Section 2: Referencing basics

What to expect from this section

Referencing in an academic context refers to the practice of acknowledging the sources of

information used in a piece of work. This includes citation to, or referencing, the sources within the
text of the work and providing a list of references or a bibliography at the end of the work. The
purpose of referencing is to give credit to the authors of the sources used, to allow readers to locate
and verify the sources, and to demonstrate the credibility and thoroughness of the research. The
proper use of information, that includes the ethical use of information, is of utmost importance.
When completing an assignment, you need to include in-text references and a reference list. You
should also keep in mind how important it is not to commit any form of plagiarism, and that an
ethical approach to your academic work is essential. In this section, you can expect to be introduced
to the basic principles of plagiarism and the theory behind referencing (in other words, why we need
to reference). In addition, you will also be introduced to the different referencing styles.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this section, you will be able to:
1. Explain why referencing is important in an academic situation
2. Identify and reproduce the pattern for writing references and reference list entries
3. Identify common referencing errors and suggest corrections.
4. Identify instances of information where referencing is missing.
5. Explain why referencing is needed, even for sources in the public domain.
6. Document your reading – use a system to document text references and reference list
entries.

Surely you have read the word "reference" quite a few times by now. But why does a reference
need a style? Just like you had learned about academic writing styles (that are rules on how to
structure your sentences and text) references are also subject to rules. That is a generally
accepted standard of presenting the sources of information that you had used in your
investigations. There are many styles, and they are applicable to the different fields of inquiry.

Two types of referencing systems

There are two different types of referencing systems that we use. Firstly, author-based systems,
which arrange sources alphabetically according to authors’ surnames and, therefore uses the
authors’ surnames in the text references. Secondly, number-based systems arrange sources
numerically according to the order in which they first appear in the text. Different institutions and
study fields incorporate different referencing styles. Always ensure that you use the correct
referencing style. The HARVARD referencing style is the most widely used style (except for law
students, who use the PER-style).

This is how we differentiate between two basic systems of referencing:

Regardless of the referencing system (author-based or number-based), there are two parts that
should always be included in any assignment, that is the text references (citations) and the list of
references. Referencing systems are used to give credit to the authors of the sources used in a
piece of work. They provide a way to acknowledge the contributions of others and to allow
readers to locate and verify the sources used. Each referencing system has its own specific
set of rules and guidelines for how to format citations and bibliographies. These rules
dictate the format for the in-text citations and the information that must be included in the
reference list or bibliography. For example, in the Harvard referencing system, in-text citations
include the author's last name and the year of publication in brackets, while in the MLA referencing
system, in-text citations include the author's last name and page number. In both systems, a
reference list or bibliography is required at the end of the paper, but the format of the entries and
the information that is included in each entry are different.
The most used referencing systems are:
• Harvard
• MLA (Modern Language Association)
• APA (American Psychological Association)
• Chicago
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

It is important to note that different academic fields and institutions may have different preferred
referencing styles, so it is important to check which style is required when submitting work. The
NWU prescribes the Harvard style (adapted) as the official referencing system, but some faculties
have preferences for other systems. It is also possible that postgraduate students are required to
use a different system, for example when a psychology postgraduate student is required to use APA.
It is important to define the various terms regarding referencing first:

• A reference (sometimes called an in-text reference or in-text citation) is an academic nod

to the original source of an idea. It usually consists of the surname(s) of the original
author(s) in combination with the date of publication of the information and the page on
 which the information appears. A reference never functions on its own and is always
accompanied by a bibliographic entry in the bibliography or reference list.
• A reference list entry is the complete pattern of details (particulars) needed to identify a
source and its origin. We will show you what these details entail, and in which sequence
they should be displayed.
• A reference list is a list of all the sources that you used or specifically referred to (cited)
in your text. There is a specific format for presenting the information in a reference list
(see below).
• A bibliography is also a list of sources, and although it is similar to a reference list, it is
more detailed because it contains additional sources of information (background) that are
not explicitly referred to (cited) in the text. The format of entries is the same as for a
reference list.

Okay, now you should have a basic idea of why and how to refer to the information you
use. Remember, there are two parts of referencing that must always be present when you
acknowledge the sources:
1. Text references/footnotes (citations) – these are inside the text – in brackets as part
of the sentences (when using the author-based system) or contained in a footnote at the
bottom of the page (when using the number-based system), and
2. A reference list, called a bibliography in the case of Law (or if your discipline
prefers) – at the end of a text or essay – on its own page after the last paragraph, usually
the conclusion.
Before we move to the two parts of referencing, let us recap why referencing is so important.

Referencing is important in an academic situation for several reasons:

1. Giving credit to the original authors: One of the main reasons for referencing is to give
credit to the original authors of the work that you are using in your research or writing.
Proper referencing allows you to acknowledge the contributions of others and avoid
plagiarism.
2. Establishing credibility: By referencing your sources, you are demonstrating to your
readers that your research and writing is based on credible and reliable sources. This can
help to establish the credibility and authority of your work.
3. Supporting your arguments: Referencing can also help to support your arguments and
claims by providing evidence from credible sources. This can help to strengthen the overall
quality and validity of your work.
4. Facilitating further research: By referencing your sources, you are making it easier for your
readers to find and consult the original sources that you have used. This can facilitate
further research and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
5. Meeting academic requirements: Many academic institutions have specific requirements
for referencing and citation styles. By referencing your sources correctly, you can ensure
that you are meeting these requirements and avoiding any potential penalties.
Overall, referencing is an important aspect of academic work and plays a crucial role in maintaining
academic integrity and credibility. It allows to give credit to others' work, strengthens the
arguments, facilitates further research, and meets academic requirements.

Text references (also called, in-text references, or citations) should be provided for every idea
incorporated from another source – not just at the end of a paragraph or page, but every
idea. A text reference can be part of the sentence construction (narrative format), or at the end
of a sentence (parenthetical format). When using information from a source, you will either make
use of indirect quotations/paraphrasing (preferred method), or direct quotations.

NWU Harvard text references

NOTE: You can click on the link above (NWU Harvard text references) to navigate to the Harvard
text reference section of Referella for further assistance with text references.

A text reference consists of the author’s surname, the date (year the source was published) and
page number(s) where the information referred to was found. However, page numbers are not
applicable when an article found on a web page which is in HTML-format, does not have
page numbers. In such a case the text reference will only have the author’s surname and the
year. Always make a corresponding entry in the reference list (to be discussed hereafter)
which contains all the information about the source in order to locate the source easily. In summary,
when using the Harvard method/style of referencing for in-text referencing, the following details are
needed:
1. Author's surname
2. Year of publication
3. Page number
4. The format of an in-text reference according to the
5. Author's surname (year of publication: page number)

For Example: Moremedi (2020:12)

How do you add the in-text references to your text?

You can add in-text references to your text in three different ways.

Indirect quotations/Paraphrasing

With an indirect quotation, you paraphrase information – that means you write it in your own words.
Take care to retain the spirit and argumentation of the original text and do not twist the argument
of the original author to your own purposes. Even if you use your own words, the idea still belongs
to someone else, so even though you do not use quotation marks (as you would with direct
quotations), you still must add the text reference. Be sure to vary the style of citation in your
argument (i.e., do not only use the narrative format or parenthetical format, but rather change
between them as you write).

EXAMPLE

As part of the sentence (narrative format):

According to Healy (2011) patients need to know that they can trust and rely on health care
practitioners to take care of their problems.

OR

Healy (2011) states that patients need to know that they can trust and rely on health care
practitioners to take care of their problems.
 EXAMPLE

At the end of the sentence (parenthetical format):

Patients need to know that they can trust and rely on health care practitioners to take care of their
problems (Healy, 2011).

Direct quotations
Although it is best to paraphrase sources rather than directly quoting them, it is sometimes
necessary to use direct quotations, especially when reproducing an exact definition, or when an
author has said something in such a way that you cannot describe it in a better way in your own
words. When quoting directly, always provide the author, year and page number (if available) of
the quotation.

EXAMPLE

In the middle of the sentence (note quotation marks and other punctuation):

Zimbabwean youths show an interest in farming, but as Makate et al. (2018) conclude they “fail to
make meaningful investments in agriculture” (p. 436), contributing to further unemployment amongst
the youth in Zimbabwe.

EXAMPLE

At the end of the sentence (note quotation marks and other punctuation):
Maori researchers’ dissatisfaction with mainstream researchers has led to an increased desire and
capacity for “by Maori, for Maori, with Maori research” (Cram et al., 2004:167).

Special format for very long quotations

Quotations of 40 words or more are formatted as a block quotation without inverted commas. Start
the block quotation on a new line and indent the whole quotation 0.5 inch from the left margin.
Double space the entire block quotation.

EXAMPLE

Block quotation with narrative citation (author is part of the sentence):

With the emphasis placed globally on human rights the following excerpt of Segone (2006) captures
the importance of public policies which should be in place:

Within a human rights approach, evaluation should focus on the most vulnerable populations
to determine whether public policies are designed to ensure that all people enjoy their rights
as citizens, whether disparities are eliminated and equity enhanced, and whether democratic
approaches have been adopted that include everyone in decision-making processes that
affect their interests. (p. 12)
EXAMPLE

Block quotation with parenthetical citation (citation at the end of the sentence):

Researchers have studied how people talk to themselves:

Inner speech is a paradoxical phenomenon. It is an experience that is central to many

people’s everyday lives, and yet it presents considerable challenges to any effort to study it
scientifically. Nevertheless, a wide range of methodologies and approaches have combined
to shed light on the subjective experience of inner speech and its cognitive and neural
underpinnings. (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015, p. 957)

In addition to the three ways to add in-text references, it is also important to distinguish between
the different places in a sentence where you can add the in-text references.

The pattern for referencing

There are various referencing styles, and if you understand the basic principles of the style in which
you need to work, it is relatively simple to implement since referencing styles were created to follow
certain fixed patterns. The Harvard referencing style (there are many versions of it) is a relatively
uncomplicated system that follows the basic pattern of WHO, WHEN, WHERE in the text and
WHO, WHEN, WHAT and WHERE for reference list entries. This is explained in detail in the NWU
Referencing Guide (2020).
To make it easier, you can remember it as SDP/SIDAP:

Text references: Smith, Brown, and Jackson (2009:14) found evidence that …

Pattern in text references

S Only surnames - Smith, Brown and Jackson (2009:14) found evidence

that …

Only year - Smith, Brown and Jackson (2009:14) found evidence that …
D

The page(s) on which the information found. (Sometimes left out if you
P refer to the article as a whole) -Smith, Brown and Jackson
(2009:14) found evidence that …

Look at the pattern for the reference list entries as well. You will be able to identify the similarities
between the text reference and the reference list entry quite easily.

Reference list entry: Smith, J.C., Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article name. Journal
name, 74(2):13-15.

Pattern of entry in reference list

SI Surname and Initial: all the authors’ surnames and all their initials

This refer to all the authors' surnames and all their initials - Smith, J.C.,
Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article name. Journal name,
74(2):13-15.

D Date: the year of publication.

The year of publication - Smith, J.C., Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article
name. Journal name, 74(2):13-15.

A Article name: the name of the book or article

The name of the book or article or the part of a book, or the name of the
report - Smith, J.C., Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article name. Journal
name, 74(2):13-15.

P Publication details: where the source comes from – the name of the journal,
the publisher, or the website address. Where
 Where does it come from? The name of the journal, the publisher, or the
website address tells you where the information came from. In the case of a
book, you usually organise the where from big to small, i.e., city first, then
publisher, e.g., Cape Town: Van Schaik. *Cape Town is bigger than the offices
of Van Schaik - Smith, J.C., Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article
name. Journal name, 74(2):13-15.

Example

Reference: Smith et al. (2009:14) proved that …

Reference list: Smith, J.C., Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article title. Journal title, 74(2):13-
15.

Who When What Where

Reference Smith et al. 2009 14

Reference list entry Smith, J.C., Brown, 2009. Article title Journal title, 74(2):13-15.
P.K. & Jackson, U.

The pattern of referencing

The excerpt below illustrates how references function in an actual academic text. We have
highlighted the source Baker and Dalby (1980) in red in both the actual text and the reference
list. Note that no page number appears after the year, which means that the author refers to the
text as a whole and not just to a specific page. The Marsden-Jones and Turril source does indicate
specific page numbers. It is important to realise that we do not include the complete reference list
here. This is only an extract from the reference list and shows only the first three sources. Note also
that a different referencing style is used in this text than the one prescribed at this university.
Marsden-Jones and Turril are not visible in the extract from this reference list as their entry appears
much lower down the list (based on alphabetical order) as a whole. See Figure 14 for the complete
reference list.
Excerpt from actual text

The flowers are white, 20–25 mm in diameter, each flower is surrounded by a bladdery calyx and the
flowers are carried in inflorescences typically of one to four flowers. The species is outbreeding, although
it apparently lacks any incompatibility mechanism (Marsden-Jones & Turrill, 1946:11). Flowers are
hermaphrodite and slightly protandrous and occasional female flowers are known (Baker & Dalby, 1980).

Excerpt from actual reference list

References

Akaike, H. 1974. A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr. 19: 716–
723.

Baker, A.J.M. & Dalby, D.H. 1980. Morphological variation between some isolated populations of Silene
maritima within the British Isles with particular reference to inland populations on metalliferous soils. New
Phytol. 84: 123–138.

Clapham, A.R., Tutin, T.G. & Moore, D.M. 1987. Flora of the British Isles, 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge
University.

The patterns will be discussed again when we look at creating a reference list entry.

*If your faculty prescribes the APA style, or if you are a LAW student, you might want to look at the in-
referencing (citation) guidelines below (simply click on the referencing style you use).

NWU Law House Style text references/footnotes

NWU Law House Style text references/footnotes
NOTE: You can click on the link above (NWU Law House Style footnotes) to navigate to the NWU
Law House Style section of Referella for further assistance.

The NWU Faculty of Law House Style is the style that is currently prescribed for all
undergraduate and postgraduate law students.

Text references (also called, in-text references, or citations) should be provided for every idea
incorporated from another source – not just at the end of a paragraph or page, but every idea.
For the NWU Law House Style a text reference can be part of the sentence construction, or at
the end of a sentence as a footnote. Always make a corresponding entry in the
bibliography (to be discussed hereafter) which contains all the information about the source to
locate the source easily.

Footnotes
A footnote is a reference that occurs in the body of the text. It is needed for any idea that is not
your own, original idea – something which you read somewhere and would like to include in your
work. It should be indicated as close to the cited (quoted or mentioned) idea as
possible, in the same sentence.
 Refer to Referella to find out more about how to use footnotes

Click on the resource link above to see how to use footnotes and how to references different source
types, such as:
• Books
• Chapters in books
• Journal articles
• Case laws
• Legislation
• etc.

It is highly recommended that you watch the videos available on Referella and use your
NWU Reference guide to master using footnotes, for the purpose of using the NWU Faculty of
Law House Style.

Style requirements for the NWU Law House Style

1. South African English must be used in all texts. You must, for example, use
"utilisation" as opposed to "utilization" and "neighbour" as opposed to "neighbor".
Where possible, avoid using the passive voice as it may negatively influence the
readability of the text.

2. Use italics for all words in a language other than the language you are writing in, for
example: inter alia, Rechtsstaat, etcetera. This is also applicable for Afrikaans words in
English documents.

3. Make use of footnotes and not endnotes.

4. An alphabetical bibliography must be provided at the end of the text. Abbreviations

used in the text or footnotes, including journal titles must be provided in a list of
abbreviations. The list of abbreviations must be placed after the table of contents and
is numbered as page.

5. A footnote starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop.

APA in-text references

APA text references
NOTE: You can click on the link above (Part 1: APA text references) to navigate to the APA text
reference section of Referella for further assistance.

Text references (also called, in-text references, or citations) should be provided for every idea
incorporated from another source – not just at the end of a paragraph or page, but every
idea. A text reference can be part of the sentence construction (narrative format), or at the end
of a sentence (parenthetical format).

When using information from a source, you will either make use of indirect quotations/
paraphrasing (preferred method), or direct quotations.

A text reference consists of the author’s surname and year when the source was published.
A page number is not necessary in the text reference, except when using a direct quotation, or
when needed to give the specific place where the information of the source can be located. Always
make a corresponding entry in the reference list which contains all the information about the
source to locate the source easily.

Indirect quotations/Paraphrasing
With an indirect quotation, you paraphrase information – that means you write it in your own words.
Take care to retain the spirit and argumentation of the original text and do not twist the argument
of the original author to your own purposes. Even if you use your own words, the idea still belongs
to someone else, so even though you do not use quotation marks (as you would with direct
quotations), you still must add the text reference. Be sure to vary the style of citation in your
argument (i.e., do not only use the narrative format or parenthetical format, but rather change
between them as you write).

EXAMPLE

As part of the sentence (narrative format):

Example 1:
According to Healy (2011) patients need to know that they can trust and rely on health care
practitioners to take care of their problems.

Example 2:
Healy (2011) states that patients need to know that they can trust and rely on health care
practitioners to take care of their problems.

EXAMPLE

At the end of the sentence (parenthetical format):

Patients need to know that they can trust and rely on health care practitioners to take care of
their problems (Healy, 2011).

Direct quotations

Although it is best to paraphrase sources rather than directly quoting them, it is sometimes
necessary to use direct quotations, especially when reproducing an exact definition, or when an
author has said something in such a way that you cannot describe it in a better way in your own
words. When quoting directly, always provide the author, year, and page number (if available) of
the quotation.

EXAMPLE

In the middle of the sentence (note quotation marks and other punctuation):

Zimbabwean youths show an interest in farming, but as Makate et al. (2018) conclude they
“fail to make meaningful investments in agriculture” (p. 436), contributing to further
unemployment amongst the youth in Zimbabwe.
EXAMPLE

At the end of the sentence (note quotation marks and other punctuation):

Maori researchers’ dissatisfaction with mainstream researchers has led to an increased desire
and capacity for “by Maori, for Maori, with Maori research” (Cram et al., 2004, p. 167).

Special format for very long quotations

Quotations of 40 words or more are formatted as a block quotation without inverted commas. Start
the block quotation on a new line and indent the whole quotation 0.5 inch from the left margin.
Double space the entire block quotation.

EXAMPLE

Block quotation with narrative citation (author is part of the sentence):

With the emphasis placed globally on human rights the following excerpt of Segone (2006)
captures the importance of public policies which should be in place:

Within a human rights approach, evaluation should focus on the most vulnerable populations
to determine whether public policies are designed to ensure that all people enjoy their rights
as citizens, whether disparities are eliminated and equity enhanced, and whether democratic
approaches have been adopted that include everyone in decision-making processes that
affect their interests. (p. 12)

EXAMPLE

Block quotation with parenthetical citation (citation at the end of the sentence):

Researchers have studied how people talk to themselves:

Inner speech is a paradoxical phenomenon. It is an experience that is central to many

people’s everyday lives, and yet it presents considerable challenges to any effort to study it
scientifically. Nevertheless, a wide range of methodologies and approaches have combined to
shed light on the subjective experience of inner speech and its cognitive and neural
underpinnings. (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015, p. 957)
Basic in-text referencing (general)

The reference list should contain all the details of every text reference found in the text.
Navigate to Referella for a video and more details regarding the reference list (as well as an
example reference list). Remember you can also see exactly how to include a complete source in
your reference list by making use of Referella, or your official NWU Reference Guide.
Depending on your Faculties preferred referencing style, please choose the applicable style from the
list below and work through the content.

NWU Harvard reference list

NOTE: You can click on the link above to navigate to the NWU Harvard reference list section of
Referella for further assistance.

The reference list should contain all the details of every text reference found in the text.
Navigate to Referella for a video and more details regarding the reference list (as well as an
example reference list). Remember you can also see exactly how to include a complete source in
your reference list by making use of Referella, or your official NWU Reference Guide.

When compiling a reference list keep the following in mind:

Basic elem ents
• Start the reference list on a new page.

• All sources referred to in the text must be included in one alphabetical list (according to
first author).

• Use the term Reference list as heading. A bibliography refers to a more substantial
list covering the subject.

• Complete bibliographical information for every source is essential so that the source
can be traced easily.

• The language of the source and not that of the document (research paper or thesis), is
used in the reference list.

• Do not number entries or use “bullets” in the reference list.

• Use 1.5 spacing and leave a line open between entries or use 18 pt paragraph spacing
after each entry.

• The reference list must be left aligned and not justified (“justify” creates block format
and this leaves unnecessary open spaces especially when typing internet addresses).

• The titles of published sources are typed in italics. Do not italicise the titles of
unpublished material.

• All entries must have a full stop at the end except when a permanent internet link or
DOI is at the end of the entry.

• Do not use a full stop after a URL (internet address). The URL must be hyperlinked.
Alphabetical order of references in the reference list

Arrange the entries in alphabetical order according to the first author. Remember the principle of
“nothing before something”. A surname such as Le Roux is placed before Leaky. Arrange sources by
the same author as follows:
• Chronologically from old to new
• Sources with single author
• Sources with co-authors

Examples of frequently used sources referenced in the reference list

NOTE: The following are only a couple of examples. You can find many more examples of
many other different sources, as well as more detailed notes on how to reference these
sources, in Referella and your official NWU Reference Guide.

Book example

Chapter in a collected work example

Journal article example

Internet source example

Newspaper article example

*NOTE: There is a difference in how to reference a printed newspaper vs an electronic newspaper

(see Referella or your NWU Reference Guide for more details).

Let us recap the basic pattern of WHO, WHEN, WHERE in the text and WHO, WHEN, WHAT and
WHERE for reference list entries. This is explained in detail in the NWU Referencing Guide
(2020).

To make it easier, you can remember it as SDP/SIDAP: Text references: Smith, Brown and
Jackson (2009:14) found evidence that …
Pattern in text references

S Only surnames - Smith, Brown and Jackson (2009:14) found evidence that …

D Only year - Smith, Brown and Jackson (2009:14) found evidence that …

P The page(s) on which the information found. (Sometimes left out if you refer to the article as
a whole) -Smith, Brown and Jackson (2009:14) found evidence that …

Reference list entry: Smith, J.C., Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article name. Journal name,
74(2):13-15.
Pattern of entry in reference list

SI
Surname and Initial: all the authors’ surnames and all their initials

This refers to all the authors' surnames and all their initials - Smith, J.C.,
Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article name. Journal name,
74(2):13-15.

D
Date: the year of publication.

The year of publication - Smith, J.C., Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article
name. Journal name, 74(2):13-15.

A
Article name: the name of the book or article

The name of the book or article or the part of a book, or the name of the
report - Smith, J.C., Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article name. Journal
name, 74(2):13-15.

Publication details: where the source comes from – the name of the journal,
the publisher, or the website address. Where
P
Where does it come from? The name of the journal, the publisher, or the
website address tells you where the information came from. In the case of a
book, you usually organise the where from big to small, i.e., city first, then
publisher, e.g., Cape Town: Van Schaik. *Cape Town is bigger than the offices
of Van Schaik - Smith, J.C., Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article
name. Journal name, 74(2):13-15.

Example
Reference: Smith et al. (2009:14) proved that …
Reference list: Smith, J.C., Brown, P.K. & Jackson, U. 2009. Article title. Journal title, 74(2):13-
15.

Who When What Where

Reference Smith et al. 2009 14

Reference list Smith, J.C., Brown, 2009. Article title Journal title,
entry P.K. & Jackson, U. 74(2):13-15.
The excerpt below illustrates how references function in an actual academic text. We have
highlighted the source Baker and Dalby (1980) in red in both the actual text and the reference
list. Note that no page number appears after the year, which means that the author refers to the
text as a whole and not just to a specific page. The Marsden-Jones and Turril source does indicate
specific page numbers. It is important to realise that we do not include the complete reference list
here. This is only an extract from the reference list and shows only the first three sources. Note also
that a different referencing style is used in this text than the one prescribed at this university.
Marsden-Jones and Turril are not visible in the extract from this reference list as their entry appears
much lower down the list (based on alphabetical order) as a whole. See Figure 14 for the complete
reference list.

Excerpt from actual text

The flowers are white, 20–25 mm in diameter, each flower is surrounded by a bladdery calyx and the
flowers are carried in inflorescences typically of one to four flowers. The species is considered to be
outbreeding, although it apparently lacks any incompatibility mechanism (Marsden-Jones & Turrill,
1946:11). Flowers are hermaphrodite and slightly protandrous and occasional female flowers are known
(Baker & Dalby, 1980).

Excerpt from actual reference list

References

Akaike, H. 1974. A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr. 19: 716–
723.

Baker, A.J.M. & Dalby, D.H. 1980. Morphological variation between some isolated populations of Silene
maritima within the British Isles with particular reference to inland populations on metalliferous soils. New
Phytol. 84: 123–138.

Clapham, A.R., Tutin, T.G. & Moore, D.M. 1987. Flora of the British Isles, 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge
University.

*If your faculty prescribes the APA style, or if you are a LAW student, you might want to look at the
in-referencing (citation) guidelines below (simply click on the referencing style you use).
NWU Law House Style bibliography
NWU Law House Style bibliography
NOTE: You can click on the link above to navigate to the NWU Law House Style bibliography section
of Referella for further assistance.

As a student of law, you will refer to the list containing the references as the bibliography. The
bibliography should contain all the details of every footnote found in the text. Navigate
to Referella for a video and more details regarding the bibliography (as well as an example
bibliography). Remember you can also see exactly how to include a complete source in your
bibliography by making use of Referella, or your official NWU Reference Guide.

When compiling a bibliography keep the following in mind:

Basic elements
(a) The document/essay/assignment must be provided with a bibliography with sub-
headings.
(b) Do not place a full stop after a listed source.
(c) Sources are alphabetised under the following sub-headings in the order which they
appear below:
(i) Literature – All books, chapters in books compiled by editors, conference
contributions, theses, dissertations, journal articles and newspaper articles,
arranged in alphabetical order.
(ii) Case law – All reported and unreported case law.
(iii) Legislation – All statutes referred to, including the Constitution of the Republic of
South Africa, 1996 and statutes of foreign countries.
(iv) International instruments – including international resolutions, conventions
and treaties.
(v) Government publications – including sources officially published in the
Government Gazette such as Government Notices, Proclamations and General
Notices.
(vi) Internet sources – All materials exclusively accessible on the Internet, which do
not fall under the list of references above, for example information obtained
from websites and blogs. (Note: scholarly journal articles and e-books accessed
via online databases should be included under the sub-heading "Literature".)

Examples of frequently used literature sources referenced in the bibliography

(The following are only examples of literature. You can find examples for case laws, legislations,
internet sources, etc., as well as more detailed notes, in Referella and your official NWU Reference
Guide.)

NOTE: All books, chapters in books compiled by editors, conference contributions, theses,
dissertations, journal articles and newspaper articles should be arranged in alphabetical order when
you compile the final/complete bibliography.

Book example
Footnote
1
Grové and Otto Basic Principles of Consumer Credit Law 32.

Bibliography (under the heading "Literature")

Grové NJ and Otto JM Basic Principles of Consumer Credit Law 2nd ed (Juta Cape Town 2002)
CHAPTERS IN BOOKS COMPILED BY EDITOR(S) EXAMPLE (chapters by
different authors)
Footnote
1
Brand "The Right to Food" 160-161.

Bibliography (under the heading "Literature")

Brand D "The Right to Food" in Brand D and Heyns C (eds) Socio-Economic Rights in South
Africa (PULP Pretoria 2005) 153-189

Theses and dissertations example

Footnote
1
Robberts Mining Authorisations in South Africa 221.

Bibliography (under the heading "Literature")

Robberts K Environmental and Mining Authorisations in South Africa (LLM-dissertation University of
Pretoria 2011)

Journal articles example

(NOTE: scholarly journal articles and e-books accessed via online databases should be included
under the sub-heading "Literature" and NOT under "Internet sources".)

Footnote
1
De la Harpe and Van der Walt 2005 AHRLJ 71.

Bibliography (under the heading "Literature")

De la Harpe S and Van der Walt T "The Right to Pre-trial Silence as Part of the Right to a Free and
Fair Trial – An Overview" 2005 AHRLJ 70-90

CONFERENCE CONTRIBUTIONS EXAMPLE (If published in conference

proceedings)
Footnote
1
Reickhardt "Legal Liabilities" 4-7.

Bibliography (under the heading "Literature")

Reickhardt M "Legal Liabilities" in Chamber of Mines Environmentally Responsible Mining in Southern
Africa Conference (25-28 September 2001 Johannesburg) 4-23

Newspaper articles example

Footnote
1
Hartely Business Day 4.

Bibliography (under the heading "Literature")

Hartely G "DA Rails at Selebi’s Use of Crime Figures" Business Day (18 July 2006) 4
APA reference list
APA reference list
NOTE: You can click on the link above to navigate to the APA reference list section of Referella for
further assistance.
The reference list should contain all the details of every text reference found in the text.
Navigate to Referella for a video and more details regarding the reference list (as well as an
example reference list). Remember you can also see exactly how to include a complete source in
your reference list by making use of Referella, or your official NWU Reference Guide.

When compiling a reference list keep the following in mind:

Basic elements
• Start the reference list on a new page. Type the word References, centred, at the top of the
page.

• The reference list is double-spaced both between and within entries; entries have
a hanging indent.

• Each reference cited in the text must have an entry in the reference list and each entry in the
reference list must be cited in the text. However, references which cannot be recovered (e.g.
personal communication) or because the mention in the text is so broad that readers do not
need a reference entry to understand the use (e.g. whole websites, common software and
apps) do not need to be included in the reference list.

• Entries in the reference list should appear in alphabetical order by the first author’s surname,
or by the first significant word in the title if there is no author. Words such as “The”, “An” or
“A” at the beginning of the title should be ignored, but not omitted, when alphabetising the
reference list.

Alphabetical order of references in the reference list

• Alphabetise by the author’s surname.

• Alphabetise letter by letter, remember the principle “nothing precedes something”. For
example, the surname Le Roux precedes Leaky.

• Alphabetise the prefixes M’, Mc, and Mac literally, not as if they were all spelled Mac.
Disregard the apostrophe: MacArthur precedes McAllister, and MacNeil precedes M’Carthy.

• Arrange works by different authors with the same surname alphabetically according to the
first initial.

• Entries by the same authors are arranged by year of publication, the earliest first.

• One-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same surname.

• References with the same first author and different second or third authors are arranged
alphabetically by the surname of the second author or, if the second author is the same, the
surname of the third author (compare the entries of Deci in the example reference list in this
guide).
Examples of frequently used sources referenced in the reference list

NOTE: The following are only a couple of examples. You can find many more examples of many
other different sources, as well as more detailed notes on how to reference these sources, in
Referella and your official NWU Reference Guide.

Book example

Chapter in a collected work example

Journal article example

Newspaper article* example

*NOTE: There is a difference in how to reference a printed newspaper vs an electronic newspaper

(see Referella or your NWU Reference Guide for more details)
 Recording basic bibliographic details

When working on an assignment, you may sometimes feel rushed and in a hurry and therefore move
quickly from one source to another while making notes. In such situations, you may easily forget to
write down the basic bibliographic details of all your sources. Once you see a source that
contains information that you may want to use, you should immediately write down the details of that
source. If you do not, you may be unable to remember where the information came from later, once
you start finalising your assignment. Searching for the correct reference (to avoid plagiarism) is an
unnecessary waste of time. Should you be unable to find the relevant source again, you may need to
omit important or interesting information from your assignment because you cannot find the relevant
bibliographic details. You can use several methods to store the bibliographic details of your sources
safely during the writing process – a notebook, another document on your computer, an online
system or simply a split screen on your computer. When you have decided on a safe method for
storing bibliographic information, thoroughness and accuracy are the only further requirements.

Where to find the bibliographical information in a book

The exact place where basic biographical details (the who, when, what and were mentioned above)
can be found is not always obvious. For most books, it is relatively easy because the information
usually appears on the first or second page of the book. As a guideline for how to find
bibliographical information in a book, you can simply answer a few questions (click here to
download the word document).
1. What is the title of the book?
2. Which edition of the book is it?
3. When was the first edition published?
4. What is the author’s first and middle names and surname?
5. Does the book have an index?
6. Who is the person on the cover of the book?
7. What is the name of the publisher?
8. In which city and state of the USA will you find the publisher’s offices?
9. Where was this book printed?
10. Write down the complete reference entry for the book.

Where to find the bibliographical details of academic articles

When you consult academic articles for information, it is also relatively simple to find the
bibliographic information. Many articles even provide a small note under the heading with basic
instructions on ‘how to cite this article’. Alternatively, you can search for the word ‘citation’
elsewhere on the page. Although this citation information is useful, it is frequently presented in a
different referencing style than the style that you should use – but it will still contain the information
you need. This is especially useful when you are uncertain about the names and surnames of the
authors.

Students sometimes struggle to find the publication date of articles published on the Internet or of
electronic journal articles. Note that many websites will show a copyright sign with an accompanying
date, or there will be an indication of when the website was last updated. You can use any of these
dates in your reference – if both occur, use the latest one. In the screenshot below, you can see
that the article was posted on 3 October 2016. But remember that when you use websites you
should also indicate the date on which you found (retrieved) the information in your reference list
entry. If you struggle to find the date on which the article was published, you have the option of
using ‘s.a.’ (meaning ‘no date’ or ‘date unknown’) in your reference and reference list entry.
However, it should only be used in very rare cases. In this section we focus specifically on finding
information on academic articles and books as these are the types of sources that students should
use most of the time. For referencing other types of sources such as legislation, newspaper articles
and the like, consult the NWU Referencing Guide (2012).

Electronic aids: Creating references and reference lists

Electronic aids such as Endnote, Zotera, Citavi, Papers, Docear and Mendeley (you can click on the
images below to be redirected to the homepage of each of these aids) are designed to help you
organise the bibliographic details of your sources as well as the correct packaging and presentation
of information in your references and bibliographies/reference lists. It is beyond the scope of this
book to discuss any of these electronic aids in detail, but we recommend that you investigate these
systems on your own.

There are several systems that students can use to keep track of sources they use in academic
assignments, including:

• Bibliographic software: Programs such as Endnote, Zotera, Citavi, Papers, Docear and
Mendeley (you can click on the images below to be redirected to the homepage of each of
these aids) are designed to help you organise the bibliographic details of your sources as
well as the correct packaging and presentation of information in your references and
bibliographies/reference lists.

• Online platforms: Websites such as EasyBib, NoodleTools, and RefMe allow

students to create bibliographies and citations by entering the source information
manually or by importing it from a database.
• Spreadsheet software: Students can create and use a spreadsheet in programs
like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets to keep track of the bibliographic information
for their sources.
• Note-taking software: Applications like Evernote, OneNote, and Bear allow
students to take notes, save websites, and organize their research in one place,
including the sources they use.
• Manual methods: students can use traditional methods like note cards, index
cards, or a notebook to record the bibliographic information for the sources they
use.
You can also use the split screen feature on your computer or the ‘Insert Citation’ feature in
Microsoft Word to organise your sources. The process is easy to follow: In Microsoft Word, first go
to ‘References’, then go to ‘Insert Citation’ and then enter the details of the source. The information
is saved in your personal database on your computer. Microsoft Word can then compile reference
lists in a variety of styles for you. Videos that illustrate how this feature works are also available on
the Internet. Make sure that the format of the reference list entries generated electronically
complies with the prescribed guidelines.

Ultimately, it does not matter which system you use if your notes contain a detailed reference list
entry. You certainly do not want to repeat your initial search for sources months later just to correct
the errors in bibliographic details. Rather do it right the first time and save precious time.

Referencing might seem overwhelming, but it’s easy if you keep some open secrets in
mind

1. Look for sources in the right place

2. Use quotations or own words
3. Include 3 in-text reference elements
4. Use the referencing guide

Look for sources in the right place

Looking in the right place does not only make it easier to find reliable sources; it also makes your
job of referencing easier. When students use random websites for information, these usually do not
contain the information required for in-text referencing (i.e., an author name, a year of publication
and a page number). Therefore, students often just put a URL or other meaningless information
(such as simply “anon.”) in their in-text references. THIS IS A CLEAR INDICATION TO YOUR
LECTURER THAT YOU HAVE NOT USED PROPER SOURCES. If you look for sources using the
NWU library database or Google Scholar, all the information should be there and your in-text
references will be sound. (Be careful of strange PDFs available via Google Scholar however).

Use quotations or own words

There are basically only two ways to deal with information or ideas taken from sources:
1. Use the words as they are and place quotation marks around them.
2. Put the ideas in your own words.

In both cases, you must include in-text references. NEVER use words as they are without using
quotation marks, even if you provide a reference. NEVER omit the in-text reference when using
ideas from another source. If the idea is not your own, you must acknowledge the source. This is
true even if you’ve placed it in your own words.

Which of the two methods mentioned at the top do you think is best?

Each of these has benefits:

1. A well-phrased, well-placed quote from an authoritative scholar may definitely improve the
quality of your writing. BUT: quotations should be kept to a minimum and you should
reserve quoting for “framable quotes” and not random information. This should not be
exploited if you don’t understand the source text, but think it sounds impressive.
2. Paraphrasing (placing source information in your own words) shows that you’ve
understood the information and allows you to easily integrate it into your own argument. It
makes it easier to compare sources or combine ideas. Most of our use of sources will
involve paraphrasing and, in this sense, it is the better method.
 Include 3 in-text reference elements
Always make sure that there are three elements in your in-text reference: 1) surname(s), 2) year
and 3) page(s).
There are basically two ways in which you can use these three elements.
• Using the author’s name(s) in your sentence and providing the date and page(s) in
brackets.
• Providing all three bits of information in brackets at the end of the sentence without
referring to the author in your sentence.
Just remember surname, year, page. Nothing else (no initials, no titles of publications, no URLs).

Example
GMO crops are up to 70% more resistant to these insects (Dlamini, 2009:15).

According to Dlamini (2009:15), GMO crops are up to 70% more resistant to these insects.

Use the referencing guide

There are a lot of details related to referencing, and particularly the compiling of a reference list.
BUT the good news is that you don’t have to remember these details. You just must make use of
your referencing guide and follow it PRECISELY. It may seem trivial, but spaces, italics, capitals, and
full stops are VERY important when referencing. NEVER try to compile a reference list from memory.
Always use the referencing guide when writing an assignment.

There are several common referencing errors that students and researchers may make when
citing sources in their work. Some of these include:

• Omitting necessary information: Some common referencing errors include omitting

essential information such as the author's name, publication date, or page number. This can
make it difficult for readers to find and consult the original source.

Correction: Always make sure to include all necessary information such as the author's name,
publication date, and page number in your citation.

• Incorrect formatting: Another common error is using incorrect formatting for citations, such
as using the wrong citation style or not following the guidelines for that style.

Correction: Make sure you are familiar with the citation style you are using, and always follow
the guidelines for that style when formatting your citations.

• Not citing paraphrased text: Some students tend to forget to cite paraphrased text, which is
a form of plagiarism.

Correction: When paraphrasing, always give credit to the original source and include a
citation.

• Not citing common knowledge: Some students might think that common knowledge doesn't
need to be cited, but it is important to cite any information that is not considered general
knowledge.
 Correction: Always cite any information that is not considered general knowledge, even if it is
something that is commonly known within a specific field.

• Not keeping track of sources: Some students might not keep track of their sources and end
up using the same sources for different papers or assignments.

Correction: Always keep track of your sources and make sure to use different sources for
different papers or assignments to avoid self-plagiarism.

Examples
Mistake
According to (Brown, 2011:3), there is …
Jeremy Brown differs from this (2011:3).
According to Brown, J (2011:3) the
problem is actually …
Peterson (J, 2012:3 Journal of psychiatry in
sport, volume 24(3) “The ineffectiveness of
personal motivation.”) does not agree with
this position.
Scientists differ on the importance of the
findings. (Brown, 2011:3)
Scientists agree that the “findings are
important.” (Brown, 2011:3).
Reason
Never place the author’s name in brackets when using
phrases such as “according to”. Your sentence should make
sense when you leave out the information within brackets.
The in-text reference should not be separated from the
author’s name when you’ve used the name in a sentence. It
should directly follow it, i.e., Jeremy Brown (2011:3) differs
from this.
Never, ever include initials in in-text references.
Do not confuse the type of information that should come in a
reference list entry with the information that should come in
an in-text reference.
Do not place in-text references outside sentences. The full
stop must come after the reference if it comes at the end of
a sentence.
If ending a sentence with a quotation, do not place a full-
stop in the quotation and one after the in-text reference.
There should only be one full-stop in your sentence. Also do
not quote random information such as in this example. It
should add value.

Note that the different punctuation marks in the reference list have different ‘meanings’ or fulfil
different functions. The comma after ‘Smith’ indicates that you are not finished with the author’s
details and that more information (the initials) is to follow. The full stops after ‘J’ and ‘C’ indicate
that the author’s first name is not ‘J’ or ‘C’ but that ‘J’ and ‘C’ are abbreviations of first and middle
names. The comma after ‘C’ shows that you are not done with the authors and that the details of,
yet another author will follow. The full stop after ‘2009’ indicates that you are done with the date
and can now move on to the next element, namely the article title. The journal title is followed by a
comma to indicate that you are not done with the ‘where’ section and that more information on the
journal, namely the volume, issue, and page numbers, will follow. It is important to follow the
instructions (patterns) for the referencing style to the letter and have 100% accuracy. By merely
replacing a full stop with a comma, the entry will be incorrect.
Referencing to information in the public domain

The public domain refers to works that are not protected by copyright and can be used by anyone
without permission. These works have either had their copyright expire, or they were never
protected by copyright to begin with. Examples of works in the public domain include:

• Works that were created before 1923

• Works that were created by the U.S. government
• Works that the copyright holder has explicitly put into the public domain

When a work is in the public domain, it means that it is free to use, distribute, and modify without
permission or payment to the copyright holder. This means that anyone can use these works for any
purpose, including for commercial gain. It also means that anyone can create derivatives of the
work, such as translations, adaptations, and remixes, without permission.
It is important to note that while a work may be in the public domain in one country, it may still be
under copyright in another country. Therefore, it is important to check the copyright status of a
work before using it, especially if you plan to use it in a commercial setting or distribute it
internationally.

Despite what was written above, at university level referencing is needed, even for sources in the
public domain, because it allows to give credit to the original authors of the work, and it establishes
credibility and authority of the work. Additionally, there are several reasons why referencing is
important for sources in the public domain:

1. Attribution: Even though the source is in the public domain, it is still important to give credit
to the original author or creator of the work. This is a basic principle of academic integrity
and shows respect for the intellectual property of others.
2. Verification: Referencing sources in the public domain allows readers to verify the
information used in the work. It allows readers to consult the original source and evaluate its
relevance and reliability.
3. Transparency: Referencing sources in the public domain allows for transparency in the
research process. It shows that the work is based on credible and reliable sources, and it
allows readers to assess the quality and validity of the research.
4. Facilitation of further research: By referencing sources in the public domain, you are
making it easier for your readers to find and consult the original sources that you have used,
which can facilitate further research and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the
field.
5. Compliance with academic requirements: Many academic institutions have specific
requirements for referencing and citation styles, even for sources in the public domain. By
referencing your sources correctly, you can ensure that you are meeting these requirements
and avoid any potential penalties.
6.
In conclusion, referencing is a crucial aspect of academic integrity and is important even for sources
that are in the public domain. It allows to give credit to the original authors, verifies the information,
allows for transparency, facilitates further research, and ensures compliance with academic
requirements.
Frequently asked questions on plagiarism, sources of information and references
Q Can an idea be stolen?
At university, the question is not so much whether an idea can be stolen, as ‘stealing’ implies that you
take away something from someone without their permission and in a way that makes them unable to
use it themselves. Of course, you cannot take an idea from someone. What you do take away from
A
them is their right and the honour to receive credit for their hard work and originality. Plagiarism
refers not so much to the stealing of an idea as to neglecting to give appropriate recognition for the
idea (stealing credit).
Q What if I hit upon the same idea on my own?
What can you do if you have the same idea as another author, write it down in your assignment and
then find out later that the other person already had the idea 50 years before your birth? Although
your idea may not be as original as you initially thought, it still has creative value – especially if you
can prove that you came up with it on your own. In such a case, you can refer in your research report
to how your finding is ‘in line with’ or ‘similar to’ earlier research results. In most cases, there will be
enough of a noticeable contextual difference to give you recognition for the ideas you generated on
A your own.

An alternative version of this question is ‘What if I accidentally write down the same idea as someone
else and my lecturer then accuses me of plagiarism?’. Although such a scenario is highly unlikely, it
may certainly happen. However, it would be fairer of the lecturer to suspect you of insufficient
research because with more thorough research, you would probably have found the other author’s
work and referred to it. If you find yourself in such a situation, you must consult your lecturer.
What do I do if one source refers to another source (and I cannot find the second
Q
source)?
When a (secondary) source refers to another (primary) source, you must find the other (primary)
source. You can find the information on the other source in the reference list of the original source. It
should only take a few minutes if such a scenario plays out in an academic article. You are then
expected to work directly from the other (primary) source.

However, if you cannot find the other source, you must use a secondary reference (for example,
Smith (2011) [secondary] quotes Jones [primary], who found that ...). Never quote the primary author
A (Jones in this example) as if you have read the source yourself; doing so is risky because you do not
know whether the quotation has been done correctly and in context. It is also unethical.

Keep in mind that secondary quotations are not ideal as academics regard them as academic gossip or
hearsay (‘He said she said ...’). Anyone with a little life experience will know that a piece of gossip is
rarely accurate or true – even within academic circles. However, if you cannot find the primary source
in any way, you are compelled to use a secondary reference. We strongly recommend that you limit
secondary references to the absolute minimum, though.
Q Should I read the whole book/article?
Another question that is often asked, especially about secondary sources, is whether it is necessary
that the entire book/article/thesis be read before information can be extracted from it. For example, if
you go to the trouble of finding all the primary sources (like Jones in the example above), you may
end up with a huge amount of reading to work through. Fortunately, you do not always have to read
the entire article. You can skim and scan the article for the relevant information on the referenced
page(s). If the reference is to Jones (2011:3), for example, you can skim to Page 3 and read that
A
section to make sure that the information has been quoted and interpreted correctly. If the reference
is to a book, you can use the index to locate and read the relevant pages.

Sometimes, the secondary source provides more information than the primary source. If this is the
case, read the entire article. In fact, you can find many more useful sources in a high-quality article’s
bibliography than with a separate search for sources on academic search engines.
Frequently asked questions on plagiarism, sources of information and references
Q What do I do if many authors have published similar information?
For some academic questions, many authors have more or less the same findings or ideas that they
write up from a wide variety of sources and with different (or similar) terminology. In such a case, of
course, you cannot refer to everyone. A good idea is to mention in your text that the findings or ideas
A
are universally accepted by academics and researchers and then mention only a few examples of
these authors. You will usually refer to an older, a newer and the most recent or well-known source
(seminal work).
Q How many sources do I need for an assignment?
There is no prescribed number of sources that you need, but keep in mind that if you do not
acknowledge any sources, you have probably committed plagiarism or completed an assignment that
does not meet the required academic standard. Consult sufficient sources to prove that you have read
enough to have a thorough overview and understanding of the topic. Also remember that your
sources should ‘talk’ (communicate) with each other – almost as if the authors of your sources are
conducting an academic conversation.
A
If you have only one source per paragraph, conversation does not take place – you are presenting a
monologue or summary in each paragraph. You are required to use more than one source in each of
your paragraphs – but in an integrated manner. Information from different sources must fit together
like the pieces of a puzzle to create a new image of something. If your instructions were not to
provide a summary, you should use more sources to start a conversation in your text. (Also bear the
guidelines regarding the analysis of assignment requirements in mind.)
Q Should I reference absolutely everything?
The question of whether everything that is mentioned in a text should be qualified by a reference is
difficult to answer. It would be pointless to provide a statement such as ‘the sky is blue’ with a
reference, but it remains a good idea to provide references for statements that may cause
disagreement. A statement such as ‘Most university students struggle with mathematics at first-year
A
level’ is an assertion to which a sceptical reader could answer, ‘Says who?’ or ‘Really? I didn’t struggle
with maths’. In this example, it would make sense to find an article by someone who researched the
matter and found that 80% of all first-year students struggled to pass mathematics; alternatively, use
the correct statistics from your institution if you can find them.
Q What if I can find only Internet sources instead of high-quality academic articles?
Remember that the academic articles you find on the Internet are academic sources – especially if you
found them through university search engines or websites such as Elserivier, Ebsco or other well-
known academic search engines. If you only find commercial websites instead of academic websites,
A
you are probably using the wrong search terms, wrong search engines and bad search strategies. Visit
the library and obtain advice on and assistance with searching for useful sources from your subject
librarian.
Q I have found too much information – what do I do now?
Having too much information is the best problem to have because it allows you to use only the very
best information. Determine which of your sources are the most reliable, most recent and most
commonly cited (by other academic authors) and use those sources.

When students complain about too much information, it usually means that their search terms for the
topic were not phrased precisely enough. Their search parameters were thus too broad and general in
A
nature. For example, if you do a search for ‘electricity’, you will find an enormous amount of
information, but you will find much less – but more specific – information if you search for ‘the
economic impact of a shortage of electricity for public teaching facilities in the Northwest province of
South Africa’.
Frequently asked questions on plagiarism, sources of information and references
Q How does Turnitin (and other similarity detectors) work?
When a student submits an assignment using a web-based system (such as eFundi), the text is
automatically sent to Turnitin, where it is analysed and compared to millions of other texts in
Turnitin’s database.
A
Based on this comparison, Turnitin generates a similarity report that will indicate how much of the
submitted text is the student’s original work. If a student copied and pasted a section from another
source, Turnitin will highlight that section in a specific colour.
Q What percentage of corresponding text is acceptable on Turnitin?
As explained above, Turnitin and other similarity detectors indicate the extent to which there is
overlap between someone’s work and other sources. It is not possible to set a specific acceptable
percentage of similarity on Turnitin as each case must be evaluated individually within the context and
way the information is used.

However, if the percentage of similarity between an assignment and other sources is around 40% or
A
higher, the author probably did not paraphrase enough or failed to acknowledge all sources. The
author probably also failed to apply the information, which indicates a lack of understanding. Before
submitting a written assignment, it is always good to look at your text again to establish whether
there are still places where you can further rephrase the information (without giving up the
references) in such a way that it will illustrate to your lecturer that you not only understand the
information but can also apply it.
Q Exactly how should I refer to sources to avoid plagiarism?
Since most types of sources differ from each other, the exact bibliographic information about the
sources will often also differ. Depending on the referencing style that your lecturer will prescribe, you
A must look up and implement the exact referencing method in the university’s referencing guide. For
paraphrasing and general references in the text, we have previously indicated in the text which steps
to follow, which patterns of referencing you can use and which common mistakes you should avoid.
Q Should I write down how many pages a book has?
In our referencing style, this is not required. For example, if the book was printed in hard cover and
soft cover and pocket size in the same year, the number of pages will inevitably differ in the different
A
formats. Note that your indication of the page number will only indicate which page you have used in
the version of the book that you have used.
Q What is die ISBN of a book, and should I write it down?
The ISBN is the International Standard Book Number. Each book has a unique number that is used to
indicate the title, author, country of origin, language, publisher, edition, and imprint of the book. This
A ISBN functions like the barcode on any product and, when it comes to books, is used only by
publishers and bookshops. As a student, you never have to indicate the ISBN of a book in your
reference list.
Which edition or date of publication should I write down if there are different editions of a
Q
book?
Some books are reprinted repeatedly – in the same or different formats – and each count as a
separate ‘edition’. The book that you are using will have a list of editions on the title page at or near
the front of the book. If it is the first edition, you do not have to indicate it. For subsequent editions,
you always write down the edition you used.

A
You always write the date of publication of the book that you have used. If you have used the first
edition of a book published in 1934 but it is indicated that other editions have since seen the light, you
indicate that you have used the first edition and you write down 1934 as the date of publication.
However, it is important to always try to find the most recent version of a source.
Frequently asked questions on plagiarism, sources of information and references
Q When is a source too old?
How fast sources age is related to the type of information they contain. Some facts, theories or
fundamentals do not change over time, and therefore you will find that in some cases (such as in
mathematics or philosophy), it is entirely acceptable to quote sources that are 2000 years old.
A
However, computer technology (which is updated very rapidly) can easily regard a source that is only
one year old as archaic (outdated). Discuss it with your lecturer if you are in doubt about the recency
of a source.
Q What should I do if I cannot find the author’s name anywhere on a website?
Since books and academic articles always have authors, you are expected to use their initials and
surnames when you acknowledge the sources, and it is thus generally better to use books and
academic articles as sources. However, if you want to use a website that does not indicate an author,
you should consider the following: If the author of the article does not want his/her name associated
with the information, why would you want to associate your name with it?

A There are exceptions, however; some trustworthy organisations such as the United Nations publish
information on their website under the name of the organisation. In this case, the United Nations as
an organisation is the author and takes responsibility for the content. The same is usually true for
information on public government websites, banking websites and those of other major organisations
or, sometimes, think tanks. Keep in mind, however, that any corporate or state institution obviously
deals with information in a self-serving (subjective) manner. For blogs, wikis, and other similar
websites, you should rather avoid anonymous sources completely.
Q What do I do if the website disappears after I have used it?
Reliable academic information is not supposed to disappear overnight. Should something like this
happen to you, you should find a better academic source for the same information. If it was reliable
academic content in a journal article, it probably did not disappear but simply moved to another
location in the database.
A

In such a case, you should enter keywords you remember from the article into Google Scholar to find
the original source in its new location. If you still cannot find it, it was probably not reliable
information in the first place.
Q What do I do if an article on the web does not have page numbers?
Some academic articles are made available as HTML documents (simple websites) that you read online
for free without downloading a PDF document. Unfortunately, HTML documents rarely have page
numbers, which makes it impossible for you to refer to a specific place in the document. Your first
option here is simply to indicate the author’s surname and date of publication in your reference and
omit the page numbers, but this is ineffective if you use a direct quotation. A better option is to search
A
online for a PDF version of the article and then use that version as a source since it has page
numbers.

If the article that you are using is simply a website and not really an academic source, consider
searching for a better academic source or refer to it as a website.
Q What is a doi number?
You will regularly see a digital object identifier (doi) in academic articles, especially those in PDF
format. The doi number is an international system that is used on the Internet to provide a permanent
(unvarying) link to material online.

A
Since thousands of articles exist worldwide and are regularly moved around in databases, a doi
number will ensure that you can always find the document again with the help of this number.
Currently, doi numbers are not required as mandatory information in the bibliographic details for
certain referencing styles, but this may change as this system is implemented more extensively.
Frequently asked questions on plagiarism, sources of information and references
Q Are translated sources reliable?
Sometimes the original sources are in a foreign language, and you will, out of necessity, must use a
translated version of the source. It is usually indicated on the cover or title page that the book is a
translation, and information is provided about who translated it. Excellent academic books and
research articles are published in languages such as German, Dutch, Spanish, French, Russian and
A
Mandarin Chinese (and Afrikaans). Some of the most significant contributions to science were initially
introduced to the academic world in some of these languages. If you are not proficient in another
language, you will have to find a translated version of the source. Should the translated version be
published by a respected publisher, you should certainly not doubt the reliability of the content.
Q May I translate the information in a source myself?
In some cases, you are obliged to translate the information in a source into the language in which you
are doing your assignment. You use the translation only in the text that you create, but you retain the
language of the original source in your reference list. If you wish to insert a direct quotation, you can
indicate in your text that the information has been translated either by placing ‘translated from the
original by author’ in parentheses in your sentence or by inserting a footnote with the same phrase
A
into your text.

Machine translations (using an application such as Google Translate) are not currently effective
enough to be used just as they are, and you must make your own corrections because there will be
errors in the automatic translation.
Q Should I use books for assignments
As noted earlier, books are one of the most trusted sources you will find and, at first-year level, this
format is usually easier to understand than academic articles. For this reason, you are advised to
A search for information in academic books – but this is only a recommendation, not an instruction.
When using books, remember to use the index and table of contents to save time so that you can find
the information that you need faster.
Q What if I accidentally commit plagiarism?
Committing plagiarism by accident is as unlikely as eating something by accident – it does not really
happen. If you have carefully and conscientiously noted the bibliographic details of your sources
during your searching and writing process, plagiarism simply cannot happen ‘accidentally’. In the case
of plain negligence (when you have omitted a single reference in your text or an entry in your
reference list), your lecturer should be lenient because you have made an excusable mistake.
However, should it be clear that you have shamelessly copied and pasted from sources without using
A
adequate references, you will be guilty of plagiarism.

Plagiarism at university is not a black-and-white matter with clear-cut boundaries. Rather, it moves
along a continuum from deliberate plagiarism (the firm intention to be dishonest) to unintentional
plagiarism (you may simply be unable to apply your own thoughts to a problem) even if you have
used references.
Q If publishers have more than one office, which one do I use in the reference list?
It does not really matter to which geographic location of a publisher you refer. Any address provided
A
by the publisher will be sufficient.
Q How do I organise the reference list?
A A reference list is always organised alphabetically according to the surnames of the authors.
Q Which author’s surname should I write first?
The authors’ surnames are supplied in the same order as in the book or article. The authors’ details
are usually listed in the order of the value of their contribution to the article or book, and this should
A also be reflected in the reference list. If Zander Zeeman is the first author and Adam Appleton is the
second author, you will write ‘Zeeman, Z. & Appleton, A.’ in the reference list, and with a surname like
‘Zeeman’, this entry should be close to the bottom of your reference list.
Frequently asked questions on plagiarism, sources of information and references
Q Should I number the reference list entries?
A A reference list should never be numbered, and you should never use bullets for individual entries.
Q What do I do if two authors in my reference list have the same surname?
If you have two authors with the same surname, keep them as they are because the dates of their
publications are likely to differ. For example, there is a difference between ‘Brown (2011)’ and ‘Brown
(2014)’ that is hard to miss. If they published in the same year and have exactly the same initials, use
A alphabetical numbering to distinguish them from each other. For example, you will use ‘Brown, B.
(2011a)’ and ‘Brown, B. (2011b)’ in your references and your reference list. If they do not have the
same initials, the initials determine the order; for example, ‘Brown, B. (2011)’ comes before ‘Brown, C.
(2011)’.