ASSI

GNMENT

MODULE.BI
OSTATI
STI
CS

LECTURER.MR.
DICKENS

DEPARTMENTS:
Publ
i
cheal
th

Year-2

STUDENTS:MARI
MAMAI
SSAKAMARA 7363
QUESTI
ON:
1

Cl
assi
fyeachofthef
oll
owingvari
abl
esas qual
i
tat
iveorquant
it
ati
vei
fqual
i
tat
ivest
ate
whet
herDiscr
eteorcont
inuous

a)Occupat
ion

b)wei
ght

c)bl
oodt
ype

d)hei
ght

e)numberofchi
l
dren

ANSWERS.
..
.

)Occupat
ion-Qual
i
tat
ive

b)Wei
ght-Quant
it
ati
ve,
Cont
inuous

c)Bl
oodt
ype-Qual
i
tat
ive

d)Hei
ght-Quant
it
ati
ve,
Cont
inuous

e)Numberofchi
l
dren-Quant
it
ati
ve,
Discr
ete
QUESTI
ON:
2

Cl
assi
fyeachofthef
oll
owi
ngv
ari
abl
esas qual
i
tat
iveorquant
it
ati
vei
fqual
i
tat
ivest
ate
whet
hernominal
orordi
nal

a)sex

b)sy
stol
i
cbl
oodpr
essur
e

c)t
umorst
age

d)age

e)mar
it
alst
atus

f
)numberofci
gar
ett
esperday

ANSWERS.
.

Sex:
qual
i
tat
ive,
nomi
nal
.

b)Sy
stol
i
cbl
oodpr
essur
e:quant
it
ati
ve.

c)Tumorst
age:
qual
i
tat
ive,
ordi
nal
.

d)Age:
quant
it
ati
ve.

e)Mar
it
alst
atus:
qual
i
tat
ive,
nomi
nal
.

f
)Numberofci
gar
ett
esperday
:quant
it
ati
ve.

QUESTI
ON:
3
Thedif
fer
encebet
weentheli
fet
ablemethodandtheKapl
an-Meiermethodl
i
esi
ntheappr
oach
andt
heunderl
yi
ngassumpti
onsusedforest
imat
ingsur
viv
alprobabi
li
ti
es.

Sur
viv
alAnal
ysi
sMet
hods

User

agroupofmenwor kingi nagoldmineinkonoSierr

aLeone,whereenroll
edintoast udyand
f
oll
owed-upf oraperiodof5y ears.I
ntotal
of100menwer eincl
udedinthestudy20deat h
wer
er ecor
deddur i
ngt hestudyperi
od.4ofthestudypar
ti
cipantswerelosttofoll
ow-up the
t
ablebelow showst hedeat handcensoredobservati
onsthatoccuri
neach1y earinter
valof
t
he5y earfol
low-up i nterv
al. Deat h. Censor ed

0,
1. 1. 0

1,
2. 0. 1

2,
3. 12 1

3,
4 6 2

4,
5 1. 0

a)whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weenl
i
fet
abl
emet
hodsandKapl
an-mi
ermet
hod

b)expl
ainwhati
smeantbycensor
edobser
vat
ions

c)st
ateandexpl
aint
het
hreet
ypesofcensor
ing

d)cal
cul
atet
hepopul
ati
onatr
iskatt
hebegi
nni
ngofeachi
nter
val

e)cal
cul
atet
hepr
obabi
l
ityofdeat
hforeachi
nter
val

f
)cal
cul
atet
hepr
obabi
l
ityofsur
viv
alf
oreachi
nter
val

g)cal
cul
atet
hecumul
ati
vesur
viv
alf
oreachi
nter
val

h)di
spl
ayt
hepr
obabi
l
iti
esi
nal
i
fet
abl
e

I
)dr
awasur
viv
alcur
vegr
aphi
cgener
ated

j
)fr
om t
hegr
aphi
cwhati
sthepr
obabi
l
ityofsur
viv
aupt
otheendofy
ear25
¡
)Thediff
erencebet
weentheli
fet
abl
emet hodandtheKaplan-
Meiermethodl
i
esinthe
appr
oachandtheunder
lyi
ngassumpt
ionsusedforest
imat
ingsurv
ivalpr
obabi
l
iti
es.

Lifetabl
emet hod:Thelif
et ablemethod,alsoknownast heactuar
ial
method, i
satechnique
usedt oesti
mat esurv
ivalprobabil
it
iesbasedonobser v
eddeathsandper son-
year
soff oll
ow-up.
Itassumest hatthehazardofdeat hremainsconstantwithi
neachint
erv
al andcal
culat
est he
survi
v al
probabil
iti
esaccordingly
.

Kaplan-Meiermethod:TheKapl an-
Meiermet hodisanon-parametricapproachusedt oestimate
surviv
alprobabil
i
tiesi
nt hepresenceofcensoredobservati
ons.Ittakesintoaccountt heact
ual
timesofev ent
s(deaths)andcensor edobservat
ions,
all
owingf orvaryi
nghazar dratesoverti
me.
Itprovi
desamor ef l
exibl
eandaccur ateest
imationofsurvi
valprobabil
it
ies,especial
lywhen
therearei
ncompl etefoll
ow-updata.

¡
¡
)

)Censoredobservati
onsr efertoindivi
dualswhoarest
ill
al i
veorlosttofoll
ow-upattheendof
thestudyper
iodorinterval.Censoringoccurswhentheev entofint
erest(int
hiscase,death)
hasnotoccurredforapar ti
culari
ndi v
idualwit
hint
hestudyper i
od.Itcouldbeduet ovari
ous
reasonssuchaspar t
icipantsdroppingout,beingl
ostt
of oll
ow-up,ortheendoft hestudyitsel
f.
Theseobservati
onsar elabeledascensor edbecauset
heexactt imeoft heeventisunknown.

¡
¡
¡)

Thet
hreet
ypesofcensor
ingar
e:

Ri
ght -
censori
ng:Thi
sisthemostcommont y
peofcensor
ing.I
toccurswhent heeventof
i
nterest(deat
h)hasnotoccur
redbytheendoft
hestudyorobservat
ionper
iod.Theactualt
ime
oftheeventisunknown,andt
heseindi
vi
dual
sareconsi
deredcensored.

Left-
censori
ng:Thi
sty
peofcensori
ngoccur
swhentheeventofint
erestoccurr
edbefor
ethe
studystar
ted,andt
heexactt
imeisunknown.I
nsur
viv
alanal
ysis,l
eft
-censor
ingisl
esscommon.

I
nterv
al-
censoring:
Int
erval-
censori
ngoccurswhent heev
entofint
eresti
sknowntohave
occur
redwithi
nacer t
aint i
meinter
valbuttheexactti
meisunknown.Thi
stypeofcensor
ingi
s
l
essfrequentl
yencounteredinsurv
ivalanal
ysi
s.

1V).Tocal
cul
atet
hepopul
ati
onatr
iskatt
hebegi
nni
ngofeachi
nter
val
,youneedt
osum t
he
numberofindi
vi
dual
swhoareal
i
veandhavenotyetexperi
encedtheevent(deat
h)orcensor
ed
obser
vat
ion.Usi
ngthepr
ovi
dedt
abl
e,wecancalcul
atethepopulat
ionatri
skasfoll
ows:

I
nter
val
0-1:
Tot
alpar
ti
cipant
s-

Deat
hs=100-1(
censor
ed)=99

I
nter
val
1-2:
Prev
iouspopul
ati
onatr
isk-Deat
hs-Censor
ed=99-0-1=98

I
nter
val
2-3:
Prev
iouspopul
ati
onatr
isk-Deat
hs-Censor
ed=98-12-1=85

I
nter
val
3-4:
Prev
iouspopul
ati
onatr
isk-Deat
hs-Censor
ed=85-6-2=77

I
nter
val
4-5:
Prev
iouspopul
ati
onatr
isk-Deat
hs=77-1=76

V)Tocalcul
atetheprobabi
l
ityofdeat
hforeachinter
val
,di
vi
det
henumberofdeat
hsbyt
he
popul
ati
onatri
skatthebeginni
ngofeachinter
val:

I
nter
val
0-1:
1/99≈0.
0101

I
nter
val
1-2:
0/98=0

I
nter
val
2-3:
12/
85≈0.
1412

I
nter
val
3-4:
6/77≈0.
0779

I
nter
val
4-5:
1/76≈0.
0132

V1)Tocal
culat
etheprobabi
l
ityofsur
viv
alf
oreachi
nter
val
,subt
ractt
hepr
obabi
l
ityofdeat
h
fr
om 1f
oreachint
erv
al:

I
nter
val
0-1:
1-0.
1V)Dr
awasur
viv
alcur
vegr
aphi
cgener
ated.