International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 108 (2021) 102883

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International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijadhadh

Effect of thermal aging on the mechanical performance of timber-timber

single-lap adhesive joints
Francesco Marchione *, Placido Munafò
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile, Edile e Architettura (DICEA), Università Politecnica Delle Marche, 60131, Ancona, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Timber is a natural material traditionally used in the building industry. In the last decades, developments in
Adhesive joints scientific research have made timber a high-tech building material. In the field of timber engineering, recent
Single-lap adhesive joint developments concerned advances in the study of adhesive joints and their applications in the field of structures.
Timber adhesive joints
The growing interest in adhesive joints in timber structures is due to the advantages offered by adhesive tech­
Shear tests
Thermal aging
nology over traditional mechanical joining techniques. In this paper, the effect of exposure of adhesive joints
between timber adherends to high values of temperature and relative humidity is investigated. In particular, two
different two-component (2K) epoxy adhesives (EPX1, EPX2) and one polyurethane (PU) in single-lap adhesive
joints between mahogany and pine adherends have been used and compared. This research work investigates the
possibility of realising new joints between timber adherends in innovative building components (e.g. windows
and curtain walls). The results obtained from the experimental campaign showed that PU adhesive has lower
mechanical performance than epoxy adhesives, regardless of the aging condition. On the other hand, the epoxy
adhesives tested showed high performance and different mechanical behavior after artificial aging.

In literature numerous analytical and experimental studies on ad­

1. Introduction
Adhesive joints represent a valid alternative to traditional mechan­
ical joints (e.g. riveting, bolting, welding) thanks to the many advan­
tages offered [1]. In fact, adhesive joints allow different materials to be
joined without reducing the section of the elements and without adding
weight to the structure. In addition, there are numerous cases in which
this type of joint has a better behaviour in terms of ductility and ultimate
displacement, important characteristics for structural engineering ap­
plications [2,3]. Adhesive technology has therefore found rapid diffu­
sion in various industrial fields (e.g. aeronautics, naval [4], automotive
and civil engineering [5]). In building component applications, adhesive
joints could exhibit efficient mechanical performance and numerous
advantages in terms of cost, workability and aesthetics of the finished
product [6]. Recent developments in research on the applications of
structural adhesives in timber structures concern the introduction of
glued rods, as in Xu’s work [7] and in Grunwald et al. [8].
Wood is an excellent material for adhesive bonding, being a natural
porous cellular adherend. However, the mechanical characteristics of
the joint also vary according to the method of wood processing and its
aging.
hesive joints between timber adherends in different configurations could
be found, as reported by Vallèe [9]. Tannert et al. [10] studied
double-lap joints between spruce adherends and epoxy adhesives. Their
study focused on the influence of different geometric and adhesive pa­
rameters on the joint strength. It was found that the joint strength was
independent of the adhesive thickness and that the joint strength
increased with the length of the bonding area up to a maximum of about
200 mm. It was also observed that ultimate strength did not significantly
depend on the stiffness of the adhesive. Vallée et al. [11] investigated
some methods of stress reduction on the strength of bonded joints made
between timber adherends, reinforced with FRP. Experiments shown
that the use of these reinforcements allows a negligible increase in
resistance. The same authors [12] carried out experimental and nu­
merical investigations on full-scale timber trusses, in which adhesive
joints were compared with traditional joints. The trusses made with
adhesive joints showed a much higher failure load and stiffness. The
investigation carried out proves the applicability of adhesive technology
in timber structures. Further experiments [13,14] investigated the pos­
sibility of making hybrid joints between timber adherends and other
materials. Some examples are timber-concrete composite structures
[15–17], timber–glass bonded structures [18].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: f.marchione@pm.univpm.it (F. Marchione).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2021.102883

Available online 26 April 2021

0143-7496/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Marchione and P. Munafò International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 108 (2021) 102883

Nomenclature Ts Service temperature

TLC Thin layer cohesive failure
AF Adhesive failure Ta Application temperature
CF Cohesive failure Tg Glass transition temperature
Et Young Modulus in tension α Thermal coefficient of expansion
EPX1 First Epoxy Adhesive εt Tensile strain
EPX2 Second Epoxy Adhesive kS Stiffness
F Applied load γf Shear strain at failure
MF Mixed failure sf Displacement at failure
MM Mahogany- Mahogany Single Lap specimen σt Tensile strenght
PP Pine-Pine Single Lap specimen Wt Working time
PU Polyurethane Adhesive τ Shear strenght
LC Un-aged temperature ta Adhesive thickness
CC Artificial aging in climatic chamber

However, as structural adhesives are sensitive to temperatures and adhesives (2K). This aspect plays a fundamental role in the design phase
high relative humidity [19,20], in the design phase it is essential to of timber structures, as stated by Fecht et al. [27] especially when the
consider not only the mechanical stresses but also the environmental life cycle of the structural element could lead to exposure to high tem­
factors that characterise the service life of the joint. peratures (e.g. temperatures up to 1000◦ C for fires, according to ISO
As highlighted by Viana et al. [21], exposure to high relative hu­ 834). However, the mechanical performance related to the exposure of
midity values could lead to the absorption of water by the adhesive. In timber structures to high temperatures should be compared to the
this way, its polymer chain forms hydrogen bonds which cause volu­ typical glass transition values of structural adhesives, close to 85–90 ◦ C.
metric alterations, plasticization and a decrease in the strength and glass In this sense, and with particular attention to timber structures that
transition temperature (Tg) of the adhesive. The reduction in Tg has a involve the use of structural adhesives, numerous studies have been
significant influence on the mechanical behaviour of the adhesive at carried out.
high temperatures. The adhesive plasticization also appears to be the Vallèe et al. [28] described the construction of a pedestrian bridge in
main cause of the reduction in stiffness and yielding of the adhesive. The which bonded hybrid structures involve glass as a load-bearing element.
influence of humidity on the mechanical behaviour of the adhesive is The design process presents the experimental work required to select the
lower for temperatures below the Tg. Exposure to high temperature material combination and a structural verification methodology. It is
values represents another frequent cause of mechanical degradation of highlighted how the current regulations understimate the critical stress
the adhesive as described by Adams et al. [22]. At low temperature resistance for adhesive joints.
values, a brittle behaviour of the adhesive responsible for the fracture is Wiesner et al. [29] studied the reduction of the compression strength
observed, while at high temperature values a reduction of the ultimate of cross-laminated timber (CLT) subjected to high temperatures. At
strength values of the joint is generally observed, as proved by Banea reference room temperatures, a statistically significant difference in
et al. [23]. compression strength between the number of layers but not between
Moreover, temperature and humidity promote different degradation adhesive types was observed. Aicher and Langer [30] studied the in­
mechanisms. Their combined action may cause hygrothermal degrada­ fluence of temperature, humidity and load duration on glued laminated
tion. High temperatures increase the speed of chemical reactions and the timber beams in the direction of the grain. The tests were carried out in
diffusion coefficient, thus favouring a greater water diffusion [24]. In two different artificial conditions: one series at constant 20 ◦ C and 85%
addition, exposure to certain temperatures and humidity is also crucial RH, the other series at temperatures between 25◦ C and 55◦ C. Three
for the polymerization phase of the adhesive, as this could be compro­ types of adhesives were used, i.e. epoxy, polyurethane and phenolic
mised [25]. adhesives. The results show that the loading time and climatic condi­
Timber is a hygroscopic material since it changes its moisture con­ tions have a significantly different impact on the bearing capacity of the
tent according to the temperature and relative humidity of the envi­ glued rod joints for different adhesives. St-Pierre et al. [31] conducted
ronment. Furthermore, as the humidity increases, its strength decreases an experimental campaign on the effect of temperature and moisture on
and its viscous behaviour increases [26] – although for higher humidity the mechanical performance of fingerjoints between timber adherends.
values than those critical for the most common two-component Two types of adhesives, polyurethane in polymer emulsion (PEP) and a
new formulation with rapid phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde (PRF)
polymerization, were investigated experimentally. The results showed
Table 1
different temperature ranges for which the different adhesives tested are
Test program.
applicable, according to different combinations with timber adherends.
Aging condition Adherends Specimens The experimental campaign reported in this paper aims to investi­
Adhesive
gate the mechanical behavior of adhesive joints in building components
EPX 1 LC MM 5 by studying single-lap adhesive joints with mahogany and pine timber
PP 5
substrates, using two different types of adhesives (i.e. epoxy and poly­
CC MM 5
PP 5 urethane). In particular, the mechanical performance of the joints is
EPX 2 LC MM 5 tested both after curing under laboratory conditions (LC) and after
PP 5 artificial aging (CC). Finally, an analysis on the failure modes of the
CC MM 5 tested specimens is carried out. In detail, different modes, classified as:
PP 5
“Adhesive Failure” (AF), “Cohesive Failure” (CF), “Light-Fiber-Tear
PU LC MM 5
PP 5 Failure” (LFTF), “Fiber-Tear Failure” (FTF), “Stock-Break Failure” (SB),
CC MM 5 and “Mixed Failure” (MF), were observed after shear tests. The experi­
PP 5 ments and the results obtained are discussed in the following.

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F. Marchione and P. Munafò International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 108 (2021) 102883

Table 2 mahogany is a deciduous species. This allows the behaviour of adhesive

Timber mechanical properties according to manufacturer’s data sheet (*along joints to be validated for these timber characteristics. Experimental tests
the fibers). to evaluate the effectiveness and compatibility of the adhesive joint
Adherends Sapelli Mahogany Pinus Silvestris were carried out both in unaged (LC) and aged (CC) conditions. Single-
Category Hardwood Softwood
lap adhesive joints are manufactured in accordance with the re­
Fresh density (kg/m3) 780 880 quirements of ASTM D3528 [32]. The test program is summarized in
Density after maturation (kg/m3) 620 550 Table 1.
Histological structure Fine texture Medium texture The applicability of the adhesive joint in the field of new building
Fiber Interwoven Irregular
components is verified by analysing the parameters related to the ulti­
Shrinkage Moderate Low-medium
σc (MPa) 55 54 mate strength, maximum shear stress, ultimate displacement and overall
E*t (MPa) 11000 12500 stiffness of the joint.
Use Structural Structural

2.1. Material properties

Table 3 2.1.1. Adherends

Technical and mechanical characteristics of the adhesives reported by the
In this experimental campaign two different mahogany and pine
manufacturer.
adherends were used, supplied by Dorica Legnami (Italy). The properties
Adhesive EPX 1 EPX 2 PU of the adherends, supplied by the manufacturers, are shown in Table 2.
Chemical Two-component Two-component Two-component
base epoxy epoxy polyurethane adhesive/ 2.1.2. Adhesives
sealant In this experimental campaign two commercial two-component
Viscosity Thixotropic Thixotropic Non-sag paste
Wt (min) 90 ÷ 300 16 10
epoxy structural adhesives (EPX1, EPX2, PU) were used, namely: 3
Ta (◦ C) 15 ÷ 25 15 ÷ 25 – M™ Scotch-Weld™ 7260 B/A (EPX1), 3 M™ Scotch-Weld™ 7240 B/A
TS (◦ C) − 50 ÷ 120 − 40 ÷ 80 − 40 ÷ 180 (EPX2) and 3 M™ Scotch-Weld™ DP6310NS (PU). The choice of the
Tg (◦ C) 61.07 66.87 60 epoxy adhesives – not usually used in the field of timber engineering –
τ (MPa) 33.50a 29.40a 24.82a
derives from the results obtained from previous experimental campaigns
σt (MPa) – 17 19
Et (MPa) 3000 1770 600 [5,33]. The technical and mechanical characteristics of the adhesives,
εtb(%) 3 – 12 reported by the manufacturers, are summarized in Table 3.
Use Structural Semi-structural Semi-structural
a
On aluminium-steel adherends. 2.2. Specimens geometry
b
At failure.
Specimens have been assembled in compliance with the geometric
2. Materials and methods indications provided by the ISO4587 standard [34]; for each configu­
ration mentioned above, five specimens have been assembled. The size
The experimental campaign herein reported consists of shear tests on of timber adherends is 140 mm × 25.40 mm, with a thickness of 5 mm.
single-lap adhesive joints, made between timber adherends (i.e. pine In all tested configurations the same adhesive thickness of 0.30 mm
and mahogany), assembled with two structural epoxy adhesives and a was used, as recommended by the manufacturer. The geometry of the
polyurethane adhesive. The choice of pine and mahogany adherends specimens is shown in Fig. 1.
derives from the objective of this research to develop new types of joints Before the bonding phase, all bonding regions were cleaned with
for innovative building components (e.g. window frames, curtain wall denatured isopropyl alcohol.
panels). These two timber species are commonly used for the assembling Fig. 2 shows the specimens. The curing phase took place under lab­
of window frames. In particular, pine is a resinous species and oratory conditions. Bonding and curing phases took place at an average

Fig. 1. Single-lap specimen geometry and configurations: section and plan view.

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F. Marchione and P. Munafò International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 108 (2021) 102883

Fig. 2. Curing phase.

Fig. 3. Average load displacement curves of single-lap joints bonded with Fig. 4. Average load displacement curves of single-lap joints bonded with
EPX1 adhesive. EPX2 adhesive.

temperature of 26 ± 2 ◦ C and relative humidity of 52 ± 6%.

For the adhesives used, the curing times recommended by the
manufacturers for their complete polymerization after application have
been met. In particular, for both adhesives, the specimens were cured
under laboratory conditions for a duration of 28 days.

2.3. Artificial aging

The aging condition considered in this paper (CC) was performed in

accordance with ISO 6270-2 [35]. The samples were subjected to a
temperature of 40 ± 3 ◦ C and a relative humidity of 95 ± 4% for three
months. This aging condition is intended to simulate exposure of the
joint under severe environmental conditions. The aging was carried out
using a climatic chamber “Angelantoni” CST-130S. At the end of the
aging phase, the specimens were weighed to determine their percentage
water content by weight and immediately subjected to the required
tests. The evaluation of water absorption is carried out on the assembled Fig. 5. Average load displacement curves of single-lap joints bonded with
joint in order to assess the potential contribution of the adhesive. PU adhesive.

2.4. Test setup
The test aims to determine the load-displacement curves of the joint
through the use of a tensile machine, as indicated by ISO 4587 [34]. The
machine is of the Zwick/Roell Z050 electromechanical type with a 50 kN
load cell. The tests were carried out under laboratory conditions, with an
average temperature of 25 ◦ C and a relative humidity value of 52%. All
tests are performed by displacement control at a speed rate of 1.26
mm/min. An optical measurement technique based on stereoscopic
calculation using a geometric grid was used to record the displacement
values. Two CMOS cameras with a resolution of 1280 × 1024 pixels
(Pixelink®B371F) with different angles were installed to take stereo­
scopic images at the rate of 2 frames/second.

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F. Marchione and P. Munafò International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 108 (2021) 102883

Table 4
Mechanical properties of timber-timber single-lap joints according to different aging conditions (* at failure).
Aging condition Adherends Moisture content (%) Fmax (kN) τmax* (MPa) γmax* (%) s* (mm) k* (kN/mm)
Adhesive

EPX 1 LC MM 16 ± 10 4.57 ± 0.66 14.17 ± 2.04 0.98 ± 0.14 0.47 ± 0.16 10.34 ± 2.71
PP 5±8 3.44 ± 0.33 10.67 ± 1.01 0.95 ± 0.13 0.44 ± 0.14 8.48 ± 2.63
CC MM 38 ± 6 4.79 ± 0.45 14.86 ± 1.39 0.96 ± 0.15 0.45 ± 0.14 11.32 ± 2.64
PP 16 ± 9 3.87 ± 0.38 11.99 ± 1.17 1.05 ± 0.10 0.54 ± 0.12 7.42 ± 1.56
EPX 2 LC MM 9±2 2.22 ± 0.58 6.88 ± 1.79 1.07 ± 0.32 0.69 ± 0.34 4.40 ± 3.38
PP 5±7 2.96 ± 1.01 9.17 ± 3.13 0.98 ± 0.16 0.47 ± 0.16 6.26 ± 1.41
CC MM 56 ± 11 3.91 ± 1.04 12.14 ± 3.21 0.87 ± 0.07 0.36 ± 0.05 10.99 ± 2.47
PP 21 ± 7 2.88 ± 0.20 8.93 ± 0.63 0.90 ± 0.12 0.39 ± 0.09 7.71 ± 1.88
PU LC MM 14 ± 4 2.40 ± 0.23 7.45 ± 0.72 1.10 ± 0.06 0.60 ± 0.08 3.13 ± 0.18
PP 11 ± 8 1.90 ± 0.67 5.89 ± 2.09 1.00 ± 0.35 0.60 ± 0.38 3.80 ± 1.58
CC MM 61 ± 9 2.75 ± 0.07 8.54 ± 0.23 0.96 ± 0.24 0.48 ± 0.20 5.21 ± 4.00
PP 18 ± 9 1.84 ± 0.52 5.69 ± 1.61 0.99 ± 0.12 0.47 ± 0.13 1.60 ± 0.02

3. Results and discussion
3.1. Shear tests on single-lap adhesive joints
This section presents and discusses the load-displacement graphs and
failure modes of the tested specimens. For each combination of adhe­
sives and adherends, the average result of the five tests is reported
below.
3.1.1. Mechanical performance
Figs. 3–5 show the load–displacement curves obtained from shear
tests on timber adherends after curing under laboratory conditions and
after artificial aging for EPX1, EPX2 and PU adhesives, respectively.
Table 4 illustrates the results of the tests, expressed through the
average values and standard deviations of the measured quantities. The
moisture content values were measured by weighing specimens before
and after artificial aging. In particular, it is observed that the mahogany
adherends combinations are those characterised by the highest moisture
absorption after aging (+39%, +56%, +61% for EPX1, EPX2, PU ad­
hesives, respectively) due to the more porous and fibrous nature of the
material. Exposure to aging results in lower moisture absorption for pine
adherends (+16%, +22%, +18% for EPX1, EPX2, PU, respectively). This
is due both to the reduced wall and void thickness of softwoods
compared to hardwoods, and to the resinous nature of pine species as
opposed to mahogany. This difference in terms of the microstructure of
the substrate materials is reflected in the different failure modes
observed.
The results obtained for combinations under unaged and aged con­
ditions, assembled using EPX1 adhesive, are shown in Fig. 3. The ma­
hogany adherends combination (MM) exhibits the highest ultimate
strength (on average 4.57 kN) in the unaged condition, with high stiff­
ness values (10.34 kN/mm). The combination exhibiting the highest
ductility values is the one with pine adherends (PP), especially in the
aged condition (CC). The stiffness (k) of the joints is calculated through a
linear approximation of the load-displacement curve; the approximation
is limited to the initial part of the curve, before the beginning of the
sections characterised by non-linearity.
Fig. 4 shows the results obtained for combinations of adherends
under unaged and aged conditions, assembled using EPX2 adhesive. The
combination of mahogany adherends (MM) exhibits the highest ultimate

Fig. 6. Failure modes of single lap adhesive joints: a) FTF failure; b) FTF and LFTF failures; c) FTF and CF failures; d) AF and CF failures; e) SB failure; f) AF and
LFTF failures.

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F. Marchione and P. Munafò International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 108 (2021) 102883

Table 5 observed, while a decrease of -2.70% is observed for the aged PP

Summary of failure modes. configuration. The ultimate displacements observed for the aged
Aging Configuration Failure modes configuration show a decrease of -91% and -20.51% for the adherents of
Adhesive condition the MM and PP combinations, respectively.
EPX 1 LC MM 1 MF:(90% FTF + 10% LFTF) In the case of single-lap joints bonded with PU adhesive, artificial
1 FTF aging leads to an increase in stiffness for the mahogany adherends
1 MF:(95% LFTF + 5% CF) combination. The combination with pine adherends does not differ
1 LFTF significantly from the unaged configuration. In fact, for the aged MM
1 MF:(30% FTF + 70% LFTF)
PP 1 MF:(15% AF + 20% CF + 65%
combination an increase in ultimate strength (+14.58%) and in stiffness
LFTF) (+66.45%) could be observed if compared to the same unaged adher­
1 MF:(80% FTF + 20% LFTF) ends combination.
3 FTF
CC MM 3 FTF
3.1.2. Failure modes
1 MF:(5% LFTF + 95% FTF)
1 LFTF After the shear tests, all specimens were analysed to describe their
PP 1 FTF failure modes., Reference to ASTM D 5573-99 [36] is made to highlight
1 MF: (95% FTF + 5% LFTF) different failure modes. Fig. 6(a–f) shows the observed failure modes.
1 MF: (90% FTF + 10% LFTF) Table 5 summarises the failure modes of the tested specimens, which
1 MF: (5% FTF + 95% CF)
1 MF: (95% FTF + 5% LFTF)
for almost all the combinations tested were mixed. Failure modes are
EPX 2 LC MM 1 MF: (80% FTF + 20% LFTF) composed of the LFTF and FTF modes combined in various percentages
1 MF: (20% CF + 80% LFTF) with variable values depending on the tested combinations.
1 SB The hardwood substrate (e.g. Sapelli Mahogany) is characterised by
2 FTF
diffuse porosity, since it is composed of cells with much higher ratios of
PP 3 FTF
1 MF: (60% FTF + 40% LFTF) length to width and wall thickness to internal voids than those of soft­
1 MF: (70% FTF + 30% LFTF) woods (e.g. Pinus Silvestris).
CC MM 2 FTF Joints with mahogany adherends show high LFTF and FTF failure
3 MF: (30% FTF + 70% LFTF) rates, regardless of the aging condition and adhesive used. This type of
PP 1 LFTF
failure involves relatively deep delamination of the substrate surface at
2 FTF
1 MF: (70% FTF + 30% LFTF) the bonding region. This aspect is synonymous with high adhesion to the
1 MF: (30% FTF + 70% LFTF) substrate material due to the more porous nature of the mahogany
PU LC MM 4 FTF adherends.
1 MF: (95% FTF + 5% LFTF)
In the case of specimens assembled with pine adhesives, FTF and
PP 2 FTF
1 MF: (15% CF + 85% AF) LFTF type failures are observed, with AF and CF failure rates for joints
1 MF: (30% CF + 70% AF) assembled with EPX1 and EPX2 adhesives. In the case of joints assem­
1 MF: (20% CF + 80% AF) bled with PU adhesive, a higher frequency of AF and CF failures is
CC MM 5 FTF observed. A better adhesion of EPX1 and EPX2 adhesives to pine sub­
PP 3 CF
strates is therefore observed. This failure mode will be further investi­
1 MF: (95% CF + 5% LFTF)
1 MF: (90% CF + 10% LFTF) gated to clarify the possible interference in the adhesion of pitch pockets
in pine adherends.

strength (3.91 kN) under aged conditions (CC), accompanied by the
highest stiffness value (10.99 kN/mm), while the highest ductility
values – calculated as the inverse of the stiffness, equal to 2.27 mm/kN –
are obtained with the same adherends (MM), in the unaged condition
(LC).
Fig. 5 shows the results obtained for combinations of adherends
under unaged and aged conditions, assembled using PU adhesive. Joints
made between mahogany adherends (MM) show different performance
after artificial aging. In fact, an increase in stiffness is observed after
exposure to high temperatures and relative humidity. On the contrary,
artificial aging on pine adherends (PP) does not show significant effects
on their mechanical behavior in unaged condition (LC).
In the case of single-lap joints bonded with EPX1 adhesive, artificial
aging results in an increase of +9.47% and a decrease of -12.50% in
stiffness if compared to the unaged configuration for the mahogany and
pine adherends combinations, respectively. In the aged configuration an
increase in ultimate strength is observed for both adherends, +4.81% in
the case of the MM combination and +12.50% in the case of PP com­
bination. The ultimate displacements in general do not show significant
variations, except for the aged PP combination, where an increase by
+22% compared to the unaged one is observed.
In the case of single-lap joints bonded with EPX2 adhesive, artificial
aging results in an increase in stiffness for both adherends. For aged MM
combination (CC) an increase of +149.77% in stiffness compared to the
non-aged configuration is observed. For PP combination there is an in­
crease of +23.71% compared to the unaged configuration. In terms of
ultimate strength, an increase of +76% in the aged MM configuration is
4. Conclusions
In this study the results of an experimental campaign on adhesive
joints between timber adherends are reported and analysed, according
to different types of adhesives and environmental exposure conditions.
In summary, the experimental results show the mechanical perfor­
mance of the adhesive joints between the adherends and adhesives
considered. The main mechanical parameters analysed are those related
to the ultimate shear stress, shear strain, ultimate strength, ultimate
displacement and consequently the stiffness and ductility of the joint.
The results obtained highlighted the following points:
• Single-lap joints bonded with EPX1 adhesive showed the highest
stiffness (kmax = 11.32 kN/mm), ultimate strength (4.79 kN) and
shear strength (14.86 MPa) in the configuration with mahogany
adherends and under aged conditions (CC), despite a moisture ab­
sorption of 38%.
• Single-lap joints bonded with EPX2 adhesive showed the highest
stiffness (kmax = 10.99 kN/mm), ultimate strength (3.91 kN) and
shear strength (12.14 MPa) in the configuration with mahogany
adherends and in aged conditions (CC), with a moisture absorption of
55%.
• Single-lap joints bonded with PU adhesive showed the highest values
of stiffness (kmax = 4.01 kN/mm), ultimate strength (2.40 kN) and
shear strength (1.10 MPa) in the configuration with mahogany
adherends and under unaged conditions (LC), with a moisture con­
tent of 14.37%.

6
F. Marchione and P. Munafò
• Artificial aging CC (three months exposure to severe environment
with constant temperature of 40 ◦ C and 100% RH) generally leads to
an increase in both the moisture content and ultimate strength for
joints made between mahogany adherends in the case of EPX1 and
EPX2 adhesives. For EPX2 adhesive, there is a decrease in the ulti­
mate strength in the case of PP adherends. Artificial aging signifi­
cantly influences the ultimate displacement in the case of EPX2
adhesive, considerably increasing (up to 150% in the case of MM
adherends) the overall stiffness of the joint. For joints assembled with
PU adhesive, ageing leads to an increase in ultimate strength and
stiffness for mahogany adherends, while a slight reduction in ulti­
mate load and stiffness could be observed in the case of pine
adherends.
• Comparing the failure modes, it could be observed that most of the
failures are of mixed type (MF), characterized by the coexistence of
FTF and LFTF failures. These modes could be found in all combina­
tions of adherends and adhesives, in different percentages. Speci­
mens assembled with PU adhesive show, in the unaged
configuration, different failure modes (CF and AF). From the analysis
of the failure modes of the different specimens, a better adhesion to
the substrate by EPX1 and EPX2 adhesives compared to PU adhesive
could be observed.
The results obtained highlighted the applicability of the tim­
ber–timber adhesive joints for structures in the civil engineering field
and in particular epoxy adhesives (EPX1 and EPX2) proved to be the
most suitable for this purpose.
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