why pressure
cookers have a reputation for being dangerous. Modern designs incorporate multiple safety valves to deal with the
risk of clogging.

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