PHY 102

Introductory Mechanics and Properties of Matter

(3 units)

Lecturers: Prof. Idowu Farai

Dr. Titus Ogunseye

Recommended Texts:
Fundamentals of Physics: Resnick and Halliday
Advanced Level Physics: Nelkon and Parker
College Physics: Any Good Author
College Physics: Schaum Series (Worked Examples)
Mechanics and Properties of Matter Idowu Farai
 Useful Mathematics

Laws and theorems in Physics are often expressed in form

of mathematical functions.The common functions include:

1. Sinusoidal functions
Functions which oscillate between minimum and maximum
values at regular intervals are said to be periodic or
sinusoidal. They can be described by sine or cosine
functions.

They are of the form: y1 = sin A or y2 = cos B.

where A and B may contain more than one term.

2. Logarithm Functions and Indices

We can recall that if x is related to y by y = logb x, then y is

related to x by: x = b y.
e.g. 23 = 8 or log2 8 = 3

The letter b is called the base of the logarithm and it is

usually omitted when it is 10.
e.g. 1000 = 103 or log 1000 = 3

For the exponential function, ex = N, then x = loge N,

where e ≈ 2.7183 and loge e = 1.

This logarithm is called a Naperian or natural log because

many natural systems are described by exponential functions.
Example
For a mass of a gas at pressure P and volume V, PVγ = C,
where γ and C are constants. From the values of P and V
obtained in an experiment, determine the values of γ and C
and estimate P when V = 100 cm3

Take log of both sides: log P + γ logV = log C

Rearrange: log P = - γ logV + log C
Compare with straight line graph: y = mx + c
Plot a graph of log P on y-axis against log V on x-axis
1. Slope = - γ and intercept on y-axis = log C
2. Read log P corresponding to log 100, hence find P
Derived Functions
For linear equations like: y = 4x +2, the rate of
change of y with x is constant and it is equal to the
slope of the graph of y against x

For functions like: y = 2x2 or y = 5x3 + 2x,

the slope is different at different values of x.

A new equation, called the derivative of the original

equation is required to get the slope at any value of x
Differentiation Operation:
It can be shown that if: y = kxn, then its first derivative is

= .

That is, if = + + + .

The first derivative is = + +

The second derivative is: = + and so on

Exercise: Find the first and the second derivatives

of = + , if u and a are constants.
For example,
2 15 3
 dx 
15 x x  c  5x3  c
3
1
A special integration is that of  dx  log e x  c
x

From Summation to Integration

The summation of all integer numbers between 1 and 10
is 10

 x   (1  2  3  4  ......  10)  55
1

When the quantity x can assume any value (e.g.

3.6434..) and not only integers, we say it is continuous.
The summation operation is replaced by integration.
Application
If we divide a circle into an infinite number of tiny rings
such that the radius of a ring of thickness ∆x varies
continuously between 0 and r, the area of the circle is
the summation of the areas of all the tiny rings

Area of each ring,

∆A = 2π x ∆x,

where ∆x is the thickness of

the ring.
Total area as ∆x 0

= = − =

We are all familiar with the formula A = πr2 for a circle.

Exercise
The surface area of a sphere is 4πr2. By dividing the
sphere into an infinite number of spheres, each of very
small thickness ∆x when radius is x, show that the volume
of the whole sphere of radius r is
=
Quantities, Units and Dimensions

Two distinct groups of quantities in physics as far as

their units are concerned.

A Fundamental quantity: Does not depend on

prior knowledge of any other quantity

A derived quantity: It is derived from the

knowledge of some other quantities.

The five fundamental quantities in physics are

Mass, Time, Length, Temperature and Charge,

All other quantities such as volume, density, force, energy,
resistance, specific heat, current are derived from these five
fundamental quantities

Unit of a Quantities
The unit of a quantity tells us the scale in which its
measurement is made.

A value without its unit of measurement has no meaning.

In SI units, the fundamental units are:
Metre (m) for length, Gramme (g) for mass,
seconds (s) for time Kelvin (K) for temperature
Coulombs (C) for charge.
Derived units: Force in Newton (N), Energy in Joule (J)
Power in Watts (W), Current in Ampere (A)

SI units (Since 1973):

Super Units Sub Units
103 = kilo (k) 10-3 = milli (m),
106 = Mega (M) 10-6 = micro (μ)
109 = Giga (G) 10-9 = nano(n)
1012 = Tera (T) 10-12 = pico (p)
1015 = Peta (P) 10-15 = femto (f)

Examples
Electric Power generation in Nigeria is 7,000 MW
Radius of orbit of the sun is 4.5 Tm
Thickness of human hair is about 100 μm
Diameter of a nucleus is of the order of 1 fm.
 Dimensions
Expression which shows how a physical quantity is
related to the fundamental quantities from which it has
been derived.

All quantities in mechanics are derived by the

combination of the three fundamental units of
length L, mass M and time T

Examples
Velocity V ≡ LT-1 Acceleration a ≡ LT-2
Force F ≡ MLT-2 Density ≡ ML-3
Energy W ≡ ML2T-2, Pressure p ≡ ML-1T-2
Applications of Dimensional Analysis

1. Checking the validity or otherwise of an

equation.
The terms of a correct physical equation must have the
same dimensions
For example: v 2 = u 2 + 2as
(LT-1)2 = (LT-1) 2 + (LT-2)(L)
L2T -2 = L2T -2 + L2T -2
Since each term of the equation has the same dimension
of L2T-2, the equation is homogenous and hence, valid.
 Typical MCQ

1. The displacement of a particle in an x-y plane is

given by = + and = − where t
is time from rest and A, B, D and E are constants.
The respective dimensions of A, B and D are:

A. ( , , )
B. ( , , )
C. , ,
D. ( , , )
2. Deriving the exact dependence of one
quantity on other quantities in an equation.

Example: The variables in a simple pendulum, on which

the period may depend, are:

1. the length l of the pendulum

2. the mass m of the bob.
3. the acceleration due to gravity g at the location.
We can assume:

where k is a dimensionless constant

Dimensionally,
= or =

Equating indices on both sides,

For L : x+z =0 or x=-z
For T: -2z = 1 or z = - ½ and hence x = ½
For M: y = 0 (no dependence on mass)

/ /
That is, = or =
The constant will be shown later to be k = 2π so that
the actual relationship is =2
 Scalars and Vectors
Scalars: Completely described by their magnitudes,
expressed in the appropriate units.

Examples:
A mass of 20 kg,
A time of 2 hours, well understood
A work (energy) of 100 J etc.

Addition of scalars: 20 kg +40 kg = 60 kg

Vectors: Described by their magnitudes and directions

A displacement of 1,000 km from Ibadan is not well

understood until the direction is stated.
Other quantities in this category are

1. Force,
2. Velocity,
3. Acceleration,
4. Electric field intensity etc.

Vector Addition
The sum of 20N, 25N and 40N along east, west and
north respectively is not equal to 85N. The
computation has to take their direction into account.
Geometrical Method:
Representing the two vectors A and B say, by two
adjacent sides of a triangle inclined to each other at
the angle between the two vectors. The third side R is
the resultant vector

Use of Cosine Rule

R2 = A2 + B2 – 2AB cos (1800 – θ)
= A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ
Exercise
Two boys pull a toy with forces 10 N and 15 N inclined
at 600 to each other. Find their resultant in magnitude
and direction. (R = 21.8N at 36.60 to the 10 N force).

We can use the sine rule if we want to state R relative

to vectors A or B
= =

where A, B and C are the lengths opposite the angles a,

b and c, respectively.
Subtraction of Vectors
The same process as addition if we note that
A – B = A + (- B)

where –B is a vector equal in magnitude to B but

oppositely directed. The vector diagram is the form:

A -B

R
The cosine rule becomes: R2 = A2 + B2 - 2AB cos θ
Scale Drawing: If convenient scales are used and the
lengths and angles are very carefully measured, the
geometrical method can be carried out by scale drawing
That is, V = iVx + jVy + kVz

The magnitude, = = + +

Direction to x-axis, = ( )
Example 1
If three forces, F1 =( 4i – j)N, F2 = (-3i + 2j) N and
F3 = -3j N act on a body in a plane. Find the
resultant
 F = i(4 – 3) + j(-1 + 2 – 3)= i – 2j

F  12  2 2  1  4  5  2.23 N

y 2
  tan 1  tan 1  63 .43 0
x 1

That is, the resultant is 2.23 N at angle 63.430 to

the x-axis in the 4th quadrant.
Example 2
If three forces F1 = 20N, 300NE, F2 = 50N along W,
F3 = 40N 500NW act on a body. Find the resultant in
magnitude and direction.
Vector Multiplication

There are generally three types of multiplication

operations:

1. a vector by a scalar which always yields a vector, such

as F = ma

2. vector by a vector to yield a scalar, such as W = F.S

(Scalar or Dot product product)

3. a vector by a vector to yield a vector, such as

τ = F × S (Vector or Cross product)
Operation (i)
The product is always a vector in the direction of the vector
being multiplied with the scalar. For example:

(m × a = F) in direction of a (Newton second law)

Operation (ii)
Dot product of two vectors and it is defined by:
. =
where θ is the angle between them. Analytically,

. = + + .( + + )
= . + ⋯+ . + ⋯+ .
= + +
Note that:
i . i = j . j = k . k = 1×1×Cos0 = 1 and
i . j = i . k = j . k = 1×1×Cos90 = 0

so that terms like (i . j)(Ax .By) and so on are zero.

Example
A force F = 2i + 4j (in N) acts on a body and causes a
displacement S = i + 5j (in m). Find the work done.

W = F .S
= (2 × 1) + (4 ×5) = 22 J.
Operation (iii)
Vector (or cross) product and it is defined as
A × B = n AB sin θ
where θ is the angle between them and n is a unit vector
perpendicular to both A and B

A  B  ABSin 
It has the property that A × B = - B × A

A×B

B ×A
A × B and B × A are in opposite directions
 Use of a Matrix
The product vector is equal to the determinant of the matrix
formed by the two vectors.
A × B = (iAx + jAy + kAz) × (iBx + jBy + kBz)

i j k
 Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

= (Ay Bz – ByAz)i – (AxBz –Bx Az)j +(AxBy – BxAy)k

 Example
If A = 5i – 2j + k and B = 2i + 4j – 3k
i j k
A×B = 5 2 1
2 4 3

= (6-4)i – (-15 – 2)j + (20+4)k = 2i + 17j + 24k

A B  2 2  17 2  24 2  29 .5 in appropriate unit

Exercise
Find B × A and show that it is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to A × B.
Exercise
Two insects A and B fly in space with uniform velocities
VA = i + 4j + 3k and VB = 4i + 2j – 4k in m/s with respect to a
stationary observer at the origin (0,0,0).

Show that the insects fly at right angle to each other and
determine their distance apart after 5s. (39.37 m).
 Kinematics
This is the study of motions without considering the
forces causing the motions. We can have motion along a
line (1D), on a surface or plane (2D) or in space (3D).

Displacement.
Displacement is the effective distance between two points.
A motion from position P1(2, 2) to P2(6,4) is of the form:
Velocity and Acceleration
Velocity is the rate at which displacement is changing with
time. We may be interested in its

1. Average value over a period of time

2. Instantaneous value at a point of interest.
Example
A particle moving in a plane (or surface) has its motion
described by: x = 20t + 10 and y = 6t2 + 4t where distances
are in m and time is in seconds. Find the magnitude and
direction of its velocity at the instant 5s from rest
Acceleration
When the velocity of a body is changing either in magnitude
or direction (or both) the body is said to be undergoing
acceleration, which is the rate of change of velocity
with time.
Uniform Motion
A motion for which the acceleration is constant is referred
to as uniform motion. For all uniform motions, some useful
equations can be derived, which are generally applicable.
 vt uv
The distance s  ( )t .
2 2
 Example 2
A proton is accelerated in a particle accelerator in the
horizontal x – y plane. If its velocity changes from 3000 m/s
along y-axis to 4000 m/s along x-axis in 20 μs, what is its
average acceleration in magnitude and direction?
From eqn i, the acceleration is vu
a
t
An approach is to find v – u with the geometrical method
of vector addition, recalling that the change in velocity,

D = v – u = v + (-u)
 R  40002  30002  2.5 106  1.581103

. ×
Acceleration = Δv/Δt = = 7.9 × 10 m/s2
×

3
  tan 1  36.87o to x-axis
4

Exercise: Solve the problem by analytical method

Relative Motion
Every motion is observed (or measured) relative to an
observer and the observer is always considered to be at rest
in the frame of reference in which the motion is being
measured.
The velocity of A as measured by B as VAB and that of B as
measured by (relative to) A is VBA.
Example
The velocity of a boat B can be measured relative to another
boat A (VBA), relative to water W (VBW) or relative to the
shore S (VBS). Note that: VBA≠VBW ≠VBS
Rule 1: If VBA is the velocity of B relative to A and VAB
is the velocity of A relative to B, then:

VBA = - VAB

Rule 2: If VBA is the velocity of B relative to A and VCB

is the velocity of C relative to B, then the
velocity of C relative to A is:

VCA = VCB + VBA

If you are in car A, which a stationary roadside observer O sees
as moving with VAO = 100 km/hr and another car B overtakes
your car with a velocity which you reckon as VBA = 20 km/hr, the
roadside observer will see car B as moving with the velocity
VBO = VBA + VAO = 120 km/hr.
Example 1
A boy runs inside a train with a velocity VBT = 4i – 2j relative to
a passenger sitting in the train while the train is moving with a
velocity VTR = 50i + 30j relative to a roadside observer. Find the
velocity of boy relative to roadside observer, VBR
The velocity of the boy relative to the roadside
observer

VBR = VTM + VBT = (50i + 30j) + (4i – 2j)

= 54i + 28j

VRB = - (54i + 28j)

= - 54i - 28j (backwards)
Example 2
A boy can swim 1.2 m/s in still water. Find total time to
swim a distance 1 km upstream and return to the starting
point
1. When the water is still
2. When the water has a steady speed of 0.5 m/s

There are three velocities to consider

Velocity of boy relative to water, VBW
Velocity of water relative to the ground, VWG
Velocity of boy relative to the ground, VBG

From Rule 2: VBG = VBW + VWG

1. When the water is still, VWG = 0 or VBG = VBW = 1.2 m/s

Time to go upstream, = = = 833

.
Time to go up and return = 2t = 1.67 × 103 s

2. When the water is not still, VBG = VBW + VWG

Upstream, VWG = - 0.5 m/s or VBG = 1.2 – 0.5 = 0.7 m/s

Time to go upstream, = = = 1.43 × 103

.

Downstream, VWG = 0.5 m/s or VBG = 1.2 + 0.5 = 1.7 m/s

Time to go Downstream, = = = 588

.

Time to go up and return = t1 + t2 = 2.02 × 103 s