Wind Energy Training Ch#3

University of Sharjah, College of Engineering
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Engineering Department
040-6330
Wind Energy Systems
Course Instructor: Tareq Salameh
Chapter 3
Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine
1
Outlines
1. Introduction
2. One Dimensional Momentum Theory and the Betz Limit
3. Principal of Aerodynamics
2
3.2 One dimensional Momentum Theory and the Betz Limit
A simple model based on a linear momentum theory, Proposed by Betz

(1926), can be used to determine:
 The Thrust of the wind on the ideal rotor

 The Power from an ideal turbine rotor
 The effect of the rotor operation on the local wind field.
This analysis uses the following assumptions:
• homogenous, incompressible, steady state fluid flow

• no frictional drag;
• an infinite number of blades;
• uniform thrust over the disc or rotor area;
• a non–rotating wake;
• the static pressure far upstream and far downstream of the rotor is equal
to the undisturbed ambient static pressure
3
The analysis assumes a control volume as in Figure 3.1
The large and small control volumes for analysis of

ideal wind turbine performance bounded by an
axisymmetric diverging stream tube.
Applying the conservation of linear momentum to the control volume in

order to find the net force on the contents of the control volume.
4
Net force on the content of the control volume. That force
is equal and opposite to the thrust, T, which is the force of
the wind on the wind turbine
For steady state flow,
The thrust is positive so the

Bernoulli function can be used in the two control velocity behind the rotor,U4, is
volumes on either side of the actuator disc. less than the free stream velocity,
U1. No work is done on either
In the stream tube upstream of the disc: side of the turbine rotor.
where it is assumed that the far

In the stream tube downstream of the disc: upstream and far downstream
pressures are equal (p1 = p4) and
that the velocity across the disc
remains the same (U2 = U3).
5
The thrust can also be expressed as the net sum
of the forces on each side of the actuator disc:
If one solves for (p2 - p3) using Equations (3.3) and (3.4)
and substitutes that into Equation (3.5), one obtains:
Equating the thrust values from Equations (3.2) and

(3.6) and recognizing that the mass flow rate is also
A2U2, one obtains:
Thus, the wind velocity at the rotor plane, using

this simple model, is the average of the upstream
and downstream wind speeds.
6
If one defines the axial induction factor, a, as the
fractional decrease in wind velocity between the free
stream and the rotor plane, then
and
The quantity U1a is often referred to as the induced velocity at the rotor, in which
case the velocity of the wind at the rotor is a combination of the free stream
velocity and the induced wind velocity.
As the axial induction factor increases from 0, the wind speed behind the rotor
slows more and more.
If a =1/2, the wind has slowed to zero velocity behind the rotor and the simple
theory is no longer applicable.
7
The power out, P, is equal to the thrust times the
velocity at the disc:
Substituting for U2 and U4 from Equations (3.9) and (3.10) gives:
where the control volume area at the rotor, A2, is replaced by A, the rotor
area, and the free stream velocity U1 is replaced by U.
Wind turbine rotor performance is usually

characterized by its power coefficient, CP:
8
The non-dimensional power coefficient represents the fraction of the power in the
wind that is extracted by the rotor. From Equation (3.12), the power coefficient is:
The maximum CP is determined by taking the derivative of the power coefficient

(Eq. (3.14)) with respect to a and setting it equal to zero, yielding a =1/3. Thus:
The value of Cp,max represents the maximum possible power

coefficient of any wind turbine and known as Betz limit.
From Equations (3.6), (3.9) and (3.10), the axial thrust on the disc is:
Similarly to the power, the thrust on a wind turbine can be characterized by a

non-dimensional thrust coefficient:
9
From Equation (3.16):

 The thrust coefficient for an ideal wind turbine is equal to 4a(1-a)
 CT has a maximum of 1.0 when a = 0.5 and the downstream velocity is zero.
 At maximum power output (a =1/3), CT has a value of 8/9.
0.88
A graph of the power and thrust
coefficients for an ideal Betz
0.59
turbine and the non-
dimensionalized downstream wind
speed are illustrated in Figure 3.2.
As mentioned above, this idealized model is not valid for axial induction factors greater than 0.5.
10
As the axial induction factor approaches and exceeds 0.5, complicated flow patterns
that are not represented in this simple model result in thrust coefficients that can go
as high as 2.0.
The Betz limit, CP;max = 16/27, is the maximum theoretically possible rotor power
coefficient.
In practice, three effects lead to a decrease in the maximum achievable power
coefficient:
 rotation of the wake behind the rotor;
 finite number of blades and associated tip losses;
 non-zero aerodynamic drag.
Note that the overall turbine efficiency is a function of both the rotor power
coefficient and the mechanical (including electrical) efficiency of the wind turbine:
Thus
11
Dynamic
Power
Wind power
Note that the overall turbine efficiency

is a function of both the rotor power
coefficient and the mechanical
(including electrical) efficiency of the
wind turbine:
Thus
Grid
12
Principal of Aerodynamics
All modern wind turbine operates on aerodynamic principle
13
Outlines
1. Ideal Horizontal Axis Turbine with Wake Rotation

2. Airfoils and General Concepts of Aerodynamics
3. Lift Versus Drag Machines
14
3.3 Ideal Horizontal Axis Turbine with Wake Rotation
In the case of a rotating wind turbine rotor, the flow behind the rotor rotates in the
opposite direction to the rotor, in reaction to the torque exerted by the flow on the rotor.
The generation of rotational

kinetic energy in the wake
results in:
 Less energy extraction
by the rotor than would
be expected without
wake rotation.
15
16
Geometry for rotor analysis:
U = undisturbed wind velocity
a = induction factor
Area of annular stream tube of radius r and thickness dr is 2  r dr Moment of inertia
depend on the radius
17
The total Cp for the

entire disk (integrate
from center to the tip)
18
First Relation
(a, a’ andλr)
19
For maximum possible power
production this term should
be at its greatest value
Second Relation
(a andλr)
20
21
As you go up in tip speed ratio, you are getting

fairly close to the Betz limits. (The quicker the
rotor spin, the closer you get to the Betz limit.
22
The graph shows the axial and angular
induction factors for a turbine with a tip
speed ratio of 7.5. versus the radial
position a long the blade (r/R)
23
3.4 Airfoils and General Concepts of Aerodynamics
The magnitude of lift force is

depend on the angle between
the coming wind and the blade
(angle of attack)
24
Airfoils are structures with

specific geometric shapes that
are used to generate
mechanical forces due to the
relative motion of the airfoil
and a surrounding fluid.
Zero Angle of Attack
25
The cross-sections of wind turbine blades have the shape of airfoils
To optimize the
performance, WT
uses different shapes
and size at different
location of the Span
Span
26
Airfoils are structures with specific geometric shapes that are used to generate
mechanical forces due to the relative motion of the airfoil and a surrounding
fluid.
(Wind turbine blades use airfoils to develop mechanical power).

The cross-sections of wind turbine blades have the shape of airfoils
The width and length of the blade are functions of:
 The desired aerodynamic performance

 The maximum desired rotor power
 Strength considerations.
Before the details of wind turbine power production are explained, aerodynamic
concepts related to airfoils need to be discussed.
27
Airfoil Terminology
The distance The locus of points

between upper and halfway between the
lower surfaces upper and lower
surfaces of airfoil
The straight line

Distance between the connecting the leading
mean chamber line and Distance from leading to and trailing edges
the chord line. trailing edge measured
along the chord line
28
Airfoil Terminology
The geometric parameters that have an effect on the aerodynamic
performance of an airfoil include:
 The leading edge radius

 Mean camber line
 Maximum thickness and thickness distribution of the profile
 The trailing edge angle.
The angle between

the relative wind and
the chord line
29
The real wind speed can not control, but the angle of attack can be adjusted by changing the
pitch of the blade by (Rotating the blade along an axis that goes to span(twisting the blade))
Incident angle
(Stall angle)
30
Magnitude of
Effect of angle of attack angle of attack
For a positive
angle of attack,
you will have a
curvature
difference and lift
Increasing angle of attack gradually. More lift force until stall value. force will goes up.
Zero angle of
attack, zero lift
force (no
pressure
difference)
For a negative
angle of attack,
Streamlines can not follow you will have a
the curvature and de-attached curvature
difference and lift
from the surface force will goes
down.
31
Airfoil Terminology
Airfoil should be smooth enough
Examples of airfoils
used in WT
Thin airfoil more

pressure difference
More lift force.
Thick airfoil less

pressure difference.
 The NACA0012 is a 12% thick symmetric airfoil.

 The NACA 63(2)-215 is a 15% thick airfoil with a slight camber.
 The LS(1)-0417 is a 17% thick airfoil with a larger camber.
32
Lift, Drag, and Non-dimensional Parameters
Air flow over an airfoil produces a distribution of forces over the airfoil surface.
 The flow velocity over airfoils increases over the convex surface resulting in lower
average pressure on the ‘suction’ side of the airfoil compared with the concave or
‘pressure’ side of the airfoil.
 Viscous friction between the air and the airfoil surface slows the air flow to some extent
next to the surface.
The resultant of all of these pressure and friction forces is usually resolved into
two forces and a moment that act along the chord at a distance of c/4 from the
leading edge (at the ‘quarter chord’):
Forces and moments on an aerofoil section 33

 Lift force – (perpendicular to direction of the oncoming air flow.) The lift force
is a consequence of the unequal pressure on the upper and lower airfoil surfaces.
 Drag force – (parallel to the direction of the oncoming air flow.

The drag force is due both to viscous friction forces at the surface of the airfoil
and to unequal pressure on the airfoil surfaces facing toward and away from the
oncoming flow.
 Pitching moment – defined to be about an axis perpendicular to the

airfoil cross-section.
34
The most important non-dimensional parameter for defining the
characteristics of fluid flow conditions is
 Reynolds number
 Lift Coefficient
 Drag Coefficient
 Pitching moments
Coefficient
where  is the density of air, U is the velocity of undisturbed air flow

A is the projected aerofoil area (chord x span), c is the aerofoil chord
length, and l is the aerofoil span.
35
Other dimensionless coefficients that are important for the analysis and design
of wind turbines the pressure coefficient (which is used to analyze airfoil
flow), and the surface roughness ratio
 Pressure coefficient
 Surface roughness ratio
36
Flow Over an Airfoil
The lift, drag, and pitching moment coefficients of an airfoil are generated by the pressure
variation over the airfoil surface and the friction between the air and the airfoil.
 The pressure gradient of the flow has a significant effect on the boundary layer,
 pressure gradient may be a favorable pressure gradient (positive in the direction
of the flow) or an adverse pressure gradient (against the flow).
 Flow in the boundary layer is accelerated

or decelerated by the pressure gradient.
 In the boundary layer, the flow is also
slowed by surface friction.
 In an adverse pressure gradient and with
the help of surface friction, the flow in the
boundary layer may be stopped or it may
reverse direction.
 This results in the flow separating from the

airfoil, causing a condition called stall
37
Airfoil Behavior
Rotational flow is described in terms of vorticity and circulation. If an element of fluid
is rotating, its angular velocity is characterized by its vorticity, , which is given by:
where u is the velocity component in the

direction of the flow (x) and v is the
component perpendicular to the flow (y).
The vorticity is also equal to twice the
angular velocity of the fluid element.
Circulation, , is the integral of the vorticity of the elements, multiplied by

their respective incremental areas, over the region of interest
It can be shown that, in general, the lift per unit length, L / l, on a body is given by
L / l =  U  where U = free stream velocity.
For a cylinder radius of r the maximum value of the circulation is  = 4 U r.

The maximum lift coefficient is correspondingly = 4.
38
Airfoil Behavior Attached Flow Regime
 At low angles of attack (up to about 7 degrees for the DU-93-W-210 airfoil),
 The flow is attached to the upper surface of the airfoil.
 In attached flow regime, lift increases with the angle of attack and drag is relatively low
39
Airfoil Behavior High Lift/Stall Development Regime
In the high lift/stall development regime (from about 7 to 11 degrees for the DU-93-W-
210airfoil),
 The lift coefficient peaks as the airfoil becomes increasingly stalled.
 Stall occurs when the angle of attack exceeds a certain critical value (say 10 to 16
degrees, depending on the Reynolds number) and separation of the boundary layer on
the upper surface takes place.
 This causes a wake to form above the airfoil, which reduces lift and increases drag.
40
Lift Versus Drag Machines
Machine technologies classified by the primary

force used to extract the energy.
Drag-based machine
Lift-based machines.
They included a vertical axis rotor
Darrieus wind turbine and consisting of flat surfaces in which half of
conventional horizontal axis the rotor was shielded from the wind
wind turbines. (Savonious wind turbine)
41
42
The power coefficient, is a function of , (the ratio of

the surface velocity to the wind speed).
From the graph.

 The power coefficient is zero at speed
ratios of zero (no motion) and 1.0 (the
speed at which the surface moves at the
wind speed (no drag force).
 The peak power coefficient of 0.08 occurs
at a speed ratio of 1/3. (Lower than the Betz
limit of 0.593.)
(Disadvantage of drag machine rotor can
not move faster than the wind speed)
The wind velocity relative to the power-producing

surfaces of the machine, Urel, is limited to the free
stream velocity:
43
2- Performance of Lift-based machine
The lift force, FL, is function of the relative wind

velocity and the lift coefficient):
Relative velocities are always greater than

the free stream wind speed.
44
45
3.6 Momentum Theory and Blade Element Theory
Overview
The analysis here uses Momentum Theory and Blade Element Theory.
 Momentum theory refers to a control volume analysis of the forces

and the torque at the blade based on the conservation of linear and
angular momentum.
 Blade element theory refers to an analysis of forces at a section of the

blade, as a function of blade geometry.
The results of these approaches can be combined into what is known as

 strip theory or blade element momentum (BEM) theory.
This theory can be used to relate blade shape to the rotor’s ability to extract
power from the wind.
46
Momentum Theory
The rate change of momentum used to represent these force and torque for the
performance of an ideal wind turbine including wake rotation
(The axial and angular induction are assumed to be functions of the radius, r.)
The differential contribution to the thrust
The differential torque, Q, imparted to the blades (and equally, but

oppositely, to the air) is:
47
3.6.3 Blade Element Theory
The forces on the blades of a wind turbine expressed as a function of lift and
drag coefficients and the angle of attack.
 In BET the blade is assumed to be divided into N sections (or elements), and
calculating the flow at each one.
 Overall performance characteristics are determined by numerical integration along
the blade span.
 The following assumptions are made:

• There is no aerodynamic interaction between elements.
• The forces on the blades are determined solely by the lift and drag characteristics of
the airfoil shape of the blades.
48
3.6.3 Blade Element Theory
 A blade divided up into N elements.
 Each of the blade elements will experience a

 slightly different flow
 as they have a different rotational speed (Wr)
 a different chord length (c)
The Blade Element Model
 a different twist angle (g).
 The average rotational flow over the blade due to

wake rotation is ω/2.
 The blade is rotating with speed ω.
 The rotational component is the vector sum of
the blade section velocity, Wr, and the induced
angular velocity at the blades 𝜔𝑟/2
𝜔
𝑎′ =
2Ω
49
50
51
52
3.7 Blade Shape for Ideal Rotor without Wake Rotation
53
Example
Solving 3.78 and 3.79 and using

3.8 General Rotor Blade Shape Performance Prediction
1- From Momentum Theory
2- From Blade Element Theory
Equating the thrust force from

axial momentum with the normal
force from blade element
Equating the torque from

angular momentum with the
torque from blade element
57
Blade Element Momentum Theory
 In the calculation of induction factors (a, a/ ) accepted practice is to
set Cd equal to zero.
 For airfoils with low drag coefficients, this simplification introduces

negligible errors.
So, when the torque equations from momentum and blade element
theory are equated with Cd = 0, one gets :
By equating the normal force equations from momentum and blade

element theory one obtains:
Using the above two equations and relative wind angle equation
58
Using the above equations we get
Or these set of equations
59
Solution Methods
60
The process is then repeated until the newly calculated induction factors are
within some acceptable tolerance of the previous ones.
61
Calculation of Power Coefficient
Once a has been obtained from each section, the overall rotor power coefficient may
be calculated from the following equation
Note* The derivation of Equation (3.90) shown in next slides.
62
The derivation of Equation (3.90)
63
Tip Loss: Effect on Power Coefficient of Number of Blade
Because the pressure on the suction side of a blade is lower than that on the
pressure side, air tends to flow around the tip from the lower to upper
surface, reducing lift and hence power production near the tip. This effect is most
noticeable with fewer, wider blades.
Therefore a correction factor, F, must be introduced into the previously discussed

equations. This correction factor is a function of the number of blades, the angle of
relative wind, and the position on the blade. Based on Prandtl’s method:
64
65
Correction Factor (Prandtl’s Factor) F between 0 and 1.
function on:
the number of blades
the angle of relative wind,
the position on the blade.
This tip loss correction factor characterizes the reduction in the forces at a
radius r along the blade that is due to the tip loss at the end of the blade.
*Note: the angle resulting from
the inverse cosine function is
assumed to be in radians. If the
inverse cosine function is in
degrees, then the initial factor,
The tip loss correction factor affects the forces derived from 2/, is replaced by 1/90.
momentum theory.
When the forces from momentum theory and from blade
element theory are set equal, using the methods of strip theory,
the derivation of the flow conditions is changed, however.
Carrying the tip loss factor through the calculations, one finds
these changes:
66
67
Off-design performance issues
Multiple solution to Blade Element Momentum Equations

In the stall region, there may be multiple solutions for Cl. Each of these solutions is
possible. The correct solution should be that which maintains the continuity of the
angle of attack along the blade span.
68
Wind Turbine Flow States
69
Wind Turbine Flow States
 Measured wind turbine performance closely approximates the results of BEM theory at low
values of the axial induction factor.
 Momentum theory is no longer valid at axial induction factors greater than 0.5.
In practice, as the axial induction factor increases above 0.5, the flow patterns through the wind
turbine become much more complex than those predicted by momentum theory.
• A number of operating states for a rotor have been identified.

• The operating states relevant to wind turbines are designated the windmill state and the
turbulent wake state.
The windmill state is the normal wind turbine operating state.
The turbulent wake state occurs under operation in high winds.
70
The windmill state is characterized by the flow conditions described by momentum
theory for axial induction factors less than about 0.5.
The turbulent wake state (a > 0.5), measured data indicate that thrust coefficients
increase up to about 2.0 at an axial induction factor of 1.0. This state is characterized by a
large expansion of the slipstream, turbulence and recirculation behind the rotor.
While momentum theory no longer describes the turbine behavior, empirical relationships
between CT and the axial induction factor are often used to predict wind turbine behavior.
71
Rotor Modeling for the Turbulent Wake State
The rotor analysis discussed so far uses the equivalence of the thrust forces determined from
momentum theory and from blade element theory to determine the angle of attack at the blade.
In the turbulent wake state the thrust determined by momentum theory is

no longer valid. In these cases, the previous analysis can lead to a lack of
convergence to a solution.
In the turbulent wake state, a solution can be found by using the empirical relationship
between the axial induction factor and the thrust coefficient in conjunction with blade
element theory. The empirical relationship developed by Glauert including tip losses, is:
This equation is valid for a > 0.4 or, equivalently for CT > 0.96.
The Glauert empirical relationship was determined for the overall thrust coefficient for a
rotor. It is customary to assume that it applies equally to equivalent local thrust coefficients
for each blade section.
72
The local thrust coefficient, CT, can be defined for each annular rotor section as
The solution procedure can then be modified to include heavily loaded turbines. The easiest
procedure to use is the iterative procedure (Method 2) that starts with:
 The selection of possible values for a and a’. Once the angle of attack and Cl and Cd have
been determined
 The local thrust coefficient can be calculated according to Equation (3.102).
 If CT < 0.96 then the previously derived equations can be used.
 If CT > 0.96 then the next estimate for the axial induction factor should be determined using
the local thrust coefficient and Equation (3.100).
 The angular induction factor, a’, can be determined from Equation (3.89a).
73
74
Blade Shape for optimum Rotor with Wake Rotation
The blade shape for an ideal rotor that includes the effects of wake rotation can be
determined using the analysis developed for a general rotor. This optimization includes
wake rotation, but ignores drag (CD= 0) and tip losses (F =1).
One can perform the optimization by taking the partial derivative of that part of the
integral for CP (Equation (3.91)) which is a function of the angle of the relative wind,
and setting it equal to zero
75
Blade Shape for optimum Rotor with Wake Rotation
Some more algebra

reveals that
Induction factors can be

calculated from the
previous equations
Also, as before, select a where Cd= Cl is minimal
When the blade is modeled as a set of

N blade sections of equal span, the
solidity can be calculated from:
76
The blade shapes for three sample optimum rotors, assuming wake rotation, are given in
Table 3.3. Here Cl is assumed to be 1.00 at the design angle of attack. In these rotors, the
blade twist is directly related to the angle of the relative wind because the angle of attack
is assumed to be constant (see Equations). Thus, changes in blade twist would mirror
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
• Airfoil drag and tip losses that are a function of the total number of blades
reduce the power coefficients of wind turbines.
• The maximum achievable power coefficient for turbines with an optimum blade
shape but a finite number of blades and aerodynamic drag has been calculated for tip
speed ratios from 4 to 20, lift to drag ratios (Cl/Cd ) from 25 to infinity, and from one
to three blades
88
Figure 3.33, based on this equation, shows the maximum achievable power coefficients
for a turbine with one, two, three optimum blades and an infinite number of blades and
no drag.
 It can be seen that the fewer blades there are, the lower the possible Cp at the same
tip speed ratio.
Most wind turbines use two or three blades and, in general

 Most two-bladed wind turbines use a higher tip speed ratio than most
three-bladed wind turbines
89
The effect of the lift to drag ratio on maximum achievable power coefficients
for a three-bladed rotor.
There is clearly a significant reduction in maximum achievable power as the

airfoil drag increases
90
Example for 2nd method g= p
91
g= p
f
 Angle between relative
velocity and plane of
rotation ()
f
b=90- f
i=a
b= 
dF=dFT
dFx=dFN 92
Equations for guess values of Equations for update values of
a & a’ a & a’
93
g= p
g= p
94
95
96
97
98
99

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University of Sharjah, College of Engineering

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Engineering Department

Course Instructor: Tareq Salameh

A simple model based on a linear momentum theory, Proposed by Betz

 The Thrust of the wind on the ideal rotor

This analysis uses the following assumptions:

• homogenous, incompressible, steady state fluid flow

The large and small control volumes for analysis of

Applying the conservation of linear momentum to the control volume in

For steady state flow,

The thrust is positive so the

where it is assumed that the far

Equating the thrust values from Equations (3.2) and

Thus, the wind velocity at the rotor plane, using

Substituting for U2 and U4 from Equations (3.9) and (3.10) gives:

Wind turbine rotor performance is usually

The maximum CP is determined by taking the derivative of the power coefficient

The value of Cp,max represents the maximum possible power

Similarly to the power, the thrust on a wind turbine can be characterized by a

From Equation (3.16):

Note that the overall turbine efficiency

1. Ideal Horizontal Axis Turbine with Wake Rotation

The generation of rotational

The total Cp for the

As you go up in tip speed ratio, you are getting

The magnitude of lift force is

Airfoils are structures with

Zero Angle of Attack

(Wind turbine blades use airfoils to develop mechanical power).

The width and length of the blade are functions of:

 The desired aerodynamic performance

The distance The locus of points

The straight line

 The leading edge radius

The angle between

Thin airfoil more

Thick airfoil less

 The NACA0012 is a 12% thick symmetric airfoil.

Forces and moments on an aerofoil section 33

 Drag force – (parallel to the direction of the oncoming air flow.

 Pitching moment – defined to be about an axis perpendicular to the

where  is the density of air, U is the velocity of undisturbed air flow

 Surface roughness ratio

 Flow in the boundary layer is accelerated

 This results in the flow separating from the

where u is the velocity component in the

Circulation, , is the integral of the vorticity of the elements, multiplied by

L / l =  U  where U = free stream velocity.

For a cylinder radius of r the maximum value of the circulation is  = 4 U r.

Machine technologies classified by the primary

The power coefficient, is a function of , (the ratio of

From the graph.

The wind velocity relative to the power-producing

2- Performance of Lift-based machine

The lift force, FL, is function of the relative wind

Relative velocities are always greater than

 Momentum theory refers to a control volume analysis of the forces

 Blade element theory refers to an analysis of forces at a section of the

The results of these approaches can be combined into what is known as

The differential contribution to the thrust

The differential torque, Q, imparted to the blades (and equally, but

 The following assumptions are made:

 A blade divided up into N elements.

 Each of the blade elements will experience a