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The Society and the Art of Persuasion: The Social Functions of Rhetoric

Abstract

Rhetoric has an immortal character as seen in the fact that it has been given importance

even during the time of Ancient Greece with Aristotle defining it as the “art of persuasion.” It

is also considered as one of the seven liberal arts and is therefore essential to a free person in

order for him to participate in civic life. Rhetoric’s timeless relevance is also propped up by its

five societal functions which emphasizes how rhetoric (1) bolsters democracy, (2) encourages

rhetorical criticism, (3) catalyzes social change, (4) upholds freedom and clarifies beliefs and

values, and (4) seeks for and brings about justice. Rhetoric bolsters democracy because it

provides a foundation for political participation by linking the government to the people. It is

utilize by politicians to garner the support of the people be it during elections campaigns or

during privilege speeches in congress. However, politicians may also utilize rhetoric for

propaganda through demagoguery. This gives light to how rhetoric encourages rhetorical

criticism by pushing the public to be vigilant consumers of information. Another social

function of rhetoric is its ability to be a catalyst of social change where in it is utilize by the

few to mobilize the public and call for reform. The need for social change is most of the time

propelled by the need of the people to express their own culture, values and beliefs and rhetoric

allows them to do so. Rhetoric also seeks and brings about justice through the use of

deliberative, epideictic, and forensic rhetoric inside the courtroom. However, just as much as

rhetoric serves these social functions, rhetoric can also undermine its purpose especially when

it is used by demagogues.

On August 28, 1963, thousands of people, black and white Americans alike, assembled

at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. to conduct a peaceful civil rights rally calling for

an end to racism in the United States. Civil rights leaders were only given limited time to
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present their speeches and Martin Luther King Jr. was one of them. It is where he delivered his

famous speech “I Have a Dream” —a piece that Historian David Garrow considered as a

“rhetorical achievement of a lifetime” (Griffin, 2012) for the way it conveyed the moral power

of the movement’s cause, inducing a reaction from millions of viewers including those who

watched the live national coverage. King’s speech, and the speeches of other rhetors like

Winston Churchill, Abraham Lincoln, and many more, attests to rhetoric’s enduring relevance

from the time of Ancient Greece until the present day. This is underpinned by the definition of

rhetoric as the art of persuasion and “communication that influences the attitudes or behaviors

of others” (Alberts, Nakayama, & Martin, 2016). Therefore, rhetoric is a persuasive speech or

public address. In addition, Aristotle, in his work Rhetoric, “raised rhetoric to a science by

systematically exploring the effects of the speaker, the speech, and the audience” (Griffin,

2012) and art is how a speaker uses this knowledge. It is also considered as one of the seven

liberal arts because of the role it plays in the education of engaged citizenship (Hogan & Parry-

Giles, 2010) thus laying foundation on how people can be equipped with skills in order to

exercise their freedom.

The lasting relevance of rhetoric can be attributed to the integral role it plays as a liberal

art. This further places emphasis on its relationship with the society in general. This paper looks

into the five social functions of rhetoric: bolsters democracy, encourages rhetorical criticism,

catalyzes social change, upholds freedom and clarifies beliefs and values, seeks for and brings

about justice. It also provides concrete examples of issues and events —both in the national

and international stage, where the social functions of rhetoric can be seen.

Bolsters democracy

The term ‘democracy’ can be traced back to Ancient Greece where in it means rule by

the people. This classical model of democracy, also known as Athenian democracy or ‘direct
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democracy’, has a “high level of citizen involvement in the affairs of the city-state” by means

of mass meeting (Heywood, 2019). However, most governments and regimes around the world

now adapts a form of ‘representative or indirect democracy’ where in those who will rule in

the public’s behalf are merely selected by the public themselves. Despite the apparent shift, it

still emphasizes the relationship between rhetoric and democracy. This link dates back for

thousands of years because rhetoric provides foundation for political participation —a

cornerstone of democracy by linking the government to the people. This is highlighted on

Abraham Lincoln’s famous speech, the Gettysburg Address, where in he said that it is up to

the living to ensure that “government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not

perish from the earth.”

Rhetoric is heavily used by politicians, during the campaign period, in expressing their

desire to represent the people and to advance the ‘common good’ or the interest of all, provided

that they think and act selflessly. This can be seen in Barack Obama’s rise and victory in the

United States of America 2008 presidential election. Chamberlain (2008) pinpointed in an

article the importance of rhetoric and speechmaking in the job of a president and further stated

that “Senator Obama's rhetorical skills allowed him to appear presidential - he spoke as

presidents spoke - and he set the campaign agenda.” Through campaigns, rhetoric encourages

political participation of the public and therefore legitimizes a government when it becomes

persuasive enough.

Furthermore, “public address scholars share a commitment to free speech and

democratic way of life” where in everyone is given a voice or a say. This promotes a type of

deliberative rhetoric which, according to Alberts et al. (2016), is a “type of rhetoric used to

argue what a society should do in the future.” The ability of a speaker to effectively advocate

his point is important in an open discussion or debate and may lead to a decision based on

compromise and consensus. One example of this is the privilege speech of a senator or
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congressman in the Philippines, which is contained in Section 110, Rule XL, Rules of the

Senate:

Sec. 110. After the consideration of the matters contained in the Calendar
for Special Orders, a Senator may forthwith request for and avail of the privilege
to speak for one (1) hour on any matter of public interest. (Senate of the
Philippines, n.d.)

It can therefore be an avenue for senators and congressmen to share their advocacies to

their fellow legislators, and the public as well, with the aim of persuading the listeners to

support their cause. Its purpose was also defined by the Supreme Court in the case of Osmeña

v. Pendatun where in it ruled:

“…its purpose is to enable and encourage a representative of the public to

discharge his public trust with firmness and success for it is indispensably
necessary that he should enjoy the fullest liberty of speech, and that he should be
protected from the resentment of every one, however, powerful, to whom the
exercise of that liberty may occasion.” (Senate of the Philippines, n.d.)

Encourages rhetorical criticism

Despite the importance of rhetoric to a vital democracy, it can also be used negatively

through the exercise of a rhetorical style that “appeals to non-rational passions and

considerations instead of reason” (Zug, 2019), also called demagoguery. A demagogue can

thus be seen as an opportunist who utilizes rhetoric to appeal to emotions and stir feelings with

little or no concern to fairness and truth. The rise of demagogues is common in democratic

states because, as stated by Gustainis (1990), they can only succeed in an “atmosphere of free

speech and free expression, since demagoguery is intimately bound up with rhetoric.”

Demagoguery is also used in political (deliberative) speaking, one of Aristotle’s classification

of speech, which is defined as a speech which “attempts to influence legislators or voters who

decide future policy” (Griffin, 2012).

The untoward use of rhetoric pushes the public to be vigilant critical consumers of

knowledge and information which is done through continuous analysis and evaluation. This is
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called rhetorical criticism, the criticism of rhetorical discourse. This is commonly exercised

during the campaign period where in politicians running for office try their best to persuade

the voters through public speaking. As receivers of speeches addressed to the mass population,

rhetorical criticism is used by political scientists and also the entire citizenry every time a

politician stands on a podium and speaks his mind. The exercise of rhetorical criticism can be

seen during the #TheFilipinoVotes senatorial debate where in a Reality Check Team was

formed in order to fact-check the aspiring senators’ statements. The team was composed of

global academic experts and student volunteers which shows that rhetorical criticism is not

exclusive to those who hold a degree and that it can be and it must be exercised by each and

every receiver of rhetoric. Aside from making informed choices, the benefit of rhetorical

criticism would be for “people to better appreciate the artistic aspects of discourse, as well as

what makes a particular rhetorical message effective or persuasive” (Alberts, et al., 2016). It

encourages voters, to be more critical when choosing politicians who will rule on their behalf;

it also empowers people to better understand societal issues in order to become better rhetors

themselves.

Catalyzes social change

Being critical of the way rhetoric is used by politicians may lead to dissonance between

the public and the governing body. This further creates a disenchantment with ‘how things are

done’ in the present which usually propels people to call for social change, be it a simple reform

on existing laws or a revolution against a system of rule. People therefore utilize rhetoric to

promote their views with the aim of mobilizing a myriad of supporters. And a successful

mobilization can lead to a social movement— “a mass movement of people who are attempting

to create social change” (Alberts et al., 2012). This is manifested through different events in

the past or present, international or local. A classical example for rhetoric being used as a
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catalyst of change is Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech for its attempt to change

the social condition of African Americans in the 1960s. Its was focused more on ‘people’

because of its goal of eradicating racial discrimination. However, a more recent attempt to

change the social condition of not just people but also the entire planet would be the speech of

Greta Thunberg, a young climate activist, at the United Nations Climate Action Summit last

September 23 where in she criticized world leaders on their failure to act and provide solution

for climate change—an issue that the youth considers to be a matter urgency, focusing instead

on amassing wealth at the expense of the environment. Thunberg used rhetoric to call the

attention of entire world population in an attempt to bring about social change especially on

the way humans interact with their environment. Her speech was a trending topic across various

social media platforms inciting agreement from the youth. Thunberg used her speech as an

avenue to raise awareness and call out those who contribute to environmental issues. In the

Philippine context, Filipino students also used rhetoric as a catalyst of social change during the

University of the Philippines (UP) Day of Walkout and Action last October 20. The event

aimed to protest against deemed attempts of state authorities to suppress academic freedom

through campus militarization. These events mentioned attest to the ability of rhetoric to

empower people, not just individually but as a community striving for the same goal. It is

capable of empowering people no matter the gender, age, class, or religion in which they

belong. Because at the end of the day, rhetoric bridges the gap between the government and

the governed by providing a platform where in different opinions can be heard and evaluated.

Upholds freedom and clarifies beliefs and values

The call for social change is at times propelled by the need to express and reaffirm one’s

own culture, values, and beliefs. This puts emphasis on what John Locke called natural right

to liberty or freedom (together with right to life and property); natural right defined as “God-
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given right that are fundamental to human beings and are therefore inalienable or cannot be

taken away” (Heywood, 2019). This can be exemplified in the present by the different views

and growing debate on the passage of the Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity or Expression

(SOGIE) Equality Bill which was proposed by Senator Risa Hontiveros. Whereas members of

the LGBTQ+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and queer) community are steadfast on

their belief that a law regarding anti-discrimination on the basis of SOGIE must be passed,

church groups on the other hand are split when it comes to their views with some citing their

belief as their basis for opposition or acceptance of the proposed bill. Rhetoric is used by those

who oppose and those who fight for the passage of the bill in order to exercise their freedom

and assert their values and beliefs which can ultimately be seen as a product of their culture

and social facticity. In a senate hearing of the proposed bill, Sister Mary John Mananzan —a

Catholic nun, defended the SOGIE bill by saying:

I don’t see that this bill is giving any special right to this group. They are
just saying that the rights of everybody should also be applied to them. As a
religious woman I believe in the respect, compassion, and reverence for all
persons because I believe they were all made in the image and likeness of God.
(Placido, 2019)

In doing so, she was able to exercise her freedom of speech and assert her beliefs. She

created an opportunity for others to clarify their own beliefs and values as well. This can further

be explained through Muzafer Sherif’s Social Judgement Theory which is the “perception and

evaluation of an idea by comparing it with current attitude” (Griffin, 2012). It states that when

a person hears a speech, the ideas proposed by the speaker can fall on one of three zones

namely: latitude of acceptance (range of ideas that a person considers reasonable), latitude of

rejection (range of ideas that a person considers unreasonable), and latitude of non-commitment

(range of ideas that a person considers neither reasonable nor unreasonable). The theory

suggests that persuasion happens when the message/idea of the speaker lands on the latitude of

acceptance. However, when it lands on the latitude of rejection, it is likely that a person’s
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attitude will move farther away from what the speaker is advocating. The falling into a latitude

happens when the presented ideas are compared to one’s own; more similarities increase the

likelihood of ideas falling into the latitude of acceptance and greater difference increases the

likelihood of ideas falling into the latitude of rejection. For example, when senator Risa

Hontiveros gives a speech on SOGIE bill and her message falls on the latitude of acceptance

of a student, this would help the student to clarify her beliefs and may start advocating the

passage of the bill as well. However, if it the senator’s ideas fall on the latitude of rejection of

the student, the student will most likely oppose the ideas even more.

Seeks for and brings about justice

Another social function of rhetoric is used in courtrooms in order to seek and bring

about justice. This dates back to the time to the ancient Greeks where in a person charged with

a crime needs to speak for himself in court. Rhetoric’s role inside the court of law can be

explained through the three classifications of rhetoric according to Aristotle: deliberative

rhetoric, epideictic rhetoric, and forensic rhetoric. Deliberative rhetoric, as stated in the first

part of the paper, is used when a lawyer wants to get someone to take action; this is most

commonly used by legislators when creating laws. On the other hand, epideictic rhetoric is

used by a lawyer during the opening and closing statements of a case by heaping praise or

blame towards one party. Lastly, forensic rhetoric is used by a lawyer when “he is defending

or accusing someone in a criminal or civil case” (Barnwell, 2014). This particular type of

rhetoric’s aim is to see that justice is served by “setting things right after an injustice has

occurred” (Alberts et al., 2016).

One example of this function of rhetoric can be seen in the Choing Sisters Murder Case

of 1997 where in Francisco Juna “Paco” Larranaga and six others were convicted for the rape

and murder of Marijoy and Jacqueline Chiong. As the last resort, epideictic and deliberative
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rhetoric was used by Larrañaga’s lawyers as they fought for his acquittal when they appealed

his case to the United Nations Human Rights Commission. UN Human Rights Commission,

together with Fair Trials International and the Spanish government, called for Larrañaga’s

release. Through this, he was allowed to serve his life sentence in Spain. In the present, many

believe that he was wrongfully convicted and was a victim of the systemic failure of the

judiciary branch of the Philippines. And with the absence of a jury system in the country, a

lawyer’s goal is to persuade a judge to rule in his client’s favor using the available means of

persuasion in order to seek or bring about justice if an injustice has already taken place.

Demagoguery: A Threat to Philippine Democracy

Throughout history, the world has seen the rise of demagogues in politics: Germany’s

Adolf Hitler, Italy’s Benito Mussolini, Russia’s Vladimir Putin, and United States’ Donald

Trump all rose to power by hiding under the guise of inspirational leaders who were able to

appeal to emotions and prejudices of people. Filipinos had also seen the rise of one demagogue

as head of state and head of government: Ferdinand Marcos. What all of these leaders have in

common is that they were all able to “kill” democracy to say the least. As stated by Cruz (2016)

in his article:

Ferdinand Marcos was able to play on the fears of the Filipino people and
convinced them that there was anarchy and subversion rampant in the streets.
Therefore, martial law was justified. The rule of law and democracy was
terminated. The cult of personality – Marcos as the strong leader – was cultivated
and it took 14 years of hardships and struggle before democracy was regained.

Though, the alarming thing here is the resemblance of Rodrigo Duterte’s style of

leadership and rhetoric to that of Marcos. Most of the Filipino electorate were swayed by

Duterte’s idea of a very radical change as demonstrated in his campaign slogan in May

2016 presidential race: “Change is coming.” Marcos’s rhetoric also showcased his vision

of a “New Society” or “Bagong Lipunan” 51 years ago. Both were able to create a cult of
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personality that presents them as “strong men” who will bring about immediate action.

Perhaps this has something to do with the citizenry’s disenchantment with democracy in

general to the point where these leaders are able to maximize rhetoric to appeal to

emotions such as fear and hatred in order to stir hysteria. Through the power of speech,

demagogues amass popular support for their vision and are able to legitimize their

authority by making it seem like they have the electorate’s mandate.

A dark chapter also dawned the Philippines during Marcos’s dictatorship and

authoritarian regime with countless human rights violation and blatant oppression. Such

instances are also prevalent in the Duterte administration as exemplified by the myriad of

victims of the War on Drugs and also the continuous attack on press freedom. The

atrocious and oppressive intent is also visible in Duterte’s rhetoric as he even said in a

televised national address: “I don’t care about human rights, you better believe me.” His

crude remarks have often disregarded decency and relied on the listeners’ emotional

response. “Prone to profanity, Duterte makes no attempt to varnish his words or conceal

his intent” (Gomez, 2017).

Marcos and Duterte as demagogues only prove that even though rhetoric bolsters

democracy, it can also undermine it by propping up authoritarian rulers. Even though rhetoric

encourages critical thinking, it can also weaken it through bypassing of logic or reason and

appealing directly to emotion. And even though rhetoric is used to uphold freedom, it can also

subjugate people and be an ideological weapon that brings about injustice.

Martin Luther King Jr. did not only become a catalyst for social change during his time;

his speech was also a proof of how rhetoric —the art of persuasion, plays a constant and vital

role in the society whether people realize it or not. It plays an important role in democratic

participation and allows the existence of a vital democracy which advances the interests of the
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whole citizenry. Rhetoric is also essential in the exercise of freedom of expression in cultural

and religious aspects which further allows receivers of rhetoric to clarify their own beliefs and

values and be able to make a stand for themselves. It also provides an avenue for justice and

gives momentum for the achievement of changes in the society. Because of its powerful

character, rhetoric can be used (and is used) in deception and manipulation as exemplified by

demagogues rising in power. Hence, it is also essential for receivers of rhetoric to be critical.

Lastly, rhetoric’s significance transcends time because of its intimate tie with the social, and

even historical, environment. It keeps the society going because of how it connects people

despite the diversity.

Only time can tell how many lives can be and will be changed through the words of

great rhetors like Martin Luther King Jr. and Greta Thunberg. However, one thing is certain:

rhetoric will continue its relevance in the society as long as communication and interaction

between people exists.

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USA: Pearson

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scholarworks.gsu.edu/english_hontheses/10

Chamberlain, C. (2008, Nov 5). Speech scholar on President Obama’s rhetorical skills.

Retrieved from https://news.illinois.edu/view/6367/198783

Cruz, E. (2016). Demagogues. Retrieved from

https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2016/04/23/1576170/demagogues

Gomez, J. (2017). One year on, Duterte remains a human rights nightmare. Retrieved from

https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/07/one-year-on-duterte-remains-a-

human-rights-nightmare/

Griffin, E. (2012). A first look at communication theory (8th ed.). NY: McGraw-Hill

Gustainis, J. (1990). Demagoguery and Political Rhetoric: A Review of the Literature. UK:

Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3885904

Heywood, A. (2019). Politics (5th ed.). UK and US: Palgrave Macmillan

Hogan, M., Parry-Giles, S. (2010). The Handbook of Rhetoric and Public Address. Print

ISBN:9781405178136 |Online ISBN:9781444324105 | DOI:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444324105

Placido, D. (2019). No 'special rights' given: Catholic nun supports SOGIE equality bill.

Retrieved from https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/09/05/19/no-special-rights-given-

catholic-nun-supports-sogie-equality-bill

Senate of the Philippines. (n.d.) Term of Office and Privilages. Retrieved from:

https://www.senate.gov.ph/senators/terms.asp
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Zug, C. (2019). Between Demagoguery and Populism. Retrieved from:

https://www.lawliberty.org/2019/10/03/between-demagoguery-and-populism/